Petroleum refining and petrochemicals

ulk petrochemical manufacturing is a highly competitive global industry. When margins are tight, manufacturers seek ways to optimize performance and to reduce costs while maximizing yields and revenue. Optimization options include alternative feeds, plant/process revamps and improved operations to achieve better separation and yields to lower energy consumption, to minimize product loss and to decrease maintenance costs.

El fenómeno de la desactivación catalítica es un problema crítico en procesos industriales debido a la formación de depósitos indeseados, como coque, en la superficie de los catalizadores. Este ensuciamiento afecta la actividad y selectividad catalítica al reducir la superficie activa disponible. El estudio discute las principales causas, como la quimisorción de carbono, la acumulación en poros y la formación de múltiples capas. Factores como la temperatura, la alimentación y las condiciones operativas influyen significativamente en la formación de coque, que puede clasificarse en sensible e insensible según su capacidad de eliminación. Además, se presentan métodos para mitigar el ensuciamiento, incluyendo técnicas de gasificación, reformado con vapor y regeneración de catalizadores. También se examinan los mecanismos de formación y desactivación de catalizadores metálicos y de óxidos metálicos, destacando cómo las propiedades del catalizador y las condiciones operativas afectan la naturaleza y los efectos del ensuciamiento. Como conclusión se resalta la importancia de optimizar el diseño de catalizadores, implementar técnicas de regeneración y reducir la formación de depósitos para mejorar la eficiencia y sostenibilidad de los procesos industriales, reduciendo costos y el impacto ambiental asociado al descarte de catalizadores desactivados.

Hot work on live hydrocarbon systems is a critical hazard in the oil and gas industry, necessitating robust process isolation and purging to prevent fires and explosions. This forensic analysis investigates a welding fire in an LNG fuel gas line caused by systemic failures in purging design and execution. The nitrogen purge procedure neglected system complexity, deviated from critical parameters, and lacked real-time verification, allowing trapped fuel gas to ignite. Despite compliance with administrative permits, technical rigor was insufficient. Recommendations include system-specific purging plans, continuous Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) monitoring, and Management of Change (MOC) protocols prioritizing safety over operational convenience.

Production planning is vital to modern refinery operation because of increasing crude prices and changing market demands. In this article LP/NLP is used to simulate the effect of change in crude types on the yields of CDU, VDU, visbreaker, feed and product blender units. Central Composite experimental Design (CCD)and Response Surface Methodology (RSM) are used to obtain a second-degree polynomial model for maximizing profitability of operation of these units.

Background: Oil spillage and gas flaring constitute some of the environmental pollutions confronting humanity, especially in oil producing countries and communities, like those in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. This situation affects aquatic and human lives, with economic, social and health consequences. Amid these consequences, communication scholars are unanimous about the efficiency of framing of an issue such as oil spillage and gas flaring by the mass media on policy making and salvaging of situations. Objective: The study aimed at ascertaining how Punch, Vanguard and Daily Trust newspapers framed oil spillage and gas flaring in Rivers State, from January 2022 to December 2023. Methods: The study adopted content analysis as its research design, thus studying 504 editions of the newspapers selected through composite week sampling. The code sheet served as the instrument for data gathering. Result: The study found that opinions of experts on oil spillage and gas flaring in Rivers State were not given serious attention by the Punch, Vanguard, Daily Trust newspapers. The study has shown that geo-political depiction of Nigerian newspapers does not influence their framing of oil spillage and gas flaring, rather their editorial policy. Contribution: The study concludes that a more scientific approach to framing of environmental pollution in Nigeria has not been given serious attention to by newspapers in the country. Unique contribution: This study provides empirical evidence for understanding newspaper framing of environmental issues. Key recommendation: Nigerian newspapers should place importance on the opinions of environmental experts, as this will ensure that a more scientific approach is taken to framing oil spillage and gas flaring in the country.

Ammonia (NH 3 ) is one of the fundamental raw materials currently in use globally and is the second largest synthetic chemical product. But the production of NH 3 through the predominant Haber process consumes about 3-5% of the global natural gas produced per annum, approximately about 1-2% of the global energy supply. The energy consumption during the synthesis of NH 3 has immediate and long term effect on the global energy reserve and the environment. This paper highlights the potentials of using Nano catalysts during the synthesis of NH 3 with emphasis on reducing energy consumption and green synthesis options. The use of Nano catalysts during the various stages in the synthesis of NH 3 could reduce energy consumption and minimize harmful gas emission, while simultaneously improving the efficiency of the output and production Keywords -Ammonia , Steam Reforming Process, Nano Catalysts, Green Synthesis.

Two gasoline samples were collected from Saudi Arabia petrol station and subjected for studying their quality as liquid fuel. Gasoline samples were characterized and compared by studying their physicochemical properties such as average molecular weight, relative density, percent carbon, percent hydrogen, total oxygen content, and octane number. In addition, it was performed to study the group analysis and detailed hydrocarbon composition of automotive gasoline samples via gas chromatographic (GC) fingerprints as a practical method for quality detection.

1 Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. 2 Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. 3 Center of Excellence in Phytochemicals, Textiles and Renewable Energy, Faculty of Science, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya. 4 Department of Plant Science and Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. 5 Department of Physical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Bomet University College, Kenya.

The effectiveness of bioaugmentation using a consortium of indigenous hydrocarbon utilizing microorganisms in conjunction with NPK fertilization for localized remediation of crude-oil polluted rainforest soil was investigated by subjecting soil to these treatments: soil (S); soil + oil (SO); soil + oil + fertilizer (SOF); soil + oil + fertilizer + microorganisms (hydrocarbon utilizing bacteria and fungi) (SOFM); soil + oil + fertilizer + microorganisms (hydrocarbon utilizing bacteria and fungi) + solarisation (SOFMS). Soil was monitored and evaluated for 120 days for culturable heterotrophic and hydrocarbon utilizing bacteria and fungi populations, and residual total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH). Results indicated that while culturable heterotrophic populations rose continuously throughout the study, hydrocarbon utilizing bacterial and fungal populations increased up to day-90 before diminishing in contaminated soils. Bacterial populations were consistently higher than fungal for all...

The production of light range alkanes with potentials as LPGs was carried out at 1 atm pressure over a range of reaction temperatures using both in situ and ex situ prepared molybdenum carbide supported sulphated zirconia catalysts. The in situ synthesized material formed the best system in terms of stability, conversion and selectivity to desired reaction products, as well as resistance to thermal treatment. This suggests its prospects as industrial material. Mechanistically, the reaction was believed to involved the participation of both the carbide and the sulphated zirconia surfaces via hydrogenolysis and hydrocracking, respectively. Reactions over the carbide formed mainly methane whereas propane and butanes could significantly be obtained over the sulphated zirconia.

Over three decades ago, A. Kayode Coker made a pioneering contribution to the field of chemical engineering with the publication of Fortran Programs for Chemical Process Design, Analysis & Simulation (Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Texas, 1995). At a time when computational tools were just beginning to reshape engineering workflows, this groundbreaking book became the first of its kind to integrate practical Fortran code for chemical process design—distributed on a 5.25-inch floppy disk, and later a 3.5-inch version. It was a bold step into the digital frontier of engineering, earning recognition from the McGraw-Hill Book Club as a landmark publication in chemical process simulation.
The book offered engineers a hands-on approach to modeling and analyzing complex chemical processes, enabling them to move beyond theoretical calculations and into real-world applications. It empowered professionals to simulate distillation columns, heat exchangers, reactors, and other core systems using structured Fortran routines—at a time when such capabilities were rare and transformative.
Now, in a new era defined by Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and data-driven engineering, A. Kayode Coker returns with an even more ambitious and forward-looking project: The Engineering Glossary & Digital Reference for Petroleum, Petrochemical and Energy Transition Technologies, a four-volume set that redefines what a technical reference can be.
This new compendium is not merely a glossary—it is a fully integrated engineering toolkit. It spans thousands of pages of meticulously curated terminology, enriched with:
• ✅ Microsoft Excel spreadsheets for rapid calculations and design modeling
• ✅ Python scripts for simulation, optimization, and data analysis
• ✅ Case studies and worked examples for real-world relevance
• ✅ Process datasheets and conversion tables for field-ready application
• ✅ Online video links to enhance learning and visualization
• ✅ Coverage of sustainability, alternative energy, AI, and machine learning in engineering contexts

Percent Return On Investment (ROI) before tax 27.4% and 20.6% after taxes. The Pay Out Time (POT) before tax is was 2.67 years and 3.27 years after tax. The Break Even Point (BEP) amounted to 53.6% and the Shut Down Point (SDP) of 28.2%. The Interval rate of return (IRR) accounted for 46.05%. From these analysis economy concluded that the plant is profitable and feasible to set.

Importance of research in adopting cleaner production technology and its impact on improving both financial and economic performance, which works to enhance creativity in manufacturing and sustainability, and thus help the economic unit in preserving resources and energy, eliminating losses in production processes and protecting the environment from pollutants resulting from industry. Aim of this research is Increasing productivity, rationalizing costs and time, improving quality, enhancing sustainability, conserving energy, providing a safe and clean environment for workers, reducing the waste of the production process, as well as trying to form a clear vision of the most important problems faced by Doura refinery, reason for its high costs and non-conformity of its products to international specifications, as well as the reason for importing oil derivatives on Although it is an oil country. Problems of this research are High production costs, weakness in financial and economic performance, as well as waste of financial and economic resources, weakness in creativity, continuation with same traditional production methods, and finally, failure to take into account the sustainability of natural resources, energy and environmental pollution as a result of the large number of emissions accompanying production processes. Hypothesis of this research is adopting a cleaner production technology that improves financial and economic performance of Doura refinery, as well as reducing waste and emissions resulting from traditional manufacturing processes. Results If Doura refinery adopts cleaner production technology, (efficiency, productivity, and effectiveness) will be better than it is. Highest percentage is for Hydrogenation of Naphtha, reaching (99%, 99%, 198%) respectively, followed by Refining Stage (97%. 96%, 193%) respectively.

This study discusses the possibility of using corona pre-treated polypropylene (PP) non-woven fabric as a support for immobilization of colloidal TiO 2 and Ag nanoparticles in order to remove dye C.I. Acid Orange 7 from aqueous solution. Dye removal efficiency by sonocatalysis, photocatalysis and sonophotocatalysis was evaluated on corona pre-treated fabric loaded with TiO 2 nanoparticles, corona pre-treated fabric double loaded with TiO 2 nanoparticles and corona pre-treated fabrics loaded with TiO 2 nanoparticles before and after deposition of Ag nanoparticles. In addition, the stability of PP non-woven fabric during these processes was investigated. The substrates were characterized by SEM, EDX and AAS analyses. The change of the dye concentration was evaluated by UV-VIS spectrophotometry. Unlike sonocatalysis and photocatalysis, complete dye removal from both solution and non-woven fabric was obtained already after 240-270 min of sonophotocatalysis. Corona pre-treated PP non-woven fabric loaded with Ag nanoparticles prior to deposition of TiO 2 nanoparticles provided excellent degradation efficiency and superior reusability. Sonophotocatalytic degradation of dye in the presence of all investigated samples was the most prominent in acidic conditions. Although this nanocomposite system ensured fast discoloration of dye solution, TOC values of water measured after sonophotocatalysis were not satisfactory because of PP degradation. Therefore, it is suggested to include TOC evaluation in each case study where different supports for TiO 2 nanoparticles are used since these nanoparticles may guarantee the dye removal from solution but the stability of support could be problematic causing even more serious environmental impact.

Jaggery industries are one of the agrobased cottage sectors in India. Jaggery production involves extraction of juice from the sugarcane and heating it to obtain a concentrate i.e. Jggery or Gur. Sugarcane bagasse and wood are used as fuel in the heating furnace, which is the main source of pollution. The pollution potential of the Jaggery industries was assessed in the present work that is based on the actual measurements at Jaggery industry sites. Two representative Jaggery industries were identified for detailed field studies including the stack emission monitoring. While selecting the representative industries, the production capacity and provisions of emissions monitoring were considered. Measurements were carried in respect particulate matters, sulthur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide. The particulate matter emissions were observed as 751.5 mg/Nm 3 in one industry and 682.5 mg/Nm 3 in other industry. It was also noted that the emission of gaseous pollutants namely, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide from both the industries were low.

There is new trend in the value of oil and gas in the world, with the value of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) soaring higher. It is due to its uses as a potential fuel in the several parts of the world, its demand in the petrochemical industries for plastics and automotive composites productions, and other uses. These results in steadily increases in price. There is also increase in volume of feed gas, which demands efficient LPG processing and recovery technology. This paper mainly focuses on comparative economic investigation options for Liquefied Petroleum Gas plant, which processes feed from natural gas wells and dehydrating units to produce Liquefied Petroleum Gas along with natural gasoline having a higher value as separate product. Recovery of LPG is possible but raises both the initial cost of plant and operational cost considerably. The value of LPG recovered should be high enough to widen the operating margins between the processing costs and the market price for which the recovered liquids can be sold. Therefore, the most economic means of extracting this product must be used. This was done using two alternatives; the Conventional Fractionation process and Single column overhead recycle process (SCORE). Both alternatives were simulated with Hysys and are analyzed based on product recovery level, energy required and fixed capital cost. There are two feeds to the plant, one from the natural gas wells and the other from dehydrating units of natural gas processing plants with a total flow rate of 6.99 MMSCFD. Analysis of result from modeling shows that Single column overhead recycle process has a total product recovery of 97.2 % while Conventional fractionation process has a total recovery of 88.5 %, the require energy margin between the alternatives is about 38.9 % in favor of conventional process and the fixed capital cost is in the favor of Single column process. Sensitive to choosing the most economic option of LPG recovery between the conventional process and SCORE process is the recovery level of LPG from each of the options, total energy required and the cost of the equipment. From the analysis, it shows that, it is more economical to use the Single column overhead recycle process, as compared to conventional fractionation process.

El presente trabajo se basa en el modelamiento termodinámico de la inhibición de incrustaciones para generar una herramienta de cómputo que permita estimar el carácter incrustante del agua de formación, la eficiencia y concentración mínima de los inhibidores, al igual que la fijación y el avance de éstos, para las condiciones específicas del sistema donde se implemente el tratamiento de inhibición. Scale Inhibition CaCO3 es un software diseñado y programado exclusivamente para la aplicación en campos petroleros y es amplio en la predicción, control, tratamiento y manejo de las incrustaciones de carbonato de calcio. Permite predecir la concentración mínima y eficiente de inhibidor necesario para las condiciones específicas de un pozo y seleccionar el inhibidor más eficiente para la aplicación de un tratamiento “squeeze”. También pronostica la cantidad y costo de inhibidor necesario para inhibir, en un radio de acción predeterminado.

This research was achieved in order to allow the study of the chemical composition impact of the coking process load on the efficacy and the quality of coke. For this reason, the coking of the following loads was realized: Atmospheric residue (RAT), vacuum Residue (RSV) and catalytic Residue of cracking (RCC). (The residues are obtained from an Algerian crude oil). As the oil residues are rich for their strongly polar composition, such as the asphaltene resins, and complex structures units (SCU), which has a role in the development of coke, and as the dispersion of these latter progresses the quality of coke, a study on the stability of aggregation was carried out by the accumulation of one stabilizer (oil Extract) in the coking process load. The Compounding (Extracted from /RCC oil) has been derived to the best efficiency of coke. The study consists of the influence.., this is characterized by the analyses Infra-red (IR) and x-ray diffraction (XRD).

Despite associated environmental challenges, the illicit workspace
of crude oil theft and illegal refining also referred to as kpo fire in
Nigeria’s Niger Delta has continually defied all attempts to stop it
by the Government. This is due to the absence of sufficient
legitimate jobs and the incentives that conflict actors get within a
widely established economy of violence. This study examines how
illegal crude oil refining drives the motivation for illicit jobs amongst
youths as a result of the incentives accruing to warlords. To
achieve this objective, the study relies on the qualitative method
and extensive content analysis. It covers two states (Rivers and
Bayelsa) in the Niger Delta given the high incidence of illegal crude
oil refining in these states. 54 Key Persons made up of 5 owners of
illegal refineries, 41 employees of these refineries, 6 government
officials and 4 members of the armed forces, constitute the sample
size. The study employs the purposive and snowballing sampling
techniques to select participants with Key Persons Interview (KPI)
as the method of data collection. Information gathered was
analyzed using the thematic method. The findings reveal that the
illicit workspaceof crude oil theft and refining will continue to
proliferate because warlords who own these illegal refineries are
mostly supported by the government and high ranking security
officers. Also, youths prefer to find jobs in illegal refineries because
the pay is relatively very high when compared to some entry level
legitimate jobs. The study concludes that the skewed reward
system that favours conflict actors provide incentives for illegal oil
refineries to thrive and more youths continue to make inroad into
the illicit workspace because they find it more rewarding than
legitimate work. It recommends that government should make
legitimate workspace more attractive in addition to enforcing
existing laws against oil theft and illegal refining in the region.

The challenge of artisanal petroleum products has been a national issue. Artisanal petroleum products are diesel, petrol (gasoline) and kerosene are obtained from the illegal refineries located in the creeks. Artisan refineries are illegal because they do not have licence and technologies to operate, and physiochemical properties of their products had not been studied to ascertain the quality. Therefore, the study sought to investigate the physiochemical properties of the artisan-refined petroleum products such as diesel, kerosene and petrol (gasoline) in comparison with the imported sample (reference). The investigation was done using ASTM standard procedures. The results of pH readings for reference samples (Diesel, kerosene and petrol) and the artisan-refined samples (Diesel, kerosene and petrol) were 7.5, 5.9 and 7.25 and 6.7, 5.35 and 6.10 respectively. The flash points of artisan diesel, petrol and kerosene were 50,-32 and 39 respectively while the flash points of imported samples of diesel, petrol and kerosene were 48,-228 and 39 respectively. All other physiochemical properties such as specific gravity, API gravity and impurity, Kinematic viscosity, ASTM colour and Saybolt of the illegally refined product showed some variations with those of the reference samples. From the results, it could be deduced that artisan petroleum products had poor quality and did not meet ASTM specification. These irregular characteristics of the illegal products damage engines of automobiles, causes environmental pollution and health hazard to man.

Purpose -Over the last decade, Circular Economy (CE) has gathered interest from both industrialists and academics alike. Whilst CE research is widespread in such areas as supply chain and larger organisations, there is limited research into how small to medium enterprises (SMEs) can prepare for adopting CE. There is no comprehensive readiness model for SMEs adopting CE. The purpose of this paper is to explore the literature on change readiness and generate knowledge to fill this gap by developing a conceptual model to measure change readiness for SMEs' adopting CE. Design/methodology/approach -This study is based on a comprehensive literature review of change readiness models and frameworks. The paper reviews publications from Science Direct, Web of Science, Emerald, Scopus and Google Scholar. The readiness for change models and frameworks from the selected publications are evaluated and synthesised to develop a comprehensive conceptual model for change readiness for SMEs adopting a circular economy. -A readiness conceptual model is developed by incorporating several factors as precursors to readiness, i.e., Individual / collective difference, structural, contextual factors and related barriers. Eleven factors make up the individual / collective difference. Three factors make up the structural and contextual factors. Practical implications -This paper develops a conceptual model that can aid academics and practitioners in better understanding SMEs readiness to adopt CE. Originality / Value -This paper makes a unique contribution by proposing a comprehensive conceptual model of readiness for SMEs adopting CE.

PurposeOver the last decade, circular economy (CE) has gathered interest from both industrialists and academics alike. Whilst CE research is widespread in such areas as supply chain and larger organisations, there is limited research into how small to medium enterprises (SMEs) can prepare for adopting CE. There is no comprehensive readiness model for SMEs adopting CE. The purpose of this paper is to explore the literature on change readiness and generate knowledge to fill this gap by developing a conceptual model to measure change readiness for SMEs' adopting CE.Design/methodology/approachThis study is based on a comprehensive literature review of change readiness models and frameworks. The paper reviews publications from Science Direct, Web of Science, Emerald, Scopus and Google Scholar. The readiness for change models and frameworks from the selected publications are evaluated and synthesised to develop a comprehensive conceptual model for change readiness for SMEs adopting a ...

Slurry phase hydroconversion is a developing technology with the potential to completely upgrade Vacuum Residues (VR). In this work we use data from a continuous pilot plant with recycle to test and extend an existing distributed lumped kinetic model. The new data includes results from 134 steady state experiments with a Heavy Iran VR, including some at very high conversion, and allows sediment production rates to be quantified as well as sulphur removal in the form of H 2 S. The purpose of the work is to study the impact of the deep conversion reaction conditions and feedstock on the reaction kinetics. The model uses nineteen distributed lumps to represent the heavy hydrocarbons undergoing hydroconversion and hydrodesulphurisation with VR defined as the boiling range > 525°C. Reaction rates are based on molar concentrations. Hydrogen consumption and sediment production are taken into account in the model, as well as vapour liquid mass transfer resistances and vapour-liquid equilibrium. Parameter estimation has been carried out and the model provides a good fit with the experimental data. The modelling exercise found that, at very high conversions, thermal reactions give way to a cascade of catalytic reactions. The model gave a moderate fit for hydrogen consumption rates, which are strongly dependent on feedstock. Accumulation of sediment at high conversions was identified and well represented and the description of hydrodesulfurisation rates as proportional to cracking rates was validated.

Iraq is considered one of the oil-producing countries and one of the OPEC members. Iraq has storage equivalent to 11% of the global oil and the average daily production is 3.5 million barrels. In this paper, the highlights of the Iraqi crude oil refining products in the Najaf refinery and their statistical analysis were presented in order to determine the physical properties and quality of the refining process products (Naphtha, Kerosene, Gas oil, RCR, and Iraqi crude oil). The study showed that the API for Iraqi oil is 29.3 and is considered heavy oil, and the specific gravity of Naphtha was within the internationally acceptable standard. As for the average initial and end temperatures of Iraqi gas oil, they ranged from (204.79-359.73) ° C, This is an important indicator of the presence of a high percentage of impurities in Iraqi gas oil. As for the salts, the percentage was 171 g/m 3 in the crude oil. It was also noted that the average percentage of sodium and water in crude oil was 0.272%, which is a high percentage, which affects the quality of the Iraqi product. As for the average flash point of Iraqi gas oil, it was 75.11 ° C, which is an important indicator of the ease of combustion.Finally, this statistical study confirmed that the Iraqi crude oil refining products in the Najaf refinery are of good quality, so this data can be used for various future studies.

Hierarchical zeolites were synthesized by two methodologies, following desilication procedures of commercial zeolites. Starting from USY zeolite (Zeolyst CBV720, Si/Al=15), the effect of the amount of CTAB in the desilication media and the hydrothermal treatment time on the synthesized materials were analyzed. The results showed that the surfactant amount has a higher influence on relative crystallinity (%RC) and textural properties of the materials than synthesis time. All the samples showed a lower BET surface area compared with the starting zeolite, although mesopore surface area increased from 210.33 to 467.30 m 2 /g in the case of Z720-75 sample. In the case of USY zeolite with Si/Al=2.6 (Zeolyst CBV500), a previous dealumination with H4EDTA and an acid washing with Na2H2EDTA steps were included. It was found that the micropore and the mesopore surface areas increased 13.96% and 11.23%, respectively, compared with the parent zeolite; furthermore, the %RC was 99% after treatment procedures.

This study investigated the fouling characteristics of diesel oil using hot-wire test equipment. The diesel oil was electrically preheated to a desired fluid temperature using a heating coil. The fluid entered the test section and swept through a nichrome wire which was supplied with the electrical current corresponding to the desired wire temperature. Fluid temperature of 46 o C for wire temperatures of 200 o C, 250 o C and 300 o C as well as fluid temperature of 63 o C for wire temperatures of 250 o C and 200 o C were the operating conditions for the investigation. The heat transfer coefficients between the diesel oil and the heating coil were used to obtain the fouling resistance as a function of time. Fouling rates were later estimated for all the operating conditions. The result obtained showed that diesel oil fouled heavily and this fouling decreased with increasing fluid and wire temperature. Fouling was very severe for wire temperature of 200 o C and fluid temperature of 46 ...

In the study for ‘Determination of Optimal Parameters for Biodiesel Production by KOH-catalyzed Transesterification of Castor Oil using Methanol’, the effects of molar ratio, reaction time, catalyst amount, reaction temperature and stirring rate were investigated. The values of molar ratio at 1:12, reaction time of 60 minutes, reaction temperature of 65oC, catalyst amount of 1.5 % w/w  and stirring rate of 125 rpm were established as the optimal parameters for Biodiesel yield of 96%.

The properties of biodiesel produced such as moisture content, viscosity, specific gravity, iodine value, heating value, flash point, acid value and ash content were also tested and compared with the EN 14214 and ASTM D5751 reference standards. The produced biodiesel was found to conform in properties behavior with the said reference standards. Result of the properties test showed moisture content of 0.071%, flash point 154oC, heating value 36.72x106 J/kg, viscosity (kinematic) at 400C of 6.56 mm2/s, acid value of 0.29 mgKOH/g, ash content 0.09% by weight, specific gravity at 25oC of 0.862, iodine value of 26.22, cetane number 55.2, cloud point 3.7oC and cold filter plugging point of -16oC.
Moreso, the FTIR diagram of Biodiesel produced in this work has identical characteristics of the graphical expression from ASTM D7571 standard.

The Gas Chromatography fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profile showed several FAME components comparable to a typical FAME mixture of a classical petro-diesel used in internal combustion engines.

In the petroleum industry, still a major problem is the deposition of paraffin wax especially during exploitation in Deepwater field. This study is aimed at characterizing crude oil sample, understanding the characteristic of paraffin wax and testing the solubility of the precipitated wax in xylene and kerosene at different blend ratios. The crude oil sample which was obtained from Eleme community in Niger Delta, Nigeria, was characterized and the cloud point and pour point were obtained as 20 o C and 12 o C respectively. Results obtained from the solubility test shows that 100% Xylene dissolves 99.4% of the precipitated wax in 150 min and 90.1 % in 90 min. While for same quantity 100% kerosene shows solubility of 35.4% in 150 min and 26.2% in 90 min which implies that xylene although expensive is a better solvent for paraffin wax cleanup when compared to kerosene. At different xylene – kerosene blend ratios, the blend of 70:30%, Xylene: Kerosene mixture also gave an excellent resul...

Adsorptive desulfurization of low-sulfur (22 ppmw) gasoline on solids in a liquid-full (no hydrogen) fixed bed was conducted at 503 K. Addition of 3 wt % ethanol to gasoline increased significantly the adsorption rate of sulfur-containing hydrocarbons on Ni/Al-SiO 2 and its sulfur capacity, leading to <0.5 ppmw residual sulfur with a sulfur capacity of 2 wt % (mass of sulfur per mass of sorbent). Three potential routes for improving desulfurization performance of Ni sorbent in the presence of ethanol and its decomposition products containing CO and hydrogen were considered: (i) formation of nickel carbide (Ni 3 C) phase with reactivity toward S-organic compounds higher than that of metallic nickel, (ii) reduction of carbon deposits in the presence of hydrogen, and (iii) formation of nickel sulfide nanoparticles in the presence of H 2 /H 2 S vs adsorbed sulfur/sulfur organics that block the surface of metallic nickel in the absence of EtOH (hydrogen). Catalyst characterization data (N 2 adsorption, XRD, EDX, HRTEM, FTIR, XPS, AES depth profile analysis) indicated that the effect of ethanol on the desulfurization performance was a result of reduction of coke deposition and changing the sulfur uptake mode from adsorption to reactive adsorption with the formation of bulk nickel sulfide phases Ni 3 S 2 and Ni 3 S 4 . This is facilitated by hydrogen produced from the catalytic decomposition of ethanol that participates in the desulfurization of S-organics and in the formation of nickel sulfide phases.

Crude oil washing waste, i.e. COW waste is a washing out residue from the tanks of an oil tanker using the crude oil cargo itself, after that cargo tanks have been emptied. During „COW‟ processing, considerable amount of oil getting into sea, thus causing the damage to sea environment. Exposure to „COW‟ waste causing problems like irritation to eyes, skin and respiratory system. It may cause dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches, confusion, and anemia, etc. „COW‟ waste is difficult to process. It is black in colour and in an emulsion form. A research work shows that after breaking emulsion, when „COW‟ waste is subjected to pyrolysis, it undergoes decomposition to give product with lighter hydrocarbons. Again ASTM distillation characteristics of product obtained shows that the product is in the fuel range.

Naphtha and kerosene are mixed with Iraqi heavy crude oil at different concentrations rounded between (3-12) wt.%, in order to reduce viscosity to enhance its followability. This research investigated drag reduction (%Dr) in heavy oil mixtures at different flow rates (2 to 10 m3/hr) in temperature range 20-50C. The experimental results proved that Naphtha offered 40% reduction in pressure drop. The Power law model was adopted in this study to empirically correlate fiction factor (f) and the percentage of drag reduction(%Dr) from experimental data for Reynolds number range (534– 14695) and the concentration range from 3 to12 wt.%.

Artykuł opisuje muzeum wydobycia i przetwórstwa ropy naftowej które znajduje się w Bóbrce niedaleko Krosna. Muzeum powstało na miejscu, gdzie Ignacy Łukasiewicz, twórca lampy naftowej, rozpoczął pierwsze w Europie wydobywanie i przetwarzanie ropy naftowej. Do tego przedsięwzięcia zawiązana została spółka, która organizowała wydobycie ropy najpierw za pomocą ręcznie kopanych studni (tak zwanych "kopanek"), a potem pierwszych odwiertów. Obecnie te zabytkowe obiekty można zwiedzać - i to właśnie oferuje Muzeum w Bóbrce. Dodatkowo udostępniane są różne historyczne warsztaty i dom Ignacego Łukasiewicza, w którym jest ekspozycja wyposażenia dawnych aptek (Łukasiewicz był farmaceutą).

This research was conducted for the isolation and identification of bacteria from engine oil polluted soil from mechanic workshops in Okija village. Two different mechanic workshops within Okija were selected and soil samples were collected differently based on top soil and depth soil from each site. Then 0.1ml was taken from the dilution 10-3 to 10-6 diluents and inoculated into a Bushnell Haas agar (containing: (g/l) 0.2, MgSO4; 0.02, CaCl2; 1.0, KH2PO4; 1.0, K2HPO4; 1.0, NH4NO3; 0.05, FeCl3; 20.0, Agar and 5ml of fresh engine oil as sole carbon source) and was incubated at 370C for 5-7 days. Spread plate method involving the use of serial dilutions was employed for the isolation of bacteria. The culture was examined for bacterial growth and subsequently cultured the specific bacteria growth on nutrient agar plates with 2ml of fresh engine oil for 24 hours to determine engine oil degradability by the isolated bacteria. The numbers of viable bacterial count were 20, 26, 18 and 28 as expressed in colony forming units per milliliter (cfu/ml). The bacterial count was furthermore expressed in percentage per the dilution factor 10-3; S1Top, S1Depth, S2Top and S2Depth were 21.74%, 28.26%, 19.56% and 30.44% respectively. The bacteria species isolated were Serratia, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas and Bacillus species. Bacillus was the most dominant. There was presence and activity of bacteria species in the depth soil than top soil. The bacterial species isolated were able to degrade fresh engine oil especially Bacillus species. From, the data obtained it was found that depth soil has more presence and activity of bacterial species because there is less disturbance in the depth soil than top soil. Bacillus species and Pseudomonas species are most adapted to conditions present in soils polluted with used engine oil and hence could be exploited in bioremediation activities in cases of accidental oil spillage.

Change management studies have emphasized the significance of an organization’s readiness for change and transformation and have recommended strategies to affect change. Organizational readiness for change is a multi-faceted, multi-level, and multi-dimensional activity; its most important aspect is organizational members’ willingness to accept and implement change because ignoring the human factors may result in resistance and failure. Through its National Transformation Program 2020, the Saudi Arabian government is attempting to effect radical changes in the structure and function of its health-care system to achieve quality care and effective service delivery. The aim of the present review is to discuss the Saudi health-care system’s readiness to change that Saudi Arabia intends to implement by 2020, based on extensive review of different reports, documents, and empirical studies in the field of organizational readiness for change. The study concludes that if organizational readin...

El acelerado crecimiento de la Argentina en la década pasada provocó un fuerte incremento de la demanda de energía. Para satisfacerla, se optó por focalizar la inversión en centrales de generación térmica. Esto trajo consigo un aumento muy importante de la demanda de gas, el cual no fue acompañado por la producción nacional. Así, la importación tanto de gas como de gasoil y fueloil se multiplicó, lo que impactó sobre las cuentas externas y, debido a los subsidios, también sobre las fiscales. El presente artículo analiza el impacto del déficit energético sobre la situación macroeconómica argentina en los últimos años y esboza ciertas líneas de acción para recuperar el equilibrio en la balanza energética.

We are excited to announce the upcoming release of the two-volume set of the Engineering Glossary for Petroleum and Petrochemical Terminology by A. Kayode Coker, scheduled for Q2-Q3, 2025. This comprehensive reference set is an essential resource for professionals in the petroleum, petrochemical, and engineering industries. What to Expect in This Two-Volume Set: With over 4000 pages, this two-volume set is designed to meet the needs of engineers across all disciplines, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, petroleum engineering, process engineering, and project management. It provides an unparalleled depth of knowledge on technical terms, processes, and real-world applications that are critical to success in these industries. Key Features: 1. Comprehensive Coverage: Covering key industry terminology from A-Z, the glossary offers detailed explanations of essential concepts like catalytic cracking, distillation, reservoir management, and enhanced oil recovery. It is designed to be the definitive resource for petroleum and petrochemical professionals. 2. Practical Tools for Engineers: This set includes 40+ Process Datasheets in Excel format, along with Python codes and a Software of Conversion Table, providing engineers with the tools to perform calculations, optimize processes, and solve dayto-day challenges with ease. 3. Advanced Insights for Modern Applications: The volumes also cover advanced topics such as process flow diagrams, thermodynamics of processes, and pinch technology, offering insights into sustainability and zero-emission technologies to help engineers meet today's challenges while preparing for the future.

The design of a diammonium phosphate plant using phosphoric acid and ammonia as raw materials with the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) process with a capacity of 25,000 tons / year, operating time of 330 days / year and 24 hours / day. The purpose of designing a diammonium plant is to reduce the growth rate of imports by 16% and fulfill domestic needs. This diammonium factory will be established in Gresik, East Java. The location for the factory was chosen, namely in Gresik because it is close to the availability of raw materials with phosphate and a location close to the port which can facilitate the product distribution process. There are three processes for making diammonium phosphate, namely the multi stage process, the TVA process (Tennessee Valley Authority) and the vacuum crystallization process. The TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority) process was chosen to design this diammonium phosphate plant. This factory carried out an economic analysis with the source of investment funds coming from 60% of investment costs and 40% of loan capital with an interest of 9.95% per year. Based on the economic analysis, the IRR is 38.4%, BEP 32.7%, and POT 3 years, so it can be concluded that the plant design is feasible to build.

RESUMO A geração de eletricidade tem alta participação nas emissões dos gases de efeito estufa que causam impactos negativos ao meio ambiente. Existem vários métodos para estimar estes impactos ambientais mediante o cálculo dos fatores de emissão, dentre os quais se destaca o método da avaliação do ciclo de vida, que permite estimar os factores das emissões dos gases de efeito estufa advindos da geração de eletricidade. Na presente pesquisa foi aplicada o método de avaliação do ciclo de vida para estimar o factor de emissão dos gases de efeito estufa dos sistemas de geração de electricidade termonucleares do Brasil. Para o efeito, foram selecionadas as usinas Angra dos Reis I e II, sendo que o método foi aplicado mediante uma revisão sistemática com meta-análise, harmonização e processamento estatístico. O factor de emissão foi estimado em 12,17 gCO2-eq/kWh, após triagem dos estudos bibliográficos que permitiu a inclusão de 8 estudos no processo meta-analítico, sendo que 8 estimativas de ciclo de vida foram harmonizadas pelos parâmetros de referência como vida útil, eficiência térmica e fator de capacidade, específicos das usinas Angra I e lI. O resultado permite conhecer as emissões destas tecnologias, reforçar as políticas energéticas e buscar mecanismos que contribuam no melhoramento do desempenho ambiental e da sustentabilidade das termonucleares brasileiras. Palavras-chave: avaliação do ciclo de vida, meta-analise, harmonização, termonuclear, emissões de gases de efeito estufa.

Este artigo tem por objetivo apresentar as fontes de energia que mudaram o mundo ao longo da história e o sistema sustentável de energia requerido para o futuro. Palavra-chave: Fontes de energia, Fontes de energia na pré-história, Carvão mineral, Petróleo, Gás natural, Eletricidade, Energia da biomassa, Energia eólica, Hidrogênio, Energia nuclear, Energia solar, Etanol , Biodiesel e Sistema sustentável de energia do futuro.

There are many people who have contributed in part to the success of the work. Firstly, thanks must go to Basil Chassoulos, who has helped to fix and maintain the laboratory equipment. Secondly to Professor Eric Van Steen, who helped me through many a hard time, when I did not see the light at the end of the tunnel. Also to Dr Ashley Robins, who gave me moral support and more. I would also like to thank the Technikon Witwatersrand and the NRF, as well as Prattley Engineering for financial support and supplying the natural zeolite. Wits University catalysis group and School of Chemistry helped to supply me with chemicals and equipment. Thank you to Mahlanu Nayo, Mtwakazi Ncetezo, and Stembile Goba who were students that assisted me in several of the experiments. To my supervisor Dr A.F.Mulaba-Bafubiandi, thank you for your continual encouragement, friendship and direction, especially towards the end, and to Professor Neil Coville for your expert advice, and assistance. Thanks to Technikon Witwatersrand for reducing my lecturing load. Thanks to African Amines for supplying me with methylamines for calibrations. Thanks to Professor Craig Williams from the UK for supplying me with synthetic clinoptilolite. Thank you all. iii Abbreviations BET-Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller C/N-Carbon to Nitrogen ratio Clino-Clinoptilolite Clinocat 2-Modification of clinoptilolite using acid and base treatment CSTR -Continuous stirred tank reactor DMA-Dimethylamine DME-Dimethyl ether KOH-Potassium hydroxide Lab-Laboratory Me0H-Methanol MMA-Monomethylamine MTG-Methanol to gasoline process MTO-Methanol to Olefin process NH3-Ammonia Re-Reynolds number TCD-Thermal Conductivity Detector TEPA-Triethylpolyacetate TMA-Trimethylamine TPD-Temperature programmed desorption XRD-X-ray diffraction ZSM-5-Catalyst used in the MTG process

This paper builds upon the MILP model developed by Barbaro and Bagajewicz (New Rigorous One-Step MILP Formulation for Heat Exchanger Network Synthesis. Comp. Chem. Eng. 2005, 1945-1976), which allows the rigorous one-step grassroots design of heat exchanger networks. For the retrofit, we consider the cases of addition and relocation of heat exchangers allowing control of repiping costs as well as splitting. While previous works considered area reduction in existing exchangers, they very rarely took into account the associated cost, which we now do. We also add all the costs associated with new shells, area addition to existing shells, relocation, and piping changes. We illustrate the power of the formulation with a small example as well as with a crude fractionation unit. Moreover, we discuss step-by-step changes that allow better planning around turnarounds as opposed to an all-at-once solution. Finally, the model also offers a good level of flexibility that opens room for decision making by the users such as allowing/disallowing splitting, considering area and shell additions only (i.e., disallowing relocation), limiting the number of new exchangers and/or the number of relocations, etc. Various design case studies of a same process example are considered to demonstrate the flexibility and versatility of the model.

While caustic soda (NaOH) is a traditional method for treating contaminants in petroleum refineries, ozone (O₃) can serve as a powerful alternative in several applications, particularly for oxidation and contaminant removal. However, ozone's role differs in terms of chemistry, mechanism, and operational conditions. Comparison of Caustic (NaOH) vs. Ozone (O₃) in Refinery Applications Aspect Caustic (NaOH) Ozone (O₃) Mechanism Neutralizes acidic contaminants via alkaline reaction (pH shift)