Problem of Evil

ეს არის უმნიშვნელოვანესი სტატია, თუმცა ის მოცულობით პატარაა, მაგრამ მნიშვნელობით უდიდესია, რომელიც სცემს ისეთ კითხვებს პასუხებს, როგორიცაა: რა არის ნებისყოფის არსი? გვაქვს თუ არა თავისუფალი ნება? და რა არის მისი არსი? რა ვიცი, რომ ჩემი მეობა ვარსებობ და რა და ვინ ვარ მე? არსებობს თუ არა ღმერთი და რა არის მისი ჭეშმარიტი არსი, თავისთავად-ცხადად და მარტივად?  რა არის სინდისის არსი?

This essay addresses two timeless questions: Why does God allow evil? and Does mankind truly have free will? Scripture reveals that evil is not eternal; it exists only within space-time. All people die once, and after death comes judgment (Hebrews 9:27). The wicked perish, and evil is destroyed in eternity (Matthew 10:28; Revelation 20:15). Yet during life, each person is free to choose between good and evil (Deuteronomy 30:19). That choice ends at death, when God’s holiness prevails. Ironically, evil is permitted now so that love may be freely chosen—ensuring that love, not sin, endures forever in eternity.

I am here interested in presenting a comparative analysis between the strand of thought known as 'Degeneration Theory' and Dostoevsky's last major novel, The Brothers Karamazov. I will provide a brief contextualization about the influence of Degeneration Theory on Russian thought, postulating that the principal Russian preoccupation concerning degenerate attitudes-above all in Dostoevsky-consists in the disease of moral nihilism. I proceed by outlining the criminal type in The Brothers Karamazov by focalizing my inquiry around the figure of the illegitimate epileptic brother Smerdjakov. My main arguments around the question of social and physiological degeneration will be developed in the subsection devoted to the relationship between poverty and children, whose humility, it is argued, represents Dostoevsky's answer to the death of God and the moral bankruptcy enacted by nihilistic tendencies. In the third segment I will analyse the maddening outcomes of this disease in my discussion of Ivan Karamazov. Lastly, I will venture into a more unreserved discussion about the purported sequel to The Brothers Karamazov. This study seeks to emphasize the importance in the relationship between characters and the God question, ultimately claiming that for Dostoevsky physical degeneration is deployed as a physiological counterpart for the chief concern of many degenerationist narratives: the spiritual degradation of the individual soul and of the integrity of civilization.

In her book The Space Between: Literary Epiphany in the Work of Annie Dillard, Sandra Johnson makes an interesting point right up front about the "illuminated moment" which is helpful in its own context. She says the classic illuminated moment, such as the mystical experiences described in St. Augustine and William Blake, in St. Paul's conversion, Joyce's epiphany and Proust's involuntary memory, takes one of its forms as the "literary epiphany." She notes especially Wordsworth's "spots of time" and makes the

Historię kosmologii można podzielić na dwa zasadniczo różne okresy. W okresie pierwszym nie posiadano ani odpowiedniej wiedzy, ani warsztatu matematycznego pozwalającego wyznaczać fizyczne tory planet. Zadanie astronoma ograniczało się do "ratowania pozorów", czyli określania kątowych pozycji planet na użytek astrologii. Ta metoda była nieprzydatna do stworzenia fizycznego modelu układu słonecznego, co nastąpiło w okresie drugim, ograniczonym do XVII wieku -pisze Mikołaj Brykczyński. Każdy znaczący ruch społeczny dąży do stworzenia mitu założycielskiegonarracji idealizującej własną genezę. Mit opowiada o wizjonerskich prekursorach, wartościach, które im przyświecały, wyzwaniach, z którymi musieli się zmierzyć, o stopniowym zyskiwaniu zwolenników i ostatecznym sukcesie, potwierdzającym słuszność obranej drogi. Centralnym wątkiem mitu założycielskiego nowoczesnej, mechanistycznej nauki jest rewolucja kopernikańska, zapoczątkowana słynnym dziełem O obrotach sfer niebieskich (1543). W tej narracji Kopernikowi przypada rola odkrywcy, który dzięki swym obserwacjom astronomicznym dowiódł, że to nie Ziemia a Słońce utwierdzone jest w centrum kosmosu; rola herosa, który

Love, which is the joy arising from the presence of beauty, is divided into two kinds-true and metaphorical-and is regarded as one of the ways through which the soul attains perfection. True love refers to the intense affection for God's essence and attributes, while metaphorical love denotes affection for beings other than God. The latter itself is divided into two types: psychic (nafsānī) and animal. According to Ibn Sīnā, psychic love originates from the essential affinity between the souls of the lover and the beloved, whereas animal love stems from the desire for bodily pleasure and lust. Mullā Ṣadrā, however, maintains that the root of psychic love lies in the union of the lover's and beloved's souls through the appreciation and representation of inner and outer beauty. Since psychic metaphorical love refines the inner self of the lover, it can serve as a pathway to true love, as it prepares the soul to receive higher perfections. From Ibn Sīnā's perspective, the true perfection of the human being is the complete attainment of God, the connection with ultimate perfections, and the immediate grasp of all truths of existence. Mullā Ṣadrā, by relying on his three fundamental principlesgradation of existence, substantial motion, and the unity of the intellect and the intelligible-provides an extensive explanation of human existential perfection and introduces the ultimate goal of humanity as attaining the station of fanāʾ fī Allāh (annihilation in God). Among the fruits of love are the removal of egocentrism, the creation of courage in the lover, the cultivation of generosity, the perfection of the soul, the manifestation of remarkable inner potentials, and the attainment of spiritual joy.

This paper examines Nietzsche’s concept of slave morality as a distortion of natural instincts and desires. Interpreted as an early form of self-esteem or the will to power, it reflects humanity’s drive for recognition and hierarchy but becomes inverted into ressentiment and guilt. Nietzsche links guilt to the capacity for making promises, conscientiousness, and the preservation of tradition, suggesting that indebtedness to the past fuels conservatism and morality. While evolutionary psychology frames such mechanisms as survival strategies, Nietzsche critiques their moral and societal expressions, particularly in Christianity and the ascetic ideal, which devalue life in favor of illusory otherworldly hopes. He also identifies ascetic tendencies in intellectual and scientific pursuits, where subjectivity and desire are suppressed for higher ideals. Against this life-denying orientation, Nietzsche advocates amor fati and the affirmation of suffering as pathways to self-overcoming and the creation of the Übermensch.

Independent Scholar Thesis. Eternal damnation, as traditionally construed, cannot coherently serve the aims of punishment (rehabilitation, retribution, or appeasement of wrath) without violating proportional justice or presupposing emotional instability; when paired with doctrines like an indeterminate "age of accountability," it further yields developmental incoherence and predictable psychological harm. Building on formal criteria for legitimate punishment, this paper argues: (a) rehabilitation requires finitude and a horizon for demonstrated change; (b) retribution demands proportionality to finite offenses; and (c) appeasement by an emotionally stable agent must be satiable within finite bounds. We then evaluate prominent theological replies (infinite offense, transcendent justice, free-will self-exclusion, warning pedagogy, and the eternity of the soul) and show that each either undercuts intelligible justice or amplifies disproportionality. Finally, we analyze the belief-dynamic role of fear/hope appeals and the doctrine of "age of accountability," linking these to measurable well-being and distress effects. The net result is a comparative case against eternal damnation as a defensible component of a just, wise, and emotionally stable theism.

La división de las ciencias y el tema del hombre-microcosmos según algunos maestros de artes de París hacia 1250 Resumen: En las divisiones de la ciencia provenientes de la Facultad de Artes de París, algunos maestros (Pseudo-Peckham, Iohannes Pagus) es-tablecen conexiones entre las facultades del alma y los objetos del mundo propios a la actividad de cada una de tales facultades, determinando así las diversas ciencias que surgen a partir de estas relaciones. El enlace de estos elementos se hace posible dentro del marco del hombre como mi-crocosmos que los maestros desarrollan a partir de adagios aristotélicos tomados del De anima y de la Física con la utilización de algunas fuentes neoplatónicas. Según los maestros de artes, el conocimiento de todas las cosas es asequible al hombre precisamente porque en él se encuentran, de alguna manera, el resumen y la presencia de todas las cosas. Palabras clave: Facultad de artes de París-Recepción de Aristóteles-Hombre-microcosmos-Iohannes Pa...

recogiendo la documentación pertinente con vistas a elaborar el libro que ahora principia: a él le competen las últimas responsabilidades que puedan derivarse de los aspectos más metodológicos del proyecto. Y aunque no son estas páginas las más apropiadas para llevar a cabo una crítica general del evento en sí, y como de algún modo hay que empezar, anotaremos una primera impresión, una pasajera impronta que prendió, sin embargo, en el espíritu del becario con tanta viveza que, pasados ya varios meses, todavía perdura. El Fórum fue, básicamente, un acontecimiento bíblico. Desde luego, no porque éste fuera en sí un hecho sin precedentes o novísimo en su naturaleza: Barcelona es una ciudad que parece necesitada de espectáculos afines para su desarrollo urbanístico y social. No, el calificativo responde más bien a un temporal estado de ánimo. En efecto, mientras el becario asistía a las distintas conferencias, visitaba todas las exposiciones, o simplemente, recorría con cierta indolencia las instalaciones del recinto, era dulcemente transportado a una época levítica y lejana. Contribuía a ello la imponente majestad del lugar, el denodado tesón con el que fue conquistado parte de su suelo al mar, o aquel arco del triunfo de las nuevas tecnologías que suponía la placa fotovoltaica y que dotaba a todo el conjunto de vetustas dignidades faraónicas. Otro tanto podría decirse de los diálogos o conferencias celebrados allí, en donde la disparidad de criterios, el pluralismo de las opiniones encontradas e, incluso, la aparente antinomia en que caían no pocas propuestas de futuro evocaban lejanamente aquella Torre de Babel con la que los hombres desafiaron una vez a los cielos. Como ya dijimos, no vamos llevar a cabo una crítica del evento en cuestión: que cada cual interprete esa primera impresión según el caudal de su espíritu o el estado de su humor. A nosotros nos interesa traerla, como quien dice, por los cabellos, pues nos permite enunciar y desarrollar una primera característica de eso que algunos han dado en llamar la condición humana y que no se agota en las sucesivas aportaciones de las distintas ramas de la ciencia 1 . En suma, su original narratividad. Desde un punto de vista un tanto ingenuo, avala nuestra suposición la necesidad que sentimos de describirnos a nosotros mismos como historias, ora fidedignas ora meras fábulas, o remotas genealogías. Por otro lado, y por desarrollar una idea que devino obsesiva a lo largo de todo el Fórum, no es menos cierto que, en la construcción de nuestra propia identidad, en la narración de nuestros más íntimos hechos, juega un papel preponderante la presencia de los otros; en suma, la alteridad. 2 El asunto no es más viejo que la propia filosofía. En una de sus obras más inspiradas y, por añadidura, más complejas, Platón puso de manifiesto la inherente antinomia que se establece en la relación entre la unidad y la multiplicidad 3 . Nos enfrentamos con un planteamiento afín a la hora de abordar la idea de identidad y diferencia. La primera es la suma de todas aquellas cosas que nos distinguen de lo demás; es decir, nuestras propias diferencias que, a su vez y a pesar de su heterogeneidad, quedan subsumidas en una unidad superior; a saber, nuestra propia identidad. En rigor, esta última plantea inconvenientes análogos con los que la antigua metafísica tuvo que lidiar a la hora de presentarse la realidad de las esencias. Poner sobre el tapete su problemática naturaleza no nos alejaría de nuestras intenciones primeras, ampliando todo un universo de posibilidades especulativas que, en consideración al signo de estos tiempos, exige siquiera una somera reflexión, esbozada más arriba. Repitámoslo: la capital importancia que juegan los demás en la creación de nuestros rasgos distintivos. Es más, incluso la pupila ajena ve y sabe de nosotros mismos mucho de lo que se nos aparece como vedado, más allá de nuestra propia e inquisitiva mirada. Bruto sabe por Casio que es un republicano consecuente y un perfecto conspirador 4 , Leopold Bloom se pregunta de qué forma le verían los demás 1 UNAMUNO, Del sentimiento trágico de la vida en los hombres y en los pueblos (O. C.: XVI). Editorial Vergara, Barcelona, 1958, p. 127. 2 Un término hoy en boga y que podría muy bien sustituir al nuestro es el de <<otredad>>. Prescindimos del mismo en parte por garantizar la pureza de nuestra lengua (aquél no es más que un neologismo que pretende traducir un término foráneo) y en parte porque la definición de alteridad, así como la de términos análogos como alterar, alterarse o alteración, refleja muy bien un peculiar sentido de <<otro>>, sentido que alienta nuestro desarrollo posterior, y que goza de connotaciones evidentemente negativas. Por culminar con un ejemplo, decimos que se altera quien no es el mismo, quien está fuera de sí.

This paper argues that eternal punishment cannot be justified if people are born with a built-in tendency to do wrong that they never chose and cannot fully avoid. If wrongdoing is inevitable, then the basic requirements for fair blame are not met. Punishing people forever for actions they could not escape is neither fair nor compassionate. Using everyday comparisons—like puppies that inevitably bark, robots with unfixable flaws, or people with inborn addictions—the paper shows why linking unavoidable behavior to eternal torment breaks down logically. Two major problems follow. First, true responsibility requires some real ability to avoid the act; inevitability strips that away. Second, fair punishment must fit the seriousness of the act; finite human failings cannot warrant infinite suffering. The discussion also considers alternative ideas within theology, such as ultimate destruction or restorative approaches, which avoid these contradictions. The conclusion is clear: eternal punishment for inevitable human failings lacks any rational foundation.

no es universal ni inherente, sino que depende de factores psicológicos, culturales y existenciales. La hipótesis sostiene que la necesidad de dios es inversamente proporcional a la suma de tres factores: Curiosidad, Inteligencia y Valor valente (CIVv). Este artículo desarrolla un marco teórico que integra aportes de

In this paper, I argue that Empedocles's peculiar expression according to which the rootsliving entities, each endowed with thought and desires -"are themselves" forces the reader to think of them not solely as the principles of generation, never born and destined never to perish, but also as the true being, in the sense that the many particular entities are only an aspect, an image, a form assumed by the roots. I then argue that in his Timaeus Plato implicitly opposes Empedocles by describing the four elements as generated, sensible, and corporeal: therefore, not as entities with life and thought or even the true being, but as contingent forms or images of necessity. In this way, Plato prevents Empedocles's theories from developing into a tradition: no longer conceived as intelligent and living beings, in ancient physics the four elements become inert matter.

Life doesn’t care about you. It didn’t ask for your consent. It arrives uninvited, flickers for a few decades, and ends in silence.

There is no cosmic parent watching over you. No blueprint. No deeper script. Just atoms bumping into atoms, cells running chemical programs, and a brain trying to make sense of the chaos.
You are electricity and matter, wrapped in skin, and convinced you are someone. Your memories, your dreams, and your sense of being “you” are all constructed from neural firestorms inside a skull.

The universe is indifferent, not cruel. But that indifference can feel like cruelty when you stare into it too long.
So, we build illusions. Not because we’re foolish but because we must.
Illusions of meaning, purpose, and identity. Narratives that keep the terror at bay.

They aren’t mistakes. They’re survival strategies. Stories that help us endure the raw absurdity of existence

Este artículo propone una lectura cruzada de las reflexiones de José Ortega y Gasset y Alfred Schütz inspiradas por la figura de Don Quijote. Esta perspectiva ofrece la posibilidad de profundizar la compa¬ración entre los dos autores, en particular su manera de abordar, criticar y repensar la filosofía de Husserl. Desde este punto de vista, se destaca la relevancia que ambos autores dan al tema de la posibilidad, encarnada por la figura del Quijote, a través de la cual es posible identificar un punto de afinidad con el pensamiento de Husserl y una perspectiva para acortar su distancia con el padre de la fenomenología. Esta línea de investigación se desarrolla siguiendo dos ejes principales dentro de los cuales tanto Ortega como Schütz reinterpretan, de manera marcadamente fenomenológica, el tema de la posibilidad: la relación con el mundo y la experiencia del otro.

What might emerge in a conversation between the authors of Lamentations and the authors of the lament psalms-or protest psalms, as I prefer to call them? I here take up one theme from each chapter of Lamentations and set one or two psalms alongside each chapter.1 I treat both Lamentations and Psalms as texts provided for people to pray. I don't know how far they reflect personal experience or feelings on the part of their authors, but I assume that they found a place in their respective collections because they were thought useful for other people to pray.

Hay sufrimiento en el mundo, hay mal en el mundo. Existe evidencia de ambos. No todo sufrimiento parece ser con vistas a un bien mayor. Es decir, parece haber casos de mal gratuito o injustificado. El pasado 2 de febrero del 2024, observamos en Viña del Mar -Chile las trágicas consecuencias de un devastador incendio forestal, probablemente provocado intencionalmente por el ser humano. Ante escenarios de este tipo, el desafío epistémico para quienes creemos en Dios es preguntarnos si este es un caso de mal innecesario y si, de ser así, tiene alguna implicancia para la creencia en Dios. En este escrito plantearé los riesgos de racionalizar el sufrimiento, sin que ello implique que la búsqueda de razones sobre el mismo (su explicación) derive en una justificación indirecta del mismo. En última instancia, se trata de distinguir entre evaluar las causas de un evento, la justificación del evento y la evaluación ética del mismo.

The origins of North American literature will always be attached to the religious principles brought about in the colonies of New England by the first European Puritan settlers disembarked at the coasts of Plymouth. Nathaniel Hawthorne was one of the dark romantics of the prolific nineteenth century in the United States who emerged from that Puritan ancestry and whose forefathers, William and John Hathorne, were deeply involved not only in the history of his native Salem and in its witchcraft episode, but also in the whole history of the Massachusetts Bay Colony since the seventeenth century. These familiar and historical facts were very influential in his life and in his literary career. In this paper, I will analyze the impact that all this caused on Hawthorne’s literary production.
Keywords: Hawthorne, Puritanism, Salem, Witchcraft, Devil, sin, supernatural phenomena

Being & Metaphor: Variations on World offers a multi-layered approach to questions in philosophy, and specifically continental philosophy. Using a new structure to the book format—allowing for both a linear and a more sectional, layered approach to reading—Being & Metaphor guides the reader through a transformative project of reimagining and re-experiencing their self, group, world, and others around them. Drawing on Martin Heidegger’s concept of “world,” Being & Metaphor develops a notion of the multiplicity of worlds: other human, non-human animal, plant, and even thingly worlds. The book draws on Jan Zwicky’s concept of “metaphor” to posit a metaphoric ontology: i.e., a way that overlapping worlds exist together. Worlds have aspects in common while nonetheless retaining their irreducible difference. At the heart of Being & Metaphor is the question of how to live a good life and the answer lies in practices and politics of sensitive responsivity to beings around us.

NOTE: This PDF version lets you click on the first word of a section and it will link you to the next section in the overlay. So, clicking on the first word for 1.1 will link you to 2.1, the first word for 2.1 will link you to 3.1, and the first word for 3.1 will link you back to 1.1.

C.C.E. Schmid’s doctrine of intelligible fatalism was immensely influential in the immediate reception of Kant’s philosophy. Existing treatments of this doctrine, largely neglected by modern scholarship, echo uncharitable interpretations espoused by Schmid’s contemporaries. I demonstrate that Schmid’s intelligible fatalism is more coherent and philosophically robust than hitherto recognized. I argue for a novel interpretation of Schmid’s account of rational agency, showing that intelligible fatalism is compatible with his conceptions of freedom, obligation, and imputation. Specifically, I argue that the role of consciousness in this account carves out conceptual space for a distinction between the theoretical and the practical that is sufficient to render intelligible fatalism consistent with these conceptions.

This article explores the significance of Psalm 22, particularly the poignant cry, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" and its theological implications, both within the context of the psalm itself and its fulfillment in the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. By employing a theological-exegetical method, the study analyzes the psalm's literary structure and theological themes, particularly the expression of divine abandonment. The article then connects these themes to the Passion narratives in the New Testament, highlighting how Jesus' cry from the cross directly references and fulfills the prophetic words of Psalm 22. Furthermore, the paper incorporates insights from key theologians such as Bonhoeffer and Moltmann to explore the doctrine of a suffering God, emphasizing divine empathy in human suffering. The study extends to interfaith dialogue in Indonesia, examining how religious communities navigate social differences and contribute to fostering peace and tolerance through dialogue. By combining theological reflection with sociological analysis, the article underscores the importance of interfaith dialogue as a tool for promoting social cohesion and addressing religious intolerance. This paper contributes to both theological scholarship and interfaith studies by offering a comprehensive analysis of the intersection between suffering, redemption, and social harmony in the context of Psalm 22.

Desidero condividere con voi alcune considerazioni svolte in questo periodo sotto la spinta del dramma della pandemia del COVID-19 che tutti stiamo vivendo. Ciò che sta accadendo in questo tempo ci porta a ridare maggiore spazio a un aspetto della ricerca teologica biblica che in realtà non è mai venuto meno, ma che oggi forse viviamo con una consapevolezza rinnovata, soprattutto per le condizioni in cui ci troviamo. Dalla fine della Seconda Guerra Mondiale questa è forse la prima volta che tutte le nazioni avvertono di essere sottoposte a una minaccia che potrebbe essere fatale e che sta avendo conseguenze devastanti anche a livello economico 2 . Certamente dovranno cambiare tante cose, a partire dal nostro modo di pensare la vita e di relazionarci con gli altri. Ci sorprendiamo a riflettere sul perché non ci siamo ammalati e questo immeritato, ulteriore giro di giostra che ci è stato concesso dovrebbe spingerci a riflettere molto seriamente e a portarci a una vera conversione. Il 27 marzo, in quella sera buia e piovosa, i cristiani hanno pregato con Papa Francesco per chiedere la fine della pandemia 3 . Dal 27 marzo al 22 aprile, Papa

This critique engages the interdisciplinary study The Nature of Time-An Interdisciplinary Approach from Physics, Philosophy, Religion to Art and places it in dialogue with the writings of S. C. Sayles, particularly his Veritas Confirmata series and allied works on metaphysical anthropology and the Logos-centred cosmology. The study under consideration successfully surveys multiple perspectives-scientific, philosophical, religious, and artisticon the enduring enigma of time. Yet while comprehensive in scope, its method remains largely descriptive: perspectives are juxtaposed without being reconciled into a higher synthesis. By contrast, Sayles advances a Logos-centred ontology in which time is understood as a derivative structure within the divine informational field (IΔF), authored and sustained by the eternal Logos. In this framework, the tensions between cyclical and linear time, between the block universe of relativity and the lived duration of consciousness, and between entropy's arrow and spiritual transcendence find coherent resolution. The present critique highlights points of overlap between the study and Sayles' work-such as the acknowledgement of entropy, the cultural polarity of cyclical versus linear temporalities, and the artistic mediation of memory and experience-while also identifying divergences. It contends that Sayles' integrative approach provides a more adequate ontological grounding for temporality, thereby offering not only descriptive breadth but metaphysical unity.

This paper demonstrates Ulrich's impact on Kant and the immediate reception of Kant's account of free will. I argue that Ulrich's critical inquiry into grounding and free will influenced Kant's treatment of the subjective ground of the exercise of freedom in the Religion. I analyze Ulrich's critique in relation to Kant's understanding of freedom as causality, exploring the connection between grounding and the subjective ground of freedom's exercise. I argue further that Ulrich shaped the subsequent debate on the scope of free will and the possibility of free immoral action by inciting the 1790s debate on moral imputation.

Following Hume's lead, Paul Draper argues that. given the biological role played by both pain and pleasure in goal-directed organic systems, the observed facts about pain and pleasure in the world are antecedently much more likely on the Hypothesis of Indifference than on theism. I examine one by one Draper's arguments for this claim and show how they miss the mark. Hume initially contrasts Manicheanism with "the common hypothesis," theism. The former, he says. explains the pattern of suffering and good in the

How the Antinomia Medicinalis Operates in Cosmotheandric Restoration in my interpretation of Jordan Daniel Wood's account of Christ's Transfigurative Kenosis While evil has no ontological status, its effects are real enough to require a restorative recreation from within history. Christ's True Incarnation effects both the transformative participations of our theosis & reformative restorations of our False Incarnations

[for Bloomsbury 2025-26- author's copy] Albert Camus matters first of all, this book therefore sets out to show, because we can learn from his responses to the problems of his day, whose legatees or shadows we still face.  Camus matters secondly, it argues, because underlying his fictional writing, informing his political journalism and essay writing, is a distinct philosophical perspective in 20th century thought.  In the first five chapters of the upcoming book, Why Camus Matters, we will focus on Camus’ specific responses to the issues, which remain ours, of nihilism, post-truth, political romanticism and the collapse of the Left into identitarianism, economic inequality and fascism.  In the context of these responses, our sense of Camus’ unique philosophical perspective, and its specific components, will gradually emerge, one based in the Greek and Christian heritages, not post-Kantian German philosophy, in contrast to later, more celebrated French thinkers.

This paper posits a Gnostic theological framework to reinterpret the nature of the deity depicted in the Old Testament. Traditional monothe-istic interpretations present a unified, omnibenevolent God across both the Old and New Testaments. This research challenges that view, arguing that the God of the Old Testament, Yahweh, exhibits characteristics not of the ultimate, transcendent Godhead (the Monad), but of a lesser, flawed creator entity known in Gnostic cosmology as the Demiurge or Ialdabaoth. Through an analysis of canonical biblical verses, core Gnostic texts, and philosophical reasoning, this paper argues that the cruelty, jealousy, and tribalism attributed to Yahweh are literal, not metaphorical, indicators of an inferior and immature creator. We will examine key New Testament passages, particularly Jesus's discourse in John 8:44, as evidence of a distinction between the true, hidden God and the flawed ruler of the material cosmos. The paper further employs the philosophical argument from imperfection that a flawed world logically implies a flawed creator-to substantiate this Gnostic thesis. Ultimately, it is argued that Gnosticism provides a more coherent and logically consistent hermeneutic for reconciling the profound theological dissonances within the biblical canon and addressing the perennial problem of evil.

Dinsel değişim, din psikolojisinin kurulduğu dönemden itibaren güncelliğini koruyan konular arasında yer almaktadır. Tarihsel süreçten bugüne kadar olumlu veya olumsuz biçimde neredeyse tüm insanların muhtelif boyutlarda dinsel unsurlar ile temas ediyor oluşu, dinsel değişim konusunu akademik alanda önemli ve güncel tutan hususlardandır. Bu çalışma; inançlı olduğu hâlde dine karşı ilgisiz bir hayat sürdüren Yaşar Alptekin’in neden ve nasıl dindarlaştığı sorusuna cevap aramaktadır. Nitel araştırma tekniklerinden olan durum çalışması desenine bağlı olarak yürütülen bu araştırmada veriler doküman incelemesi ile elde edilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda Yaşar Alptekin’in bizzat kendisinin kaleme aldığı kitaplar ve onunla çeşitli sosyal medya platformlarında yapılan röportajlar, birinci elden kaynaklar olarak kullanılmıştır. Bu anlamda mevcut çalışma, psikobiyografik araştırma geleneği içinde değerlendirilebilir. Toplanan bilgi ve malumatlar, betimsel analiz tekniği ile çözümlenmiştir. Alptekin’in özel yaşamı, siyasi görüşü ve sanatçı yönü gibi konular, çalışmanın kapsamı dışında tutulmuştur. Ayrıca bu çalışmada yer alan bilgi ve malumatlar, araştırmanın yapılmış olduğu tarihe kadarki dokümanlar ile sınırlıdır. Araştırmanın temel sorusuna cevap ararken dinsel değişimin aşamaları, güdüleri, motifleri, çeşitleri, gerçekleşme biçimi ve sonuçları hakkında din psikolojisi literatüründe yer alan kuramsal yaklaşımlardan destek alınmıştır. Bu bağlamda psikanalitik ve varoluşçu yaklaşımlarla birlikte sosyal kimlik kuramından da faydalanılmıştır. Bu noktada öncelikle Alptekin’in çocukluk, gençlik ve yetişkinlik döneminde yaşadığı önemli olaylar ve hayatını etkileyen hadiseler, dinsel değişimi harekete geçiren nedenler kapsamında analize çalışılmıştır. Alptekin’in değişim öncesi ve sonrası kişilik ve kimlik bakımından nasıl bir değişim yaşadığı, bunun kendisiyle ve sosyal çevresi ile ilişkilere nasıl yansıdığı sorusuna odaklanılmıştır. Ulaşılan bulgulara göre Alptekin’in dinsel değişim sürecini harekete geçiren nedenler; “çocukluk dönemini mutsuz geçirmesi”, bu anlamda “sevgisiz ve ilgisiz büyümesi”, “yetişkinlik döneminde yaşadığı anlamsızlık duygusu”, “samimiyet arayışı”, “içerisinde bulunduğu gelişim döneminin etkileri”, “zihinsel tatminsizlik”, “aile içi sorunlar” ve “değişime eşlik eden dinî tecrübeler” şeklinde sıralanabilir. Meydana gelmiş olan dinsel değişim sonucunda Yaşar Alptekin’in kimlik ve dünya görüşü başta olmak üzere giyim tarzından arkadaş çevresine, ilişkilerine yön veren temel belirleyicilerden insanlara bakışına kadar bireysel ve sosyal hayatında köklü değişimler yaşandığı izlenmektedir. Ancak onun, temel kişilik yapısında fark edilebilir bir değişime rastlanmamıştır. Mevcut kişiliği, değişim sonrası kimliği ile bütünleşmiştir.

It is human nature to seek the ultimate explanation for existence. However, not all people have the same perspective on this issue. This study deals with naturalism and theism, which are the two opposite poles of humankind's desire to reach the ultimate explanation. There are many contemporary philosophers who defend the superiority of the explanatory power of theism compared to alternative views. The views of these philosophers are in general a continuation of their predecessors. The extent to which these theistic defenses, which have only a few original aspects, are truly successful against non-theistic views requires philosophical analysis. Therefore, the philosophical analysis of the claim of being more successful will contribute to more qualified discussions in the philosophy of religion and thus to continue the current theism-naturalism discussions on a more rational basis. Kenneth L. Pearce, who has been frequently mentioned recently in philosophy of religion and has been in discussions with the leading names of atheism, has produced many studies with the idea that he has made positive contributions to theism. Pearce defends Süleyman ALTIN Article Information / Makale Bilgisi Article Types / Makale Türü : Research Article / Araştırma Makalesi

The Christian faith teaches that after death, individuals will face judgment by God, which will determine their eternal destination. Here, judgment is the concept that God decides whether a person is to be rewarded or punished. Broadly speaking, Christians believe in an eternal afterlife in heaven after death. However, most denominations teach that the desire to live a "good life" must be rooted in love for God and faith in Jesus as the savior, not merely a fear of judgment. But what becomes of those who reject Christ? What exactly is their punishment? Today, there is no consensus on this question, which inevitably brings us to the doctrine of hell. This paper provides a brief overview of the four major views of hell.

Without question, the problem of evil vexed Leibniz as much as any philosophical problem during his career. This is obvious from the fact that the first and the last book length works that he authored, the Philosopher's Confession (written at age 26 in 1672) and the Theodicy (written in 1709, seven years before his death) were both devoted to this problem. It is, as well, equally striking that this latter work was the only book length treatise Leibniz saw fit to publish during his life. In this entry we will examine to two main species of the problem of evil which Leibniz addresses. The first, "the underachiver problem," is the one raised by the critic who argues that the evil in our world indicates that God cannot be as knowledgeable, powerful, or good, as traditional monotheists have claimed. The second, "the holiness problem," is one raised by a critic who argues that God's intimate causal entanglements with the world make God the cause of evil. God is thereby implicated in the evil at the expense of his holiness.

Without question, the problem of evil vexed Leibniz as much as any philosophical problem during his career. This is obvious from the fact that the first and the last book length works that he authored, the Philosopher's Confession (written at age 26 in 1672) and the Theodicy (written in 1709, seven years before his death) were both devoted to this problem. It is, as well, equally striking that this latter work was the only book length treatise Leibniz saw fit to publish during his life. In this entry we will examine to two main species of the problem of evil which Leibniz addresses. The first, "the underachiver problem," is the one raised by the critic who argues that the evil in our world indicates that God cannot be as knowledgeable, powerful, or good, as traditional monotheists have claimed. The second, "the holiness problem," is one raised by a critic who argues that God's intimate causal entanglements with the world make God the cause of evil. God is thereby implicated in the evil at the expense of his holiness.

This article surveys, organizes, and evaluates leading contemporary critiques of theism alongside the most defensible theist replies, with an eye to common standards of evidence and theory choice. Rather than adjudicating piecemeal arguments in isolation, the paper compares "big pictures"-naturalism and theism-using familiar theoretical virtues: evidential fit, explanatory power and depth, coherence, simplicity properly understood, and modal clarity. The discussion first anchors empirical dependencies (e.g., systematic covariation between consciousness and brain states) without inferring reductive metaphysics, then reformulates the evidential problem of evil and divine hiddenness in likelihood terms, clarifying what would count for or against theism given background knowledge. It recasts design reasoning from Paley's contrivance to presentday fine-tuning claims, separating biological sub-optimality from cosmological boundary conditions. It contrasts secular moral non-naturalism and Singer's impartialism with theistic groundings that aim to explain objectivity, authority, motivation, and modal necessity in one place. It reframes "religious violence" as a problem of mechanisms-sacred values, identity fusion, outbidding, organizational entrepreneurship-rather than essences, showing how religious repertoires can both amplify conflict and enable peace. Throughout, Oppy's metastrategy (burden of proof, priors, parsimony) and Carroll's physics-first minimalism serve as the naturalist benchmark; the paper argues that neither side enjoys a knock-down case and that assessment turns on total-evidence comparisons rather than slogans. A Bahá'í perspective is used heuristically to illustrate a non-fundamentalist theistic stance that (i) accepts discipline from the sciences, (ii) centers moral formation and unity, and (iii) rejects violence as a betrayal of religion's point. The conclusion identifies research frontiers in cosmology, consciousness, and normativity where developments are most likely to shift the comparative balance.

ette publication est la quatrième « émanation » des Colloques de Tours organisés, avec une vaste collaboration française et internationale, par notre collègue, le professeur Bernard Pouderon. Ces colloques ont donné lieu à des Actes d'une grande qualité, comme en témoigne l'ouvrage que je présente maintenant et dont nous devons l'édition à Yves-Marie Blanchard, Bernard Pouderon et Madeleine Scopello. Le thème qui avait été retenu pour le quatrième colloque de Tours était tout aussi pertinent sur le plan scientifique que ceux des trois précédents : les forces du bien et du mal dans les premiers siècles de l'Église, mais surtout la lancinante question de l'origine, de la nature et de la signification du mal. Question lancinante parce qu'elle domine non seulement la réflexion théologique mais également la quête philosophique, tout comme elle traverse l'expérience humaine, celle de chacun de nous aux prises avec les limites de notre condition. C'est ainsi qu'Eusèbe de Césarée, dans l'Histoire ecclésiastique (V,27) pourra parler de « la question, maintes fois débattue chez les hérétiques (τοῦ πολυθρυλήτου παρὰ τοῖς αἱρεσιώταις ζητήματος) : D'où vient le * Cette note critique reprend des éléments d'une présentation faite à la table ronde organisée par l'Institut de recherche pour l'étude des religions,

Ece Ayhan, Illuminations’u okuduktan sonra yazdığını söylediği[1] Bakışsız Bir Kedi Kara ve Ortodoksluklar ile Arthur Rimbaud çizgisine en yakın şairlerimizdendir.

Rimbaud ve Ece Ayhan’ın prose poem tarzı (düzşiir / düzyazı şiir / mensur şiir)[2] şiirlerindeki anarşizm, kapalılık, alışılagelmişe başkaldırı –Rimbaud’nun kaçkın ve bohem hayat biçiminin eserlerindeki personası, sözün simyasını keşfetmesi, ‘ben’i bir başkası olarak tanımlaması,[3] burjuvaziyi grotesk bir biçimde eleştirmesi, mantık yerine kelimeleri nota misali kullanarak müzikte olduğu şekilde saf sanatı yakalaması, sayıklamayı andıran şiir ve düzşiirlerinin hayalle gerçek arasındaki kaygan zeminde durması; Ece Ayhan’ın otorite karşıtlığı, verili gerçeğe saldırması, sözdizimini bozması, alışılmamış imgeler kurması, ‘karaşınların şiirini yazması’, modern dünyanın ilah bellediği akıl ve mantığı ötelemesi– dilin yeniden üretilmesine olanak sağlar.

One of the main characters in Huzur, a novel written by A. Hamdi Tanpınar, is Suat who has not been thoroughly studied so far. Suat can be considered to be a nihilist personality due to opposing all the moral values and assuming wars to bring up humanity. Moreover, he never feels responsibility for the society throughout the novel. Consequntly, he was obliged to commit suicide. Suad, being an atheist and refusing social responsibility, represents a complete reflection of nihilizm. Additionally,