Planetary exploration

A human mission to Mars would present an unprecedented opportunity to investigate the earliest history of the solar system. This history that has largely been overwritten on Earth by active geological processing throughout its history, but on Mars, large swaths of the ancient crust remain exposed at the surface, allowing us to investigate martian processes at the earliest time periods when life first appeared on the Earth. Mars' surface has been largely frozen in place for 4 billion years, and after losing its atmosphere and magnetic field what re-mains is an ancient landscape of former hydrothermal systems, river beds, volcanic eruptions, and impact craters. This allows us to investigate scientific questions ranging from the nature of the impact history of the solar system to the origins of life. We present here a summary of the findings of the Human Science Objectives Science Analysis Group, or HSO-SAG chartered by MEPAG in 2015 to address science objectives and landing site c...

The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) has recently established an accelerated development initiative to enable high-resolution active optical ranging and terrain mapping capabilities for a series of upcoming Solar System exploration missions. Building on existing NASA airborne terrain mapping and spaceborne laser altimetry technologies, the JPL program seeks to develop a family of instruments which will serve the increasingly demanding navigational requirements of future robotic sciencecraft. Amongst the most challenging of these will be the Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission. The current MSR mission concept calls for the sampling of Martian terrain by two lander vehicles, followed by storage of the cached samples in Mars orbit and their eventual retrieval and return to Earth by a separate spacecraft. The complex rendezvous strategy that has been evolved to accomplish this goal places stringent demands on the autonomous navigation capabilities of the carrier vehicle and highresolution (-1 cm) acquisition and ranging lidar is a critical enabling component of the overall approach. In addition, risk mitigation provisions to be enacted under the re-architectured Mars Exploration Program will require increased assurance of safe landing conditions for future landed Mars missions. Consequently, we are also formulating designs for a terrain mapping lidar as part of an autonomous landing site selection system to be activated during the final stages of the entry/descent/landing operation on upcoming missions. These applications and others in solar system exploration will be described in this presentation.

Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park, located in southwestern Kane County, Utah, contains a variety of geologic features including one of the largest areas of freely migrating dunes in the Colorado Plateau. The semiarid climate, strong prevailing southerly winds, sparse vegetation, and abundant supply of sand-sized sediment make this area susceptible to eolian processes. Picturesque exposures of Jurassic rocks are present within the park. The stratigraphic sequence ranges from the Triassic-Jurassic Moenave Formation to the Middle Jurassic Carmel Formation. The most widespread bedrock unit exposed within the park is the Navajo Sandstone (Lower Jurassic). The Navajo Sandstone is also widely exposed across the Moccasin Terrace southwest of the park and is the most likely source for the sand that comprises the dune field. The "coral pink" color of the dune sand is the result of iron-oxide stains on the surface of the sand grains inherited from the source sandstones. Migrating dunes, whose morphology is primarily a function of wind characteristics, include transverse ridges, barchanoid ridges, and a solitary star dune. Dunes influenced or impeded by topographic obstacles or vegetation include climbing dunes, echo dunes, parabolic dunes, vegetated linear dunes, and nebkhas. We divide the dune field into major geomorphic units based on the dominant dune type. A largely stabilized (vegetated) sand sheet and partially stabilized, poorly organized dunes are present at the southern (upwind) end of the dune field. The active core of the dune field contains transverse ridges and barchanoid ridges. Barchanoid ridges at the northern (downwind) end of the active core grade into climbing dunes that ramp up the bedrock escarpment associated with the Sevier fault. The climbing dunes in turn grade into large parabolic dunes that dominate the downwind end of the dune field. Coral Pink Sand Dunes lies within the structural transition zone between the Great Basin section of the Basin and Range province to the west, and the core of the Colorado Plateau to the east. The north-south-trending Sevier fault cuts through the length of the park. The fault trace is marked by a west-facing bedrock escarpment that divides the park into two topographic units (a forested plateau to the east and a relatively low-lying valley floor to the west) and acts as a major control over the accumulation of sand within the dune field. Important events recorded in the geologic features of the park include the Triassic and Jurassic depositional history of the Glen Canyon Group, the Cretaceous to Cenozoic structural history of the Colorado Plateau, and the late Holocene history of the active dunes. Optically stimulated luminescence dates from the active core of the dune field indicate that Holocene eolian deposition began at least 4,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating of organic materials from an exhumed soil surface suggests a period of landscape stability approximately 500-200 years ago, coincident with the Little Ice Age. Dendrochronologic data from the ponderosa pines in the park, along with historic photographs, indicate the dune field has experienced alternating wet periods and drought since the end of the Little Ice Age, which have influenced vegetation coverage and dune activity in the area 372

One of the key components of a Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR) is the linear translation stage used to vary the optical path length between the two arms of the interferometer. This translation mechanism must produce extremely constant velocity ...

Missions to planets and other bodies in the solar system are extremely valuable scientific opportunities, despite all of the challenges these missions present to designers. One challenge that planetary science missions must face is that of Planetary Protection, the prevention of contamination between the Earth and the planetary body a craft is studying, undertaken to ensure an uncompromised scientific environment. Biological contamination has been a significant area of focus in Planetary Protection, but it is not the only type of compromising factor that a spacecraft from Earth might bring with it on its mission. Many exploration spacecraft have been or currently are powered by radioisotope power systems (RPS), which provide constant energy and thermal output throughout the solar system. Multiple governments and commercial companies are developing RPS technology for the first time, including the use of novel radioisotopes. Thermal and ionizing radiation from RPS aboard exploration spacecraft could impact future planetary protection considerations, which could pose a potential constraint on system design or mission plans. This paper analyzes existing planetary protection regimes for guidance or requirements relevant to the potential impact of radiation exposure from RPS operating on celestial bodies. The regimes studied include actual space agency regimes as well as relevant academic literature. This paper provides an initial analysis to understand the interaction between planetary protection policies and use of space RPS for deep space exploration.

Understanding soil deformation dynamics is critical in various fields, such as off-road vehicle mobility, agriculture, and soil mechanics. In particular, evaluating soil-tire interactions is essential for optimizing energy consumption and minimizing the negative effects of soil compaction. This study investigates the effect of soil deformation rates on the pressure-sinkage relationship and energy consumption using a controlled soil bin environment and a bevameter system. The primary objective of the study is to examine how different traffic levels and varying penetration rates influence the energy required to achieve specific sinkage depths. The study employed a completely randomized block design, with each treatment replicated three times to ensure precision and reliability. Quantitative measurements were obtained using a load cell attached to a bevameter, capturing the forces at a sampling frequency of 30 Hz. Results demonstrated a significant influence of both traffic level and penetration velocity on soil resistance and energy consumption. For the larger plate, the pressure required for penetration increased with higher velocities and traffic levels. At the highest velocity (45 mm s-1) and with 8 passes, the pressure needed for sinkage was maximal. The energy consumption for each scenario was calculated by integrating the area under the force-sinkage curve. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that the number of wheel passes, plate size, and penetration velocity significantly affected energy consumption. At the highest sinkage depth (60 mm), the energy consumption for the larger plate at 45 mm s-1 and with 8 passes was nearly double that of the smaller plate. These results emphasize the importance of considering both trafficinduced compaction and velocity when designing off-road vehicles or agricultural machinery that interact with deformable terrains.

Searching for evidence of life on Mars will probably require access to the subsurface. The Martian surface is bathed in ultraviolet radiation which decomposes organic compounds, destroying possible evidence for life. Also, experiments performed by the Viking Landers imply the presence of several strongly oxidizing compounds at the Martian surface that may also play a role in destroying organic compounds near the surface. While liquid water is unstable on the Martian surface, and ice is unstable at the surface at low latitudes, recent results from the Mars Odyssey Gamma Ray Spectrometer experiment indicate that water ice is widely distributed near the surface under a thin cover of dry soil. Organic compounds created by an ancient Martian biosphere might be preserved in such ice-rich layers. Furthermore, accessing the subsurface provides a way to identify unique stratigraphy such as small-scale layering associated with lacustrine sediments. Subsurface access might also provide new ins...

The ESA and NASA Mars exploration programmes are based on a joint exploration philosophy leading to a network mission and Mars sample return. The requirements and performance of planetary probes will need to meet the challenges imposed by network and sample return missions and guarantee a greater scientific return on the financial investment in new ambitious enabling technologies and each launch. As a result of increasing cost, the desire to acquire geochemical and geophysical data over large areas and samples from multiple regions, missions that can provide mobile, long range and extended lifetime platforms are becoming more attractive. If an instrumented platform could be placed on the surface of a planet that could repeatedly acquire highly detailed data from the surface and subsurface, travel large distances to multiple sites, extract and store multiple samples and deploy instrumentation, an planet could be mapped and sampled with a higher resolution than orbiting platforms. We propose to design and develop an instrumented platform that can acquire data at hundreds of locations during its lifetime -a Mars Hopper. The platform will be able to "hop" with a degree of flexibility from one location to the next, one scenario examined includes a hop every 2-3 days with a separation of 10-20 km per hop. With a lifetime goal of 10 years, the entire surface of Mars can be mapped in detail by a few dozen platforms.

A Bioregenerative Life Support Test Complex, BIO-Plex, is currently being constructed at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, T×, This facility will attempt to answer the questions involved in developing a lunar or planetary base. The Food Processing System (FPS) of the BIO-Plex is responsible for supplying food to the crew in coordination with the chosen mission scenario. Long duration space missions require development of both a Transit Food System and of a Lunar or Planetary Food System. These two systems are intrinsically different since the first one will be utilized in the transit vehicle in microgravity conditions with mostly resupplied foods, while the second will be used in conditions of partial gravity (hypogravity) to process foods from crops grown in the facility. The Transit Food System will consist of prepackaged food of extended shelf life. It will be supplemented with salad crops that will be consumed fresh. Microgravity imposes significant limitation on the ability to handle food and allows only for minimal processing. The challenge is to develop food systems similar to the International Space Station or Shuttle Food Systems but with a shelf life of 3 -5 years. The Lunar or Planetary Food System will allow for food processing of crops due to the presence of some gravitational force (1/6 to 1/3 that of Earth). Crops such as wheat, soybean, rice, potato, peanut, and salad crops, will be processed to final products to provide a nutritious and acceptable diet for the crew. Not only are constraints imposed on the FPS from the crops (e.g., crop variation, availability, storage and shelf-life) but also significant requirements are present for the crew meals (e.g., RDA, high quality, safety, variety). The FPS becomes a fulcrum creating the right connection from crops to crew meals while dealing with issues of integration within a closed selfregenerative system (e.g., safe processing, waste production, volumes, air contaminations, water usage, etc.). Options for the first test, for duration of 120 days, currently scheduled for late 2003 are outlined.

Autonomous planetary rovers operating in vast unknown environments must operate efficiently because of size, power and computing limitations. Recently, we have developed a rover capable of efficient obstacle avoidance and path planning. The rover uses binocular stereo vision to sense potentially cluttered outdoor environments. Navigation is performed by a combination of several modules that each ÒvoteÓ for the next best action for the robot to execute. The key distinction of our system is that it produces globally intelligent behavior with a small computational resourceÑ all processing and decision making is done on a single processor. These algorithms have been tested on our prototype rover, Bullwinkle, outdoors and have recently driven the rover 100 m at speeds of 15 cm/ sec. In this paper we report on the extensions on the systems that we have previously developed that were necessary to achieve autonomous navigation in this domain.

A magneto-plasma sail produces the propulsive force due to the interaction between the artificial magnetic field around a spacecraft inflated by the plasma and the solar wind erupted from the Sun. The inflation of the magnetic field by the plasma was proposed by a group of the University of Washington and the basic research has just started. This paper summarizes the characteristics of the magneto plasma sail by comparing with the other low-thrust propulsion systems, and investigates its potential application to near future planetary missions. Finally, an engineering satellite to demonstrate the magneto-plasma sail is proposed as a first step.

In this paper a dynamic model for the demonstration of planetary motion is described. It is a rubber membrane strained on a ring and pulled down in its middle. The planets' of the model are small balls moving on the rubber surface. The force acting on the balls is inversely proportional to the distance from the centre so only Kepler's second law is valid for the motion of the balls. The velocity hodograph of the Kepler motion is analysed theoretically and experimen

This is a review I wrote and was published by The Sixteenth Century Journal.  It is of a very excellent book, WHAT GALILEO SAW: IMAGINING THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, authored by Lawrence Lipking. Published by Cornell University Press in 2014. This book contains excellent original insights into the scientific ethos preceding and during the time of Galileo, far beyond those discoveries of Galileo himself.  314 pages, ISBN 978-0-8041-5297-0.

The design of the prototype of the Universal Research Planetary Rover “Leaving a Mark LM-8” has been developed. The problems of planetary rover operation, research objects and equipment for the functioning of the planetary rover and conducting research are considered. The existing technical solutions have been studied. Adaptive wheels with superelastic non-pneumatic tires of variable stiffness have been developed. The composition of the case materials has been selected. The necessary complex of scientific equipment is proposed. Using 3D-modeling in the computer-aided design system «Kompas-3D» design engineering models were also developed, made on a scale of 1:9.31 using additive technologies and laser cutting technologies. Design engineering model’s Remote and Automated Control Systems were developed and tested. Successful tests of design engineering models have been carried out.

Terraforming Mars, an idea originating in planetary engineering, is built on the incorporation of simulation-based analysis and robotic autonomy. This literature review has revealed examples of established advancements in multi-robotic systems, in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), and datadriven habitat-inhabiting as potential pillars for rendering Mars a habitable ecosystem. Three case studies of significance were presented: a collaboration between autonomous multirobot systems, the Design-to-Robotic-Production and Operation (D2RP&O) process of producing subsurface habitats using local regolith, and applications of legged robots in navigating granular and steep Martian surfaces. Within these realms of technology, the contribution of robotic autonomy could lead to enhanced operational efficiency, increased structural integrity, and improved environmental adaptability in the harsh conditions of the Martian landscape. It is important to note that even more complex processes now utilizing simulated models are allowing us to optimize energy utilization, project material handling, and environmental shielding with both architectural and mobility systems. The possibilities with robotics and modeling can expand our understanding and lay the groundwork for the diminishing logistical and physiological demands for human settlers on Mars, while potentially increasing the rate of large-scale colonization efforts. This review has demonstrated that integrated robotic systems and environmental modeling can represent the essential basis of long-term terraforming efforts.

The potential detection of phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus has reignited interest in the possibility of life aloft in this environment. If the cloud decks of Venus are indeed an abode of life, it should reside in the "habitable zone" between ∼ 50 -60 km altitude, roughly coincident with the middle cloud deck, where the temperature and pressure (but not the atmospheric composition) are similar to conditions at the Earth's surface. We map out a precursor astrobiological mission to search for such putative lifeforms in situ with instrument balloons, which could be delivered to Venus via launch opportunities in 2022-2023. This mission would collect aerosol and dust samples by means of small balloons floating in the Venusian cloud deck and directly scrutinize whether they include any apparent biological materials and, if so, their shapes, sizes and motility. Our balloon mission would also be equipped with a miniature mass spectrometer that ought to permit the detection of complex organic molecules. The mission is augmented by contextual cameras to search for macroscopic signatures of life in the Venusian atmospheric habitable zone. Finally, mass and power constraints permitting, radio interferometric determinations of the motion of the balloons in Venusian winds, together with in situ temperature and pressure measurements, will provide valuable insights into the poorly understood meteorology of the middle cloud region.

Space environ ment is inherently hostile and dangerous for astronauts. Since extra -vehicu lar activity (EVA ) should be limited or assisted as much as possible, the significant role of robot ic systems is of notable relevance. Tele-navigation of ground rovers in hostile and unknown environments is one of the applicable p roblems for modern planetary exp loration missions. Pilots involved in these missions should be supported with intelligent and adaptive Hu man-Machine Interfaces (HM Is) able to guarantee a high level of situation awareness and an affordable mental workload. This paper aims to illustrate the approach used to design, test and assess a Remote Control Station (RCS) fo r ground missions . The RCS is used to remotely operate a 4-wheel drive scaled vehicle, representing a min i-rover for space exp loration. The complete system includes the control station and the vehicle, all based on off-the-shelf components. The rover is used as a tool to assess operator"s situati...

However, we disagree with the cross-sectional geometry assumed by Cartwright et al. The Canyonlands grabens have received much attention in recent years for at least three reasons: 1) they represent accessible analogues for simple graben structures exposed on the Moon and Mars; 2) they provide valuable ®eld tests of theoretical fault propagation models; and 3) they are excellent onland analogues for oshore oil-producing graben complexes. It is our opinion that it is important to understand the geometry of these grabens in order to infer kinematics and mechanics with con®dence. As originally suggested by , the grabens can be explained as due to downdip creep of a H460m-thick section of brittle Pennsylvanian and Permian limestones and sandstones on underlying Paradox evaporites (Fig. ). Conditions favorable for this creep

Currently, an urgent task in space exploration is the research of planets, their moons and other solid space bodies. In this paper the prototype of the Universal Research Planetary Rover «Leaving a Mark LM-8» for the planetary research has been developed. The research object and equipment for conducting research are considered. The concept of the planetary rover’s control system has been developed. The necessary complex of scientific equipment for the research of Mars, Titan and exoplanets which will be able to conduct comprehensive researches of the surface, soil, atmosphere and various conditions on the planet, as well as be able to search for water and biosignatures – signs of a possible past and present life has been proposed. 3D models of the robotic arm complex and the deep soil-sampling tools for conducting soil research have been developed. Support systems for scientific researchers, energy supply and dust, soiling and drops removing worked out. Payload options are proposed.

Humanity stands on the threshold of a new era through space exploration. The Moon's surface is considered the first and most suitable platform for permanent space settlements. NASA's Artemis program, ESA's lunar missions, and China's Chang'e series have significantly increased interest in lunar exploration. However, one of the most essential requirements for long-term human presence on the Moon is the provision of continuous and reliable energy. Although solar energy is sustainable in many Earth applic... Advantages of Nuclear Energy Nuclear energy offers several advantages on the Moon, just as it does on Earth. Firstly, energy production is continuous and not dependent on the day-night cycle, unlike solar energy. This is especially important in dark regions and long-duration missions. Secondly, nuclear energy has high energy density, meaning large amounts of energy can be generated from smaller volumes. This is crucial for space missions as it reduces payload mass. Thirdly, compact and portable systems provide logistical advantag...

In Section 2.2 the situation with several sources is discussed: The contributions from more than one simultaneously active, arbitrary placed source with arbitrary time dependence cannot be separated from the ambient field in a simple way. At least two magnetometers are needed. Sources whose distance is small compared to the distance of the magnetometer act like a single multipole. It is stated: “For the procedure to work, the quadrupole contribution must be much weaker than the dipole contribution at both sensors.”

for Planetary EXploration) is an innovative, compact remotesensing instrument for measuring and characterizing aerosols in the atmosphere. The shoebox size instrument is capable of accurate full linear spectropolarimetry without moving parts or liquid crystals. High precision polarimetry is performed through encoding the degree and angle of linear polarization of the incoming light in a sinusoidal modulation of the spectrum. Measuring this intensity spectrum thus provides the spectral dependence of the degree and angle of linear polarization. Polarimetry has proven to be an excellent tool to study microphysical properties of atmospheric particles. Such information is essential to better understand the weather and climate of a planet. Although SPEX can be used to study any planetary atmosphere, including the Earth's, the current design of SPEX is tailored to study Martian dust and clouds from an orbiting platform. SPEX' 9 entrance pupils can simultaneously measure intensity spectra from 0.4 to 0.8 microns, in different directions along the flight direction (including two limb viewing directions). This way, the scattering phase functions of dust and cloud particles within a ground pixel are sampled while flying over it. SPEX can provide synergy with instruments on rovers and landers, as it provides an overview of spatial and temporal variations of the Martian atmosphere.

This document outlines a formal strategy to confront current challenges within NASA-workforce reductions, budget constraints, and political pressures-and to leverage key opportunities in lunar and Martian exploration, Earth science, and commercial partnerships. Through targeted objectives, initiatives, and performance metrics, NASA will safeguard its scientific integrity, strengthen organizational resilience, and maintain leadership in space exploration.

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Global Aerospace Corporation (GAC) is developing a revolutionary system architecture for exploration of planetary atmospheres and surfaces from atmospheric altitudes. The work is supported by the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC). The innovative system architecture relies upon the use of Directed Aerial Robot Explorers (DAREs), which essentially are longduration-flight autonomous balloons with trajectory control capabilities that can deploy swarms of miniature probes over multiple target areas. The balloons will serve a dual purpose as independent explorers and as microprobe delivery systems for targeted observations. Trajectory control capabilities will offer unprecedented opportunities in high-resolution, targeted observations of both atmospheric and surface phenomena. Multifunctional microprobes will be deployed from the balloons once over the target areas, and perform a multitude of functions, such as atmospheric profiling or surface exploration, relaying data back to the balloons or an orbiter. This architecture will enable low-cost, low-energy, long-term global exploration of planetary atmospheres and surfaces. We report here results of the preliminary analysis of the trajectory control capabilities and potential applications for DARE platforms at Venus, Mars, Titan and Jupiter.

The design of the prototype of the Universal Research Planetary Rover “Leaving a Mark LM-8” has been developed. The problems of planetary rover operation, research objects and equipment for the functioning of the planetary rover and conducting research are considered. The existing technical solutions have been studied. Adaptive wheels with superelastic non-pneumatic tires of variable stiffness have been developed. The composition of the case materials has been selected. The necessary complex of scientific equipment is proposed. Using 3D-modeling in the computer-aided design system «Kompas-3D» design engineering models were also developed, made on a scale of 1:9.31 using additive technologies and laser cutting technologies. Design engineering model’s Remote and Automated Control Systems were developed and tested. Successful tests of design engineering models have been carried out.

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Defending Mendel merely perpetuating a myth SIR-Though I agree with Van Valen' that "Mendel was no fraud", my own recent enquiry, "Are Mendel's results really too close?"', led me to conclude that they are. After reviewing all the evidence and reanalysing the entire data I found "that Mendel's data exhibit two independent peculiarities both of which point to the same conclusion, namely, that in general the segregations agree more closely with what Mendel expected than chance would dictate. Where Mendel expected a 2:1 ratio even though the true expectation must have been different it was the former ratio which was achieved, and throughout the rest of his results there is a persistent lack of extreme deviations". No serious commentator with a firsthand knowledge of Mendel's paper has ever suggested that Mendel actually falsified his data. Yet this popular charge is being strengthened by the frequent appearance in the scientific literature of papers of doubtful value intended by their well-meaning authors to deflect it. Van Valen's letter' is no exception. He quotes four papers in support of his view that Mendel did not falsify his data. Contrary to Van Valen's assertion, the first of them (here given its correct reference') contains no analysis of Mendel's data, but rather a brief well-referenced review of the problem concluding with the extremely cautious opinion "one tends towards the impression that Fisher's original conclusions were somewhat extreme: there was probably no deliberate attempt at mendacity on Mendel's part". (Fisher, of course, had not suggested that there had been). The second' and thirdS papers cited by Van Valen are entirely irrelevant because they do not treat the goodness-of-fit problem but the quite separate issue of Mendel not finding linkage, whilst the fourth' contains substantial errors, as detailed in my review'. Gregor Mendel does not need the sort of defence which is being mounted. His paper is one of the greatest products of the human mind even if we still do not fully understand it. "There is every reason for each student of Mendel to keep an open mind and to make his own analysis and form his own conclusion"'. Mine is that Mendel's results really are too close, but certainly not that he falsified them.

A program is underway to digitize all mercurian craters greater than 5 km in diameter on Mariner 10 photography1. The method is very 'similar to that used to collect datafor the Brown University Mars Crater ~i b r a r y ~. Additionally, an independent catalog of all nearside lunar craters greater than 7 km in diameter has been completed recently at the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary ~aboratory3. These catalogs include data on crater location, diameter, morphology, and degradation. In addition, both the mercurian and lunar catalogs contain morphometric data on central peak heights and crater depths. These catalogs, yielding data for over 65,000 craters on the three planets, provide comprehensive bases for detailed crater population studies4. Comparison with previous work -Past studies of lunar5, mercurian6, a d mar-

This paper will present a model for collaborative space exploration through effective and efficient cooperation of humans and robotsan extension to the Cooperation of Humans and Robots Model (CHARM) developed by the Human-Robotic Cooperation (HRC) team at the International Space University's 2011 Space Studies Program held in Graz, Austria. The HRC team integrated international, intercultural, and interdisciplinary perspectives to develop a decision-making model -CHARMcapable of selecting a mission scenario which best utilizes humans and robotics in order to accomplish a given objective. Human and robotic capabilities differ, with each offering their own benefits and drawbacks. Robots are reliable and accurate, and can operate in hostile environmentsall attributes well-suited for space exploration. However, when faced with new scenarios and unexpected events, robots pale in comparison with the intuition and creativity of humans. Future space exploration will have to intelligently balance the flexibility and ingenuity of humans with robust and sophisticated robotic systems.

This paper argues that the S* robot control architecture of Tsotsos [1997] is well-suited to intelligent control of planetary rovers. Behaviour-based systems operate well in unknown environments, but cannot support deliberative functionality. Hybrid systems resolve this ...

Purpose of Review With the continued interest in scientific space exploration and rapid development of the commercialized space sector, there have been a wide array of exploration technologies proposed for planetary mobility. This paper aims to survey these new technologies, explain the motivations and challenges of traversing different space environments, and describe why certain approaches will be more ubiquitous. Recent Findings A continued dominance by four-and six-wheeled vehicles for lunar and Martian exploration due to reliability, simplicity, and efficiency is observed. However, there is an emergence of alternative wheeled vehicle kinematics, other legged locomotion, and flying, climbing, or hopping robots when these designs confer specific advantages. Summary The engineering maxim "form follows function" is strongly represented within the array of robotic planetary explorer designs. The limitations of an irradiated, dusty, vacuous, remote operating environment which prioritizes efficiency and robust operation often lead to small iterations on working designs because deviations from the status quo are simply not feasible or deemed too risky. Those proposed designs which do deviate have clear justifications driven by their particular environments or intended purpose. Engineers developing future planetary exploring robots for space environments may find these considerations useful.

Exploration of granular physics for three-dimensional geometries interacting with deformable media is crucial for further understanding of granular mechanics and vehicle-terrain dynamics. A modular screw propelled vehicle is, therefore, designed for testing the accuracy of a novel helical granular scaling law in predicting vehicle translational velocity and power. A dimensional analysis is performed on the vehicle and screw pontoons. Two additional pontoon pairs of increased size and mass are determined from dimensional scalars. The power and velocity of these larger pairs are predicted by the smaller pair using the scaling relationships. All three sets are subjected to ten trials of five angular velocities ranging from 13.7 to 75.0 revolutions per minute in a high interlock lunar regolith analog derived from mining tailings. Experimental agreement for prediction of power (3-9% error) and translational velocity (2-12% error) are observed. A similar set of geometries is subjected to multibody dynamics and discrete element method cosimulations of Earth and lunar gravity to verify a gravity-dependent subset of the scaling laws. These simulations show agreement (under 5% error for all sets) and support law validity for gravity between Earth and lunar magnitude. These results support further expansion of granular scaling models to enable prediction for vehicle-terrain dynamics for a variety of environments and geometries.

The Rio Tinto, located in southwest Spain, exhibits a nearly constant, acidic pHvalue along its course. Due to the formation of sulfate minerals, Rio Tinto is considered a potential analogue site for sulfate-rich regions on Mars, in particular at the landing site of the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity, where the ferric sulfate mineral jarosite was identified with Opportunity's Mössbauer spectrometer. Primary and secondary mineralogy was investigated in situ with portable Raman and Mössbauer spectrometers at four different Rio Tinto sampling sites. The two techniques analyse different sample portions due to their specific field of view and sampling depth and provide complementary mineralogical information.

A Lunar Geodesy and Cartography Working Group has been formed by the Lunar Precursor Robotic Program to help coordinate lunar cartographic standards. The purpose, operation, activities, future plans, and support of lunar science are described.

Closed loop systems are traditionally analysed using simulation. We show how a formal approach, namely model checking, can be used to enhance and inform this analysis. Specifically, model checking can be used to verify properties for any execution of a system, not just a single experimental path. We describe how model checking has been used to investigate a system consisting of a robot navigating around an environment, avoiding obstacles using sequence learning. We illustrate the power of this approach by showing how a previous assumption about the system, gained though vigorous simulation, was demonstrated to be incorrect, using the formal approach.

Global Aerospace Corporation (GAC) is developing a revolutionary system architecture for exploration of planetary atmospheres and surfaces from atmospheric altitudes. The work is supported by the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC). The innovative system architecture relies upon the use of Directed Aerial Robot Explorers (DAREs), which essentially are long-duration-flight autonomous balloons with trajectory control capabilities that can deploy swarms of miniature probes over multiple target areas. Balloon guidance capabilities will offer unprecedented opportunities in high-resolution, targeted observations of both atmospheric and surface phenomena. Multifunctional microprobes will be deployed from the balloons once over the target areas, and perform a multitude of functions, such as atmospheric profiling or surface exploration, relaying data back to the balloons or an orbiter. This architecture will enable low-cost, low-energy, long-term global exploration of planetary atmospheres and surfaces. This paper focuses on a conceptual analysis of the DARE architecture capabilities and science applications for Venus, Titan and Jupiter. Preliminary simulations with simplified atmospheric models show that a relatively small trajectory control wing can enable global coverage of the atmospheres of Venus and Titan by a single balloon over a 100-day mission. This presents unique opportunities for global in situ sampling of the atmospheric composition and dynamics, atmospheric profiling over multiple sites with small dropsondes and targeted deployment of surface microprobes. At Jupiter, path guidance capabilities of the DARE platforms permits targeting localized regions of interest, such as "hot spots" or the Great Red Spot. A single DARE platform at Jupiter can sample major types of the atmospheric flows (zones and belts) over a 100-day mission. Observations by deployable probes would reveal if the differences exist in radiative, dynamic and compositional environments at these sites.

The VES is a six DOF position-controlled platform which mimics the motions of the vehicle being emulated. A manipulator is bolted to the top of the platform through an in-line, six DOF force sensor. The force sensor detects the inertial and gravitational forces reflected to the base of the manipulator caused by motions of the manipulator links, and by the interaction of the manipulator endpoint with the external environment. The platform is then servocontrolled to match the motions of the emulated vehicle if that vehicle were to be subjected to the same forces exerted through the base of the manipulator. The design of the mechanical system was dictated by the platform payload and motion requirements, which include the capability of moving up to 1000 pound loads through a workspace of @Math[@PM]12 inches in each of three linear directions and @Math[@PM]30 degrees in three rotations at frequencies of up to 10 Hz. The VES mechanism is based on a Stewart platform configuration, where th...

d Caves on other planetary bodies offer sheltered habitat for future human explorers and numerous clues to a planet's past for scientists. While recent orbital imagery provides exciting new details about cave entrances on the Moon and Mars, the interiors of these caves are still unknown and not observable from orbit. Multi-robot teams offer unique solutions for exploration and modeling subsurface voids during precursor missions. Robot teams that are diverse in terms of size, mobility, sensing, and capability can provide great advantages, but this diversity, coupled with inherently distinct low-level behavior architectures, makes coordination a challenge. This paper presents a framework that consists of an autonomous frontier and capability-based task generator, a distributed market-based strategy for coordinating and allocating tasks to the different team members, and a communication paradigm for seamless interaction between the different robots in the system. Robots have different sensors, (in the representative robot team used for testing: 2D mapping sensors, 3D modeling sensors, or no exteroceptive sensors), and varying levels of mobility. Tasks are generated to explore, model, and take science samples. Based on an individual robot's capability and associated cost for executing a generated task, a robot is autonomously selected for task execution. The robots create coarse online maps and store collected data for high resolution offline modeling. The coordination approach has been field tested at a mock cave site with highly-unstructured natural terrain, as well as an outdoor patio area. Initial results are promising for applicability of the proposed multi-robot framework to exploration and modeling of planetary caves.

This paper develops Grandjean and Lecouat's insight that spacecraft autonomy can be seen as the migration of functionality from the ground segment to the space segment. Their insight is extended to manned planetary exploration missions and applied to an ITbased crew assistant for supporting manned and unmanned Martian operations. The Mission Crew Execution Assistant (MECA) system is seen as a distributed, personal ePartner in a ubiquitous computing environment, designed to amplify the cognitive capacities of human-machine teams during planetary exploration missions to cope autonomously with unexpected, complex and potentially hazardous situations. The paper shows that the autonomy requirements have implications for the MECA system's architecture and functionality.

As human activity threatens to make the planet unsafe for humanity and other life forms, scholars are identifying planetary targets set at a safe distance from biophysical thresholds beyond which critical Earth systems may collapse. Yet despite the profound implications that both meeting and transgressing such targets may have for human wellbeing, including the potential for negative trade-offs, there is limited social science analysis that systematically considers the justice dimensions of such targets. Here we assess a range of views on planetary justice and present three arguments associated with why social scientists should engage with the scholarship on safe targets. We argue that complementing safe targets with just targets offers a fruitful approach for considering synergies and trade-offs between environmental and social aspirations and can inform inclusive deliberation on these important issues.