Recycling of Nutrients

Amino acids, neutral sugars and amino sugars were analyzed to investigate the chemical composition and diagenetic processing of suspended particulate organic matter (POM, N100 nm), high-molecular-weight dissolved organic matter (HMW DOM, 1-100 nm) and low-molecular-weight dissolved organic matter (LMW DOM, b1 nm) at the time-series stations near Bermuda (BATS) and Hawaii (HOT). Differences between BATS and HOT were principally related to location-specific biogeochemical processes and water mass ventilation ages. Concentrations of amino acids, neutral sugar and amino sugars in unfiltered seawater sharply declined with depth at both stations, indicating an upper ocean source and rapid turnover of these components. The size distribution of organic matter was heavily skewed to smaller molecular sizes. Depth comparisons showed that larger size classes of organic matter were more efficiently removed than smaller size classes. Carbon-normalized yields of amino acids, neutral sugars and amino sugars decreased rapidly with depth and molecular size. Together these biochemicals accounted for 55% of organic carbon in surface POM but only 2% of the organic carbon in LMW DOM in deep water. Chemical compositions showed distinct differences between organic matter size classes indicating the extent of diagenetic processing increased with decreasing molecular size. These findings are consistent with the size-reactivity continuum model for organic matter in which bioreactivity decreases with decreasing molecular size and diagenetic processes lead to the formation of smaller components that are resistant to biodegradation. The data also provided evidence for a size-composition continuum. Carbon-normalized yields of amino acids, neutral sugars and amino sugars were sensitive indicators of diagenetic alterations. Diagenetic indicators based on amino acid compositions revealed distinct patterns for the North Pacific and Sargasso Sea possibly indicating the influence of varying sources or diagenetic processing.

Previous and current agricultural practices have contributed to environmental pollution, which is further affecting food security, human health, and climate. Yet, agriculture cannot be eliminated, because, of its promising role in ending hunger, reducing poverty, improving nutrition, and achieving food security in low-middle income countries. Hence, there is a need for shift from 'unclean' practices to sustainable practices. Similarly, differences in pollution, among nations call for regional changes or intervention in agri-food practices to reduce global pollution. These practices are essential for African and Asian countries. Of the many methods proposed in this review, localized technology improvement and globalized sustainable intensification are of high impact models having the potential of mitigating greenhouse gases up to an extent of 30%. Various methods of achieving these measures include, but not limited to, the shift in management systems of crop and livestock production, encouraging agriculture and veterinary practices with less environmental impact and high adaptation, enabling nutrient recycling or recovery, resource-use efficiency, mitigation of nitrous oxide and methane from soil, implementation of integrated farming system and insect farming. Government agencies along with agri-food producers, processors, and farmers must be ready to change their current agricultural practices by adopting new methods. The review conclude that the sustainable agricultural production is possible through the use of low-priced local resources that are capable of increasing soil carbon storage, thus combating the pollution in countries with a transition economy.

Abrupt sunlight reduction scenarios (ASRS) following catastrophic events, such as a nuclear war, a large volcanic eruption or an asteroid strike, could prompt global agricultural collapse. There are low-cost foods that could be made available in an ASRS: resilient foods. Nutritionally adequate combinations of these resilient foods are investigated for different stages of a scenario with an effective response, based on existing technology. While macro-and micronutrient requirements were overall met, some-potentially chronic-deficiencies were identified (e.g., vitamins D, E and K). Resilient sources of micronutrients for mitigating these and other potential deficiencies are presented. The results of this analysis suggest that no life-threatening micronutrient deficiencies or excesses would necessarily be present given preparation to deploy resilient foods and an effective response. Careful preparedness and planning-such as stock management and resilient food production ramp-up-is indispensable for an effective response that not only allows for fulfilling people's energy requirements, but also prevents severe malnutrition.

The presence of earthworm species in crop fields is as old as agriculture itself. The earth-worms Pontoscolex corethrurus (invasive) and Balanteodrilus pearsei (native) are associated with the emergence of agriculture and sedentism in the region Amazon and Maya, respectively. Both species have shifted their preference from their natural habitat to the cropland niche. They contrast in terms of intensification of agricultural land use (anthropic impact to the symbiotic soil microbiome). P. corethrurus inhabits conventional agroecosys-tems, while B. pearsei thrives in traditional agroecosystems, i.e., P. corethrurus has not yet been recorded in soils where B. pearsei dwells. The demographic behavior of these two earthworm species was assessed in the laboratory over 100 days, according to their origin (OE; P. corethrurus and B. pearsei) food quality (FQ; soil only, maize stubble, Mucuna prur-iens), and soil moisture (SM; 25, 33, 42%). The results showed that OE, FQ, SM, and the OE x FQ interaction were highly significant for the survival, growth, and reproduction of earthworms. P. corethrurus showed a lower survival rate (> mortality). P. corethrurus survivors fed a diet of low-to-intermediate nutritional quality (soil and stubble maize, respectively) showed a greater capacity to grow and reproduce; however, it was surpassed by the native earthworm when fed a high-quality diet (M. pruriens). Besides, P. corethrurus displayed a low cocoon hatching (emergence of juveniles). These results suggest that the presence of the invasive species was associated with a negative interaction with the soil microbiota where the native species dwells, and with the absence of natural mutualistic bacteria (gut, nephridia, and cocoons). These results are consistent with the absence of P. corethrurus in milpa and pasture-type agricultural niches managed by peasants (agroecologists) to grow food regularly through biological soil management. Results reported here suggest that P. corethrurus is an invasive species that is neither wild nor domesticated, that is, its eco-evolutionary phylogeny needs to be derived based on its symbionts.

Silicon is a non-essential element for plant growth. Nevertheless, it affects plant
stress resistance and in some plants, such as grasses, it may substitute carbon (C)
compounds in cell walls, thereby influencing C allocation patterns and biomass
production. How variation in silicon supply over a narrow range affects nitrogen
(N) and phosphorus (P) uptake by plants has also been investigated in some detail.
However, little is known about effects on the stoichiometric relationships between
C, N and P when silicon supply varies over a broader range. Here, we assessed the
effect of silicon on aboveground biomass production and C:N:P stoichiometry of
common reed, Phragmites australis, in a pot experiment in which three widely
differing levels of silicon were supplied. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
showed that elevated silicon supply promoted silica deposition in the epidermis of
Phragmites leaves. This resulted in altered N:P ratios, whereas C:N ratios changed
only slightly. Plant growth was slightly (but not significantly) enhanced at intermediate
silicon supply levels but significantly decreased at high levels. These findings
point to the potential of silicon to impact plant growth and elemental stoichiometry
and, by extension, to affect biogeochemical cycles in ecosystems dominated by
Phragmites and other grasses and sedges

Anaerobic digestion is often applied for biological conversion and valorization of organic waste, waste water and other biomass sources as renewable energy and biofuel in the form of biomethane. Composition of the material remaining after digestion, or digestate, is highly dependent on processed feedstocks. This by-product is usually rich in nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, so it is potentially reusable as fertilizer or nutritive broth in agricultural systems. Alternatively, the digestate may need post-treatment based on nutrient removal or recovery strategies. The use of life-cycle assessment tools is becoming popular to analyze nutrient handling scenarios. This study reviews, through a bibliometric-based approach, the research outputs and global trends in the area of knowledge of nutrient management from digestates in the last 30 years, 2017 included. Documentary production followed an upward trend, with a relative productivity in the last 3 years greater than 37% of the total number of appeared publications. China, USA and Spain were the three most prolific countries. The particular interest in nutrient management alternatives and its evolution were identified. Trends for promoting sustainability include low environmental impact, holistic agro-energy solutions, reduced consumption of resources during digestate processing, and circular economy scenarios based on concepts such as (bio)refinery and recovery of valuable and marketable products.

A year-long series of monthly experiments with laboratory enclosures were conducted with water from Blanes Bay (NW Mediterranean) to analyse the change in the short-time response of the osmotrophic planktonic community to simulated turbulence and nutrient input events. Both experimental factors triggered a relative increase of biomass in the enclosures, in terms of chlorophyll a, bacteria and particulate organic matter. Ratios of particulate organic nitrogen to phosphorus became lower in the water than in the sediment, although turbulence partially smoothed out this
difference. Initial physico-chemical conditions significantly influenced the short-time responses to experimental forcing. The response to turbulence, in terms of chlorophyll a, was maximum in spring. The response to nutrient enrichment was found to be seasonal, and was correlated with photoperiod and temperature, and also in situ nitrate and silicate concentrations and Secchi depth, which are proxies of recent inputs of nutrients resulting from episodes of resuspension and river discharge. This study shows robust qualitative regularities in the response of the osmotrophic planktonic community to episodes of turbulence and nutrient enrichment, with quantitative variability throughout the year, depending mostly on the recent record of hydrodynamic forcing.

During storage of urine, urea is biologically decomposed to ammonia, which can be lost through volatilization and in turn causes significant unpleasant smell. In response, lactic acid fermentation of urine is
a cost-effective technique to decrease nitrogen volatilization and reduce odour emissions. Fresh urine was lacto-fermented for 36 days in closed glass jars with a lactic acid bacterial inoculum from sauerkraut juice and compared to untreated, stored urine. In the lacto-fermented urine, the pH was reduced to 3.8e4.7 and the ammonium content by 22e30%, while the
pH of the untreated urine rose to 6.1 and its ammonium content increased by 32% due to urea hydrolysis. The concentration of lactic acid bacteria in lacto-fermented urine was 7.3 CFU ml1, suggesting that urine is a suitable growth medium for lactic acid bacteria. The odour of the stored urine was subjectively perceived by four people to be twice as strong as that of lacto-fermented samples. Lacto-fermented urine induced increased radish germination compared to stored urine (74e86% versus 2e31%). Adding a lactic acid bacterial inoculum to one week old urine in the storage tanks in a urine-diverting dry toilet reduced the pH from 8.9 to 7.7 after one month, while the ammonium content increased by 35%, probably due to the high initial pH of the urine. Given that the hydrolyzed stale urine has a high buffering capacity, the lactic acid bacterial inoculum should be added to the urine storage tank of a UDDT before urine starts to accumulate there to increase the efficiency of the lactic acid fermentation.

This study investigates how nutrient cycling rates and ratios vary among fish species, with a particular focus on comparing an ecologically dominant detritivore (gizzard shad) to other fishes in a productive lake. We also examined how nutrient cycling rates are mediated by body size (as predicted by allometry theory), and how variation in nutrient cycling is related to body and food nutrient contents (according to predictions of ecological stoichiometry). As predicted by allometry, per capita nitrogen and phosphorus excretion rates increased and mass-specific excretion rates decreased, with increasing mass. Body phosphorus content was correlated with body mass only in one species, bluegill. Contrary to stoichiometric predictions, there was no relationship between
body P and mass-normalized P excretion rate, or between body N:P and excreted N:P, when all individuals of all species were considered. However, at the species level, we observed some support for a body nutrient content effect on excretion as
predicted by stoichiometry theory. For example, gizzard shad had lower body P (high body N:P) and also excreted P at higher rates (lower N:P) than bluegill, which had high body P (lower body N:P). We applied the Sterner (1990) homeostatic stoichiometry model to the two most common species in the study
gizzard shad and bluegill - and found that food N:P had a greater effect than consumer body N:P on excreted N:P. This
indicates that, in terms of variation among these species, nutrient excretion may be more of a function of food nutrient content than the nutrient content of the consumer. These results suggest that stoichiometry can provide a framework for variation among species in nutrient cycling and for evaluating the ecosystem consequences of biodiversity loss.

The lack of space and opportunity for development have been identified as key reasons behind the stagnation of the European aquaculture industry. With the historical loss and degradation of current European wetlands there is an opportunity for harnessing the commercial investment of the aquaculture industry in construction of dual purpose wetlands that incorporate both conservation and extensive aquaculture activities. These wetlands can be used to expand the area available to suitable aquaculture into ecologically sensitive areas, such as Natura 2000 sites. Veta la Palma (VLP) situated in the Doñana Natural Park (and a Natura 2000 site) is an example of such an aquaculture development and a possible model for future opportunities. In the current study some of the important ecosystem services that are provided by VLP are assessed. The provisioning services of VLP were the economic rationale for the investment and more than 820 tonnes yr-1 of fish and shrimp is produced, through a mixture of semi-extensive and extensive aquaculture. The regulating services include nutrient absorption, and the flow of river water through VLP and high primary production results in the absorption of 377 tonnes of dissolved inorganic nitrogen yr-1, and 516 tonnes of C yr-1. Supporting services include the provision of habitat for more than 94 bird and 21 fish species. The primary production that supports the birds, extensive and semi-extensive aquaculture production was also estimated to be 167,000 t, 50,000 t and 133,000 t yr-1, respectively. The losses to birds are substantial and these estimates indicate that almost half of the primary production supports the wetland birds which directly consume 249 tonnes of fish and 2578 tonnes of invertebrates per annum. However it is the ecological credentials of the farm that enable premium prices and hence ensure the economic viability of the farm. The study demonstrates the possibility of using aquaculture to mitigate the historical loss of wetlands, provide significant ecosystem services and contribute to achievement of the European environmental legislative goals, and furthers the opportunity for the expansion of aquaculture into sensitive but impacted habitats.

Abstract: Dramatic declines of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) populations have decreased delivery of marine-derived material to
Pacific Northwest streams where juvenile salmon reside. Managers use artificial nutrient additions to increase juvenile salmon growth and survival and typically assume nutrient-driven increases in biofilm production are an important pathway by which nutrients become available to higher trophic levels. To evaluate how biofilms respond to additions of salmon carcass analog, a pasteurized, processed form of nutrient mitigation materials, we quantified biofilm nutrient limitation, benthic and whole-stream metabolism, and biofilm standing crops before and following experimental additions in tributaries of the Salmon River, Idaho, USA. Biofilm nutrient limitation did not change and standing crop did not increase in response to analog additions at two different levels (low, 30 g·m−2; or high, 150 g·m−2) within 1 month of addition. In contrast, whole-stream and benthic primary productivity and respiration increased in a high-analog treated segment, but did not increase in a low-analog treated segment. Together, our results suggest that metabolism may be a more appropriate tool for assessing the ecosystem effects of nutrient additions than biofilm standing crop or nutrient limitation, which are constrained by a variety of abiotic and biotic factors like hydrology and grazing.

This study presents an example of blackwater (0.8 L flush water, faeces, urine and toilet paper) composting from low-flush vacuum toilets, which is a part of a pilot-scale source separation system at a remote tourist facility. Blackwater (BW) was collected from vacuum toilets into a tank and applied over peat filters for particle retention and dewatering on the gravity principle to obtain a solid fraction (SF). Before composting, SF was mixed with pine bark and wheat bran. With no mixing, the thermophilic phase was achieved only in the middle layer and lasted for three weeks. Sanitation was indicated by the inactivation of enterobacterial pathogens, the absence of parasites, and the cessation of phytotoxicity (cress seed germination index !80%). High temperatures and high levels of NH 4 þ in the collecting tank, the peat filters and six weeks of SF composting are plausible reasons for the reduction of pathogens. At the end of composting, the NH 4 þ eN/NO 3 À eN mass ratio was between 0.5 and 3.0, which indicates mature compost that is ready for use in agriculture. In terms of the percentage of dry matter, the nutrients were nitrogen: phosphorus: potassium ¼ 3.0:3.2:1.6, with a favourable ratio of C:N ¼ 10, indicating the biological stability of the produced compost. The tested pilot-scale model has thus proved that the composting of SF is a viable option as a part of the separation system.

This paper presents an example of the importance of evapotranspiration in constructed wetlands, with vertical subsurface flow, comparing different methods of treatment efficiency calculations and discussing the influence of evapotranspiration on removal rates. The application of reed, marked by high transpiration ability, is a cheap and effective method of landfill leachate disposal. A 2-year study examined the effectiveness of leachate treatment in constructed wetlands with reed. Two kinds of vertical subsurface flow systems: first with sand, and second with combined two layers of sewage sludge and sand has been tested. 1, 3, and 5 mm d−1 hydraulic loading rates of landfill leachate have been applied. Daily evapotranspiration was in the range from 0.98 to 2.99 mm d−1 in the first year of research and from 2.56 to 4.61 mm d−1 in the second year. The influence of evapotranspiration rate on chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal rate was examined. Two methods of removal efficiency calculation have been used: first based on inlet and outlet COD concentrations, second on mass balance determination. Research showed that the removal efficiency calculated as a comparison between initial and final concentration is significantly lower, than expected from mass balance, especially, when higher hydraulic loading rates were applied.

"In the present study, a monolithic alumina coated microfiltration ceramic membrane was used for solid particulates removal and nutrients recovery from anaerobic digester complex effluent streams. The aim was to test the effect of the cake layer developed by the solids, on the surface of the membrane channels, to the filterability of these materials. The solids content ranged between 2.6 g/L to 15.1 g/L. During practical application, two processing techniques targeting the enhanced recovery of the materials of interest including ammonia, phosphate, calcium bicarbonate and volatile fatty acids, namely dewatering and diafiltration, were used. These had an immediate effect on the solids content (PDS 13μm to 3.97μm) enhancing the filterability of the effluents. Their processability was evaluated in terms of flux, cross flow velocity, membrane resistance and cake resistance. Important findings of this study is the nonalignment of the flux rates to the cake resistance, explained by the formation of a compressible, permeable cake layer that allowed the continuous operation of the system, under constant low pressure conditions (TMP 15 psi). Permeate flux remained constant to 120 L/m2 h when applying diafiltration, while when dewatering process is used the permeate flux remained constant at 115.4 L/m2 h.
Keywords: sludge; ceramic filter; cake resistance; flux; cross flow filtration"

RESUMEN
El tamo de arroz es uno de los residuos agrícolas lignocelulósicos más abundantes en el planeta, luego de los residuos producidos por los cultivos de maíz y trigo, con una producción mundial estimada de 1000 millones de toneladas según estadísticas de la FAO. En el contexto de la agricultura moderna es determinante lograr un manejo ambientalmente sostenible de este recurso me-diante su incorporación al suelo, de tal forma que se logre el reciclaje de nutrientes, evitando la incorporación de patógenos al sistema y la inmovilización de elementos como el nitrógeno por la comunidad microbiana. El objetivo de este trabajo consistió en la evaluación de un inoculo microbiano mixto a partir de productos comerciales basados en hongos del género Trichoderma y bacterias aerobias formadoras de endosporas, con potencial degradador del tamo de arroz, así como el empleo de bacterias pro-motoras de crecimiento vegetal al momento de la siembra, que pudieran aprovechar los nutrientes del proceso de descomposi-ción del tamo de arroz, potenciando su actividad biológica. Los tratamientos fueron evaluados bajo diferentes relaciones C:N del tamo de arroz que favorecieran el proceso de degradación, mediante la adición de nitrógeno inorgánico. Los resultados del traba-jo permitieron identificar que la aplicación de una enmienda de nitrógeno a una relación C:N 35 más una dosis adicional de urea al momento de la siembra de las semillas de arroz, fue el tratamiento más adecuado para potenciar el efecto de los microorganis-mos e incrementar las variables agronómicas obtenidas mediante un esquema de fertilización convencional del cultivo. Palabras clave: Tamo de arroz; relación C:N; Trichoderma spp.; reciclaje de nutrientes; promoción de crecimiento vegetal en arroz.
ABSTRACT
Rice straw is one of the most abundant lignocellulosic agricultural residues on the world, after residues produced by maize and wheat crops, with an estimated global production of 1000 million tones according to FAO statistics. In the context of modern agriculture, it is essential to achieve an environmentally sustainable management of this resource, through the incorporation of rice straw into the soil, in order to achieve nutrient recycling avoiding the incorporation of pathogens into the system and the

A novel ammonia stripping method, including a CO 2 pre-stripper was used to treat a mix of supernatant liquor from an anaerobic digester and urine in order to recycle nitrogen as ammonium sulfate at full-scale in the WWTP Kloten/Opfikon. Waste streams were not generated, since the ammonia was recovered as a marketable nitrogen fertilizer, turning a waste product into a valuable product. The efficiency of this system was increased by means of the addition of pre-treated urine collected separately at EAWAG building. The separation step was performed by the use of water free urinals and urine diversion flush toilets. An increase of 10% in the liquid flux with the addition of the urine translated into a 40% increase of the ammonia concentration in the inlet of the stripping unit. The achievement of these percentages generated a proportional increase in the fertilizer production. The urine pre-treatment was carried out by adding magnesium to produce a precipitate of struvite. The first experiments with the combined treatment showed the feasibility of the combination of the separation and pre-treatment steps.

This study attempts to contemplate the respondents’ behaviors regarding
recycling, with the purpose of identifying the factors that influence their behaviors. The
study is based on a survey that was conducted with 230 nationwide university students
and guidelines borrowed from the Theory of Planned Behavior and The Theory of
Reasoned action. The data collected was evaluated by applying the Structure Equation
Modelling technique. The study concluded that peoples’ attitudes are largely subject to
the moral values and general norms of their own society. Additionally, an individual’s
response towards recycling is greatly determined by the extent of his/her awareness
towards the environment, as well as his/her personal knowledge. Another conclusion
was that an individual’s past experience towards recycling contributes to his/her attitude
(willingness or apprehension about recycling) in the future. Furthermore, although the
convenience and cost of recycling were found to be reasonably significant determinants
about one’s recycling behavior, it was determined that time commitment is the most
decisive factor that influences an individual’s willingness to or not to recycle. The
study’s findings have not only established the authority of Theory of Planned Behaviour and Theory of Reasoned Action, but it has also presented propositions and
recommendations for future research. The inferences were based on the study’s respondents,
hence, so their validity can be applied to various scenarios involving local
educational institutions or government structures. The goal of the study is to encourage
people to engage in positive recycling behavior

Se deficiency is widespread in agricultural soils; hence, agronomic Se biofortification is an important strategy to overcome its deficiency in humans and animals. In Finland, fertilizers have been amended with inorganic Se for over 20 years to reverse the negative effects of low Se content in feed and food. Plant species, climatic conditions, other nutrients and soil properties affect the efficiency of Se biofortification. The present two years' study compared the ability of oilseed rape, wheat and forage grasses to uptake fertilizer Se applied as sodium selenate in a sub-boreal environment. The effect of foliar N application on Se uptake was tested in the second year. Se concentration was determined in plant parts and in soil samples taken at the end of growth season in both years as well as from another plot where Se fertilizer had been used for 20 years. Se fertilizer recovery in harvested wheat and oilseed rape was 1-16%, and in forage grasses was 52-64% in the first harvest and 15-19% in the second harvest. Foliar N application improved Se uptake only at the higher Se fertilizer level. The efficiency of biofortification depended on weather conditions, with forage grasses being the most reliable crop. Oilseed rape as a Se semi-accumulator had no advantage in Se biofortification in field conditions due to low translocation to seeds.

SUMMARY

1. Pacific salmon and steelhead once contributed large amounts of marine-derived carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus to freshwater ecosystems in the Pacific Northwest of the United States of America (California, Oregon, Washington and Idaho). Declines in historically abundant anadromous salmonid populations represent a significant loss of returning nutrients across a large spatial scale. Recently, a manufactured salmon carcass analogue was developed and tested as a safe and effective method of delivering nutrients to freshwater and linked riparian ecosystems where marine-derived nutrients have been reduced or eliminated.

2. We compared four streams: two reference and two treatment streams using salmon carcass analogue(s) (SCA) as a treatment. Response variables measured included: surface streamwater chemistry; nutrient limitation status; carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes; periphyton chlorophyll a and ash-free dry mass (AFDM); macroinvertebrate density and biomass; and leaf litter decomposition rates. Within each stream, upstream reference and downstream treatment reaches were sampled 1 year before, during, and 1 year after the addition of SCA.

3. Periphyton chlorophyll a and AFDM and macroinvertebrate biomass were significantly higher in stream reaches treated with SCA. Enriched stable isotope (d15N) signatures were observed in periphyton and macroinvertebrate samples collected from treatment reaches in both treatment streams, indicating trophic transfer from SCA to consumers. Densities of Ephemerellidae, Elmidae and Brachycentridae were significantly higher in treatment reaches. Macroinvertebrate community composition and structure, as measured by taxonomic richness and diversity, did not appear to respond significantly to SCA treatment. Leaf breakdown rates were variable among treatment streams: significantly higher in one stream treatment reach but not the other. Salmon carcass analogue treatments had no detectable effect on measured water chemistry variables.

4. Our results suggest that SCA addition successfully increased periphyton and macroinvertebrate biomass with no detectable response in streamwater nutrient concentrations. Correspondingly, no change in nutrient limitation status was detected based on dissolved inorganic nitrogen to soluble reactive phosphorus ratios (DIN/SRP) and nutrient-diffusing substrata experiments. Salmon carcass analogues appear to increase freshwater productivity.

5. Salmon carcass analogues represent a pathogen-free nutrient enhancement tool that mimics natural trophic transfer pathways, can be manufactured using recycled fish products, and is easily transported; however, salmon carcass analogues should not be viewed as a replacement for naturally spawning salmon and the important ecological
processes they provide.

The paper examines the biowaste management issues across rural areas of Romania in the context of
poor waste management infrastructure in the last decade (2003-2012). Biowaste is the main fraction of
municipal waste, thus a proper management is a key challenge in order to sustain a bioeconomy in the
near future. The amount of biowaste generated and uncollected by waste operators is generally uncontrolled
disposed if not recovered through home composting. The paper points out the role of home composting in diverting the biowaste from wild dumps and landfills for the regions covered or not by waste collection services. Home composting and the biowaste losses are further assessed based on several scenarios (worse-case, pessimistic, realistic, optimistic) where the net loads of greenhouse gasses (GHG) are calculated at national and regional levels. The transition of home composting techniques, from open piles to plastic bins with respect to standard guidelines will improve the home composting performance in terms of compost quality and net GHG's savings, supporting a bio-based economy which will lead towards a sustainable rural development. Regional disparities are revealed across Romanian
counties and the paper opens new research perspectives regarding which options should be adopted by
counties and rural municipalities in the biowaste management process.

To examine N-isotope ratios (15 N/ 14 N) in tissues and shell organic matrix of bivalves as a proxy for natural and anthropogenic nutrient fluxes in coastal environments, Pinctada imbricata, Isognomon alatus, and Brachidontes exustus bivalves were live-collected and analyzed from eight sites in Bocas del Toro, Panama. Sites represent a variety of coastal environments, including more urbanized, uninhabited, riverine, and oceanic sites. Growth under differing environmental conditions is confirmed by δ 18 O values, with open ocean Escudo de Veraguas shells yielding the highest average δ 18 O (−1.0) value and freshwater endmember Rio Guarumo the lowest (−1.7). At all sites there is no single dominant source of organic matter contributing to bivalve δ 15 N and δ 13 C values. Bivalve δ 15 N and δ 13 C values likely represent a mixture of mangrove and seagrass N and C, although terrestrial sources cannot be ruled out. Despite hydrographic differences between end-members, we see minimal δ 15 N and δ 13 C difference between bivalves from the river-influenced Rio Guarumo site and those from the oceanic Escudo de Veraguas site, with no evidence for N from open-ocean phytoplankton in the latter. Populated sites yield relative 15 N enrichments suggestive of anthropogenic nutrient input, but low δ 15 N values overall make this interpretation equivocal. Lastly, δ 15 N values of tissue and shell organic matrix correlate significantly for pterioideans P. imbricata and I. alatus. Thus for these species, N isotope studies of historical and fossil shells should provide records of ecology of past environments.

Background The objective of this study was to develop a consortium of effective microorganisms to hasten the com-posting process and to reduce the composting period. Results An efficient microorganism (EM) consortium was developed using Candida tropicalis (Y6), Phanerochaete chrysosporium (VV18), Streptomyces globisporous (C3), Lactobacillus sp. and enriched photosynthetic bacterial inoc-ulum for rapid composting of paddy straw. Paddy straw was amended with poultry droppings to narrow down its C:N ratio for faster degradation. Composting was carried out in open pits with EM consortium and compared with compost inoculant (CI) consisting of Aspergillus nidulans (ITCC 2011), Tricho-derma viride (ITCC 2211), Phanerochaete chrysosporium (NCIM 1073) and A. awamori (F-18). Changes in biochemical and physiochemical parameters like C:N ratio, pH, EC and humus were studied over a period of 60 days to test compost maturity and stability along with microbial and extracellular hydrolytic enzyme activities. Paddy straw amended with EM and CI hasten the composting process by bringing C:N ratio down to 15:1 and achieving a total humus content of 4.82 % within 60 days. High activity of hydrolytic enzyme carboxy-methyl cellulase (CMCase) (0.43 IU/g) and microbial activity in terms of dehydrogenase (158.64 lg TPF/g/day) was observed in this treatment. The activity of xylanase was positively correlated (r = 0.987) with alkali-soluble carbon. Conclusion This study illustrates the importance of microbial bioaugmentation to hasten the composting process of paddy straw to produce quality compost.

Wood ash has been widely used as an additive for excreta from dry compost toilets to sanitize it for reuse. However, there is dearth of quantitative information about its efficiency in sanitizing partially digested sludge from wet onsite sanitation systems. This paper presents findings of a series of two experimental studies to assess optimum wood ash dosages required to raise the pH of partially digested fecal sludge to sanitizing levels (pH > 11) in a tropical climate. The study monitored the variation of pH of the sludge containing between 0 (control) and 180 g of ash per litre of sludge. Average initial pH and total solids of the sludge were 7.79 and 72 g/L respectively. Generally, the magnitude and rapidity of pH spike was correlated with the ash dosage (r = 0.988) and was statistically significant (p = 0.0015; Fcrit = 2.3157) among all dosages. Drastic increase in pH (from 7.81 to 11.60 ± 0.07) was recorded in the first 24 h for ash dosages between 140 g/L and 180 g/L, whereas dosages below 140 g/L had pH values less than 10. The difference in variation of pH between the first 24 h and the successive 24 h was statistically significant (P(T ≤ t)two-tail = 0.00; tcrit = 2.09). On the average, 97% of the overall pH increment within a 48-h monitoring period occurred in the first 24 h for the 140–180 g/L ash dosages. The optimum ash dosages are 7–15 times higher than reported lime dosages but ash provides a cheaper alternative than lime for recycling plant nutrients. Further studies on pathogen inactivation efficiency are ongoing.

District heating networks are commonly addressed in the literature as one of the most effective solutions for decreasing the greenhouse gas emissions from the building sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the heat sales. Due to the changed climate conditions and building renovation policies, heat demand in the future could decrease, prolonging the investment return period. The main scope of this paper is to assess the feasibility of using the heat demand – outdoor temperature function for heat demand forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665 buildings that vary in both construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district renovation scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors. The results showed that when only weather change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications (the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered). The value of slope coefficient increased on average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations. Abstract In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), millions of worshippers come from across the globe to perform religious rituals of Pilgrimage (Hajj) and Umrah. Madinah-tul-Munawara is one of the holiest city, where pilgrims come after performing rituals in Makkah. In this city, most of the collected municipal solid waste (MSW) is disposed of in the landfills after a partial recycling of paper, cardboard, and metals (~10-20% of total MSW). The Saudi's government has recently launched a new policy of Vision 2030, which outlined the safeguard of local environment through increased efficiency of waste recycling and management, pollution prevention strategies and generating renewable energy from indigenous sources, including the waste. Currently, the recycling practices in KSA are mainly regulated by an informal sector through waste pickers or waste scavengers. This has led to the need of recycling schemes, especially in the holiest cities of Makkah and Madinah through a public-private partnership (PPP). Huge amounts of energy can be conserved, that would otherwise be spent on raw material extraction, transportation, and manufacturing of materials, through recycling into the same materials. Around 10,009 TJ of energy can be saved through recycling of 24.21% of MSW in Madinah city, including glass, metals, aluminum, cardboard, and paper. It is estimated that around 10,200 tons of methane (CH4) emissions and 254,600 Mt.CO2 eq. of global warming potential (GWP) can also be saved. In addition, carbon credit revenue of US $5.92 million, and landfill diversion worth of US $32.78 million can be achieved with a net revenue of US $49.01 million every year only by recycling 24.21% of MSW in Madinah city. The waste recycling doesn't require high technical skills and labor, and complicated technologies for large-scale implementation, and therefore, can be implemented easily in the holiest cities of Makkah and Madinah to achieve multiple economic and environmental benefits. Abstract In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), millions of worshippers come from across the globe to perform religious rituals of Pilgrimage (Hajj) and Umrah. Madinah-tul-Munawara is one of the holiest city, where pilgrims come after performing rituals in Makkah. In this city, most of the collected municipal solid waste (MSW) is disposed of in the landfills after a partial recycling of paper, cardboard, and metals (~10-20% of total MSW). The Saudi's government has recently launched a new policy of Vision 2030, which outlined the safeguard of local environment through increased efficiency of waste recycling and management, pollution prevention strategies and generating renewable energy from indigenous sources, including the waste. Currently, the recycling practices in KSA are mainly regulated by an informal sector through waste pickers or waste scavengers. This has led to the need of recycling schemes, especially in the holiest cities of Makkah and Madinah through a public-private partnership (PPP). Huge amounts of energy can be conserved, that would otherwise be spent on raw material extraction, transportation, and manufacturing of materials, through recycling into the same materials. Around 10,009 TJ of energy can be saved through recycling of 24.21% of MSW in Madinah city, including glass, metals, aluminum, cardboard, and paper. It is estimated that around 10,200 tons of methane (CH4) emissions and 254,600 Mt.CO2 eq. of global warming potential (GWP) can also be saved. In addition, carbon credit revenue of US $5.92 million, and landfill diversion worth of US $32.78 million can be achieved with a net revenue of US $49.01 million every year only by recycling 24.21% of MSW in Madinah city. The waste recycling doesn't require high technical skills and labor, and complicated technologies for large-scale implementation, and therefore, can be implemented easily in the holiest cities of Makkah and Madinah to achieve multiple economic and environmental benefits.

Recovery and recycling of plant nutrients from municipal sewage effluent (SE) can reduce consumption of costly chemical fertilizers, besides reducing eutrophication of water bodies. Field experiment was conducted on Vertisol of central India for six years with the objective of quantifying recovery of major plant nutrients by aboveground biomass of wheat-soybean cropping system from untreated SE. Wheat crop was grown with irrigation (groundwater and sewage effluent) and fertilizer treatments; while soybean was grown without any treatments. Recoveries of nitrogen (N), phosphorus P) and potassium (K) by the aboveground biomass were considerably more from SE than from fertilizers and manures. Recovery of nutrients from SE was the highest by wheat grain for N and by soybean straw for P and K. Straw biomass of both the crops recovered about 31% N, 22% P and 69% K from SE, which can be recycled back into agricultural land of groundwater (GW) irrigated as well as rainfed area.

The stress contributed by nutrients to the coral reef ecosystem is among many problems
that may be resolved using the coastal ocean observing system (COOS) being developed
by various institutions. Traditional nutrient sampling has been inadequate to resolve
issues on episodic nutrient fluxes in reef regions due to temporal and spatial variability.
This paper illustrates sampling strategy using COOS information to identify areas that
need critical investigation. The area investigated is within the Puerto Rico subdomain.
Nutrient profile results from the region indicate nitrate is undetectable in the upper
50m due to high biological consumption. The strong vertical fluctuation in the upper
50m demonstrates a high anomaly in temperature and salinity and a strong cross
correlation signal. High chlorophyll a concentration corresponding to seasonal high
nutrient influx coincides with higher precipitation accumulation rates and apparent
riverine input from the Amazon and Orinoco rivers. Non-detectability of nutrients in the
upper 50m is a reflection of poor sampling frequency or the absence of a highly sensitive
nutrient analysis method to capture episodic events. Thus, this paper explores the range
of depths and concentrations that need to be critically investigated to determine nutrient
fluxes, nutrient sources, and climatological factors that can affect nutrient delivery. It also
provides insight into needed sampling rates and temporal and spatial domain choices.
Finally, it demonstrates a scientific reconnaissance for a field study that is now possible
with online in-situ and remote sensing observations and numerical simulations, as a
consequence of IOOS in general and COOS in particular.

The tropical ocean contains very little food or nutrients. Like life in a desert, life in the tropical ocean is difficult for all organisms. Yet, coral reefs are colorful oases full of life in the middle of this marine desert. How can millions of species call coral reefs their home? All organisms living there play their roles in recycling the small amounts of food and nutrients that are available. Because nothing is ever truly wasted, coral reefs can flourish in a marine desert that has hardly any food. Although coral reefs existed on this planet long before the dinosaurs, they are facing serious problems today. Warming oceans can harm corals, leading to the loss of coral reefs. However, corals in the northern Red Sea are very resistant to warm temperatures. Some scientists believe that these Red Sea reefs may be able to survive even when reefs are disappearing elsewhere around the world.

A field experiment was conducted in the Experimental Research Farm of Omdurman Islamic University, Sudan to determine short-term effect of irrigation intervals (7 and 10 days) and sun-dried or composted sewage sludge, recommended mineral fertilizer on straw dry matter yield (SDMY) and N, P and K content of fodder sorghum and soil properties. In the 7 and 10 days irrigation intervals, composted, sun-dried sludge and mineral fertilizer have significantly increased SDMY over the control by 51, 98, 67 and 78, 19, 33%, respectively. Apparent N use efficiency (ANUE) in composted and sun dried plots irrigated at either 7 or 10 days was 9-36 and 16-74%, respectively. Reducing the irrigation interval has significantly increased salinity by 13%. Increasing irrigation interval has decreased bulk density by 5%. It could be concluded that, application of composted sludge is a useful practice for improvement of soil properties and consequent yield increase.

In this study, an attempt was made to substitute maize (Zea mays L.) content of broiler starter feed with ground cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) peels enzymatically improved with amylase-producing fungi with a view to having a cost-effective yet nutritious and health-friendly feed. The biochemical components of the formulated feeds were determined as well as the effect of the feeds on some biochemical parameters in the broiler chicks. Six starter feeds tagged Control Feed, 20%CPFG, 40%CPFG, 60%CPFG, 80%CPFG and 100%CPFG were formulated with respect to variations in maize and cassava peel contents. The results showed a significant (p<0.05) increase in total polysaccharide contents of Feeds 20%CPFG, 60%CPFG, 80%CPFG and 100%CPFG compared to the Control Feed (191.4±14.5 mg/g of feed). Total soluble protein and reducing sugar contents were statistically different in most of the feeds (p<0.05). All the feeds contain relatively high amounts of total phenol (>70 mgCE/g of feed) and most of them comparatively high in anthocyanin relative to the control feed anthocyanin content (225.4±12.2 mg/g of feed). The highest weight gain (108.0±3.0 g) was observed in broiler chicks fed the feed ration containing 60% cassava peels improved with amylase-producing fungi and 40% maize (60%CPFG). Broiler chicks fed the formulated feeds, including the control, exhibited over 40% inhibition against 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical. The serum activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in birds fed the compounded feeds and control slightly differed except in group 60%CPFG. It was concluded that the maize content in broiler feed can be replaced with cassava peels improved with fungal amylase upto a maximum of 60%. This would significantly decrease the overall cost of broiler feed production without compromising the nutritional, antioxidant and health-friendly potentials of the feed.

Experimentos de manipulação podem contribuir para a compreensão do papel ecológico da serapilheira em ecossistemas florestais. No entanto, há poucos estudos desta natureza. Os efeitos da remoção da camada de serapilheira (RS) foram avaliados sobre a comunidade de artrópodes do solo em dois plantios abandonados de Corymbia citriodora, em diferentes estágios de regeneração natural de espécies nativas de Mata Atlântica. Armadilhas de queda foram instaladas aleatoriamente em 5 parcelas (5 x 20 m) de RS e controle (CT), no plantio com 19 anos de idade (P19: estágio menos avançado; maior participação da serapilheira de eucalipto) e plantio com 42 anos (P42: estágio mais avançado de regeneração; maior participação da serapilheira de espécies nativas), nas estações chuvosa e seca, na Reserva Biológica União, RJ, Brasil. A maioria dos grupos taxonômicos apresentou inibição da abundância com a RS, no P19 e P42. De uma maneira geral, Diptera, Poduromorpha, Pseudoscorpionida, Symphypleona e larvas de Coleoptera foram os principais grupos impactados negativamente pela RS. Por outro lado, alguns grupos foram favorecidos pela RS, principalmente Entomobryomorpha e Formicidae. A RS diminuiu a riqueza total, uniformidade e diversidade de artrópodes edáficos em ambos os plantios. Contudo, este efeito negativo foi mais importante no P19, no qual também ocorreu a diminuição da abundância total e riqueza média. O maior fechamento do dossel provavelmente minimizou o impacto negativo da RS sobre os artrópodes edáficos no P42.

Over the last century, runoff from farms and cities, along with land cover and land use changes, have drastically altered the mass balance of nutrients in aquatic systems, affecting both their ecological functioning and the living communities they support. Here we present the results of a multi-year, long-term study designed to assess the control of land-use and hydrology on nutrient fate and transport within a mixed land-use watershed in north-central Ohio. A total of 64 streams (with a mix of urban, cropland, pasture, and forest catchments) have been sampled periodically since the summer of 2008. Hydrological conditions during the study period exhibited marked seasonality, with usually dry winter seasons (average ppt: 23.5&plusmn;7.4 cm) and wet spring seasons (average ppt: 34.5&plusmn;8.1 cm). Runoff generation in response to precipitation events is faster in streams draining developed catchments and slowest in forested streams, where runoff is generated only by events &gt; 10 mm/day. Hydrologic connectivity in the watershed appear to be limited, since only about 25% of precipitation inputs were translated into quick flow. There is a significant, positive correlation between runoff and nutrient concentrations (R&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; values are: 0.40 for streams draining urban landscapes, 0.34 for forested streams, 0.30 for cropland, and 0.28 for pastureland). We also observed significant inter-annual and seasonal variations on both DIN (p = 0.02) and PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; concentrations (p &lt; 0.01). Compared to dry years, nutrient fluxes during wetter years are, on average, 16% higher in urban catchments and 47% higher in forested catchments, but 32% lower in pasture-dominated catchments. Baseflow is responsible for only between 20-30% of the annual nutrient export from the watershed.

Biological soil crusts (hereafter, biocrusts) are communities of microorganisms that regulate key ecosystem processes such as water distribution, soil erosion, and nutrient cycling in drylands worldwide. The nature of biocrust function can be influenced by multiple environmental factors, including climatic conditions (for example, precipitation), interactions with plants, and  anthropogenic disturbances. Animal regulation of biocrust function has received less research attention, focusing primarily on livestock trampling and to a much lesser extent on biocrust consumption by mesofauna. Deposition of animal waste products, carcasses, and other body secretions such as mucus may also affect biocrust function. Yet, this novel regulatory pathway, to our knowledge, has never been empirically tested. Our goal was to begin bridging this knowledge gap by exploring how snail mucus affects biocrust CO2 efflux—using two distinct biocrust communities and three snail species. We found that snail mucus increased the CO2 efflux of both cyanobacteria-dominated and lichen/moss-dominated biocrusts. However, the magnitude of snail mucus effects on biocrust CO2 efflux varied between snail species—possibly due to species-level differences in snail diet. Our study highlights a novel interaction between animals and biocrusts and suggests that even small quantities of animal-derived nutrients can have important consequences for biocrust carbon dynamics.

Verschiedene Bioökonomie-Strategien zielen auf die Substitution fossiler Brennstoffe durch nachwachsende Rohstoffe. Jedoch ist auch die Produktion agrarischer Ressourcen im derzeitigen Modell der industriellen Landwirtschaft ein extraktives System, das auf die ständige Zufuhr externer Nährstoffe angewiesen ist. Nach einer historisch-theoretischen Analyse dieser Nährstoffflüsse geht der Beitrag auf den Nährstoff Phosphor bzw. den Rohstoff Phosphatgestein ein. Es zeigt sich, dass Phosphatgestein, jahrzehntelang eine „billige Massenware“, ab 2007 zu einem strategischen Rohstoff wurde, wobei auch Analysen über ein mögliches Fördermaximum (Peak Phosphorus) um das Jahr 2030 entstanden sind. Anhand exemplarischer Strategien staatlicher und privater Akteure zum Umgang mit der neuen Situation wird deutlich, dass die Kontrolle über Phosphor-Flüsse zunehmend umkämpft ist. Der Beitrag argumentiert, dass Bioökonomie-Strategien bereits bestehende Auseinandersetzungen um die Phosphatversorgung verschärfen und globale Ungleichheiten verstärken, die unter anderem in Ernährungskrisen hervortreten. Technologische Erneuerungen, die auch im Rahmen der Bioökonomie vorangetrieben werden, erlauben nur eine bedingte Abkehr vom extraktiven Charakter der Landwirtschaft, können aber die Interessen dominanter Akteure sichern.

Schlagwörter: Phosphatgestein, Bergbau, peak phosphorus, Düngemittel, Industrielle Landwirtschaft, Bioökonomie, Güterketten, Ernährungskrisen, Globale Ungleichheit, Brasilien, Peru, Nährstoff-Recycling

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The Extractive Basis of the Bioeconomy. Synthetic Fertilisers, Peak Phosphorus and Alternative Technologies

Abstract

Various bioeconomy strategies aim to replace fossil resources with renewable agrarian resources without departing from the agro-industrial model. Paradoxically, the bioeconomy model is an extractive system itself, dependent on the constant supply of mineral resources to replace the nutrients extracted from the soil. Using a historical-theoretical approach, this article first analyses the flows of nutrients in this system and then focuses specifically on the nutrient phosphorus and the raw material phosphate rock. Classified as a “low-cost bulk commodity” for decades, since 2007 phosphate rock has become a strategic resource and scholars have started debating the possibility of reaching “Peak Phosphorus” by 2030. By analysing state and private actor strategies to adapt to this emerging situation, it becomes clear that the control over flows of phosphorous is increasingly contested. This article argues that bioeconomy strategies are aggravating existing conflicts over phosphate supply, as well as global inequalities, which inter alia become evident in food crises. Technological innovations, which are promoted within bioeconomy strategies, only reduce the extractive character of industrial agriculture in a limited way, while also securing the interests of dominant actors.

Keywords: phosphate rock, mining, peak phosphorus, fertilizer, industrial agriculture, bioeconomy, commodity chains, food crises, global inequality, Brazil, Peru, nutrient-recycling

The EU is currently addressing the problem of depletion of phosphate, which is a source of phosphorus. Due to the usage of modern digestate treatment enabling macroelements recycling, the digestate can be a suitable substitute for anorganic fertilizers. This experiment is focused on improving the soil properties due to digestate application in sugar beet growing region. Applicated digestate comes from a biogas plant of agricultural cooperative Velešovice. The obtained results show better physical properties (soil structure, stability of soil aggregates) and differences in pH values, Cox (%) and nutrient content between variants.

Development finance has largely been directed towards centralized systems of wastewater management, which has resulted in large populations being excluded from proper wastewater collection and treatment services. In order to ensure the success of decentralized sanitation strategies, there is a need for institutional reform and the setting up of robust frameworks.

Past human settlement activities have caused changes in soil chemical properties that may persist in the cultural soil archive for a very long time and some of them are practically irreversible. We are studying the question if the large-scale mapping of elemental composition based on the surface layer of contemporary soil can reveal spatial patterns corresponding to areas of settlements, which were abandoned even millennia ago.
Our case-study is focused on the archaeological site of Tel Burna, located in the Shephelah region, Israel, and its immediate surroundings, making a survey area of 68 ha. The site is known as the town flourishing mainly in the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age (13th-7th centuries BCE). The heyday of the town was during the 10th – 8th centuries BCE, when its summit was enclosed by a massive limestone wall. Later on the significance of the settlement declined, and the architecture vanished. The place has gradually turned to an uninhabited area, used in the recent period as a pasture. We have measured the chemical composition of 350 samples from the surface soil at and around the site by a portable XRF device as part of an on-going interdisciplinary research project studying this site. The results were analysed by standard statistical methods and also in geographical information systems, which were used for calculating models of elemental distribution patterns across the surveyed area.
In this presentation we discuss the observation that the anthropogenic impact on the chemical composition of soils became quite significant already in times of ancient societies. This human-induced signature was of such magnitude that it can still be detected today, not only in the sub-surface archaeological deposits, but also on the very surface of the present-day landscape. We are able to demonstrate that the nutrients accumulated within the precincts of ancient settlements through the intensive deposition of organic and inorganic waste have been slowly released into local ecosystems and this process of nutrients dispersion will continue in the future. Human activities certainly have (and always have had) a long-term effect on soils, but not all these impacts are negative in the sense of environmental pollution. Especially in the semi-arid Mediterranean ecosystems, where some key nutrients like P, K, S, Zn, Cu
may be deficient in contemporary soils, the immediate surroundings of archaeological sites are clearly enriched from local reservoirs of such elements represented by archaeological sites. This demonstrates that archaeological sites are not only important cultural heritage, but also an essential part of local ecosystems, playing significant yet under-studied role in their long-term sustainability.

The present work leads to sustainability (responsible management of resources consumption) of both paper and sugar industries. It, simultaneously, upgrades recycled waste paper (namely old newsprint) and creates a new use for molasses (an important byproduct of the sugar industry). This study introduces -for the first time world wide- a novel environmentally safe approach to upgrade recycled natural cellulose fibers (waste paper namely old newsprint), for use as specialty paper green nanocomposites suitable for several advanced purposes. The recycled cellulose fibers are upgraded by increasing their alpha cellulose content, and restoring their natural nanoporous structure, which is -normally- collapsed due to the first cycle of papermaking. Molasses is then incorporated into this restored nanoporous structure to obtain paper green nanocomposites filled with kaolin in presence of molasses. In comparison to conventionally recycled waste paper, the green paper nanocomposites -produced in this work- exhibit high dry and wet strength, and a surprisingly tremendous retention of inorganic fillers used in papermaking. This was achieved through a green nanotechnology process, where the solvent used is water (the ideal green solvent). The input and output components are renewable environmentally safe materials i.e. waste paper (cellulose fibers) and molasses (a by product of the sugar industry). The procedures used are simple physical processes conducted at room temperature rather than hazardous chemical reactions. Thus, saving energy, and decreasing the risk of chemical and thermal accidents, pollutive releases, explosions, and fires.

Anthroponics is a recirculating soilless agriculture system that uses natural bacterial cycles to convert human biowaste such as urine into plant fertilizer.

A small experiment was conducted in Malmö, Sweden. The method involved building three anthroponic systems (System 1, System 2 and System 3) and collecting and aging urine samples from one healthy individual. The objective was to cultivate Cucumis sativus in the anthroponic systems under different dosages of aged urine to observe the different growths in the plants. Each system received two seedlings, and all the systems were tested for Nitrate (NO3-), Electrical Conductivity (EC), pH on a weekly basis, while diagnosed for defficiencies and tested for Potassium (K), Iron (Fe) and Magnesium (Mg) once suspected of having defficiencies. All plants were also measured in length at the end of the experiment.

System 1 received 109 mL of aged urine per week during one month and produced two plants with a length of 109 cm and 144 cm, System 2 received 54,5 mL of aged urine per week during one month and produced two plants with a length of 97 cm and 94 cm, and System 3 received 218 mL of aged urine per week during one month and produced two plants with a length of 84 cm and 149 cm. All of the plants in all systems presented some signs of Iron defficiency and possible Potassium defficiency, and plants in System 1 and System 2 showed signs of Magnesium defficiency.

In conclusion, while the experiment was too short to observe fruit growth, System 1 and System 3 each produced the longest vegetative growth in one of the system’s cucumber plants, at the expense of the second plant of the system, which displayed increased defficiency signs. It is possible that a dosage amount between the amounts used for System 1 (109 mL/week) and System 2 (218 mL/week), as well as additional Potassium, Magnesium and Iron supplementation, can provide sufficient nutrients for a healthy production of one cucumber plant of in an anthroponics system.

Anthroponics is a recirculating soilless agriculture system that uses natural bacterial cycles to convert human biowaste into plant fertilizer. In this investigation the concept of anthroponics and the underlying processes are explained, and an overview on the existing knowledge of urine and anthroponics systems is also presented.

A small experiment was conducted in Malmö, Sweden. The method involved building three anthroponic systems and collecting urine samples from one healthy individual. The objective was to calculate an average and median time for urine volatilization to ammonia, and to cultivate Lactuca sativa in the anthroponic systems under different dosages of urine. The systems were tested for Total Ammonia Nitrogen (NH4+/NH3), Nitrite (NO2-), Nitrate (NO3-), Electrical Conductivity (EC) and pH.

The first batch of urine had an average volatilization time of 4,7 weeks and a median volatilization time of 5 weeks. The second batch of urine had an average volatilization time of 4,7 weeks and a median volatilization time of 4 weeks. The third batch of urine had an average volatilization time of 4 weeks and a median volatilization time of 2 weeks. For the anthroponic systems, the aged urine used to cycle the systems and create the bacterial colony was sufficient to grow all of the crops from seedling to harvest, thus diverging from the original protocol. Each system used 100mL of aged urine during a total period of 35 days: System 1 produced 225g of lettuce, System 2 produced 221g of lettuce, and System 3 produced 180g of lettuce.

In conclusion, the average amount of urine produced by an adult human per day can grow around 3kg of lettuce. Current requirements for ageing urine for safe anthroponic use take a long time for any scalable solution in agriculture or wastewater treatment. Better measuring techniques, longer testing periods and more research is recommended in this field in order to draw an improved representative conclusion.