Percussive Technology

Social network analysis is an increasingly popular tool for behavioural ecologists exploring the social organisation of animal populations. Such analyses require data on inter-individual association patterns, which in wild populations are often collected using direct observations of habituated animals. This assumes observers have no influence on animal behaviour; however, our previous work showed that individuals in a habituated group of chacma baboons (Papio ursinus griseipes) displayed consistent and individually distinct responses to observer approaches. We explored the implications of our previous findings by measuring the inter-individual association patterns of the same group of chacma baboons at different observer distances. We found a strong positive association between individual tolerance levels (towards observers) and how often an animal appeared as a neighbour to focal animals when observers were nearer, and a neutral relationship between the same variables when the obse...

Despite the common exploitation of quartzites as raw materials during the African Stone Age, petrographic and geochemical characterization studies have been rarely undertaken. The Naibor Soit outcrop at Oldupai Gorge (Tanzania), considered the main source for quartzite procurement in the area, probably represents the exception to this analytical scarcity. Previous studies have determined variability among quartzites and the existence of singular mineral assemblages and geochemical compositions. In this study, we present the first systematic survey and EDXRF characterization of 86 samples from the two inselbergs that conform Naibor Soit. Samples are classified into nine macroscopic varieties and are mineralogically composed of quartz, muscovite, occasional hematite, rutile, magnetite, anhydrite, and fuchsite. Geochemical analyses, which include previously published data, confirm the existence of inter-/intra-outcrop variability and suggest compositional similarities among some areas of both inselbergs. Our study contributes compositional data and elevated predictive values for future archeological sourcing studies at Oldupai. Our results emphasize the necessity of systematic surveying and sampling to fully understand raw material variability and the factors that may have influenced their selection and exploitation.

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), one of humankinds’ closest living relatives, are known to hunt and consume the meat of various animal taxa. Although some researchers have presented indirect evidence that chimpanzees may also prey on tortoises, until now, direct observations of this behaviour did not exist. Here, we provide systematic descriptions of the first observations of chimpanzee predation on tortoises (Kinixys erosa). We made these unprecedented observations on newly habituated chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) of the Rekambo community, living in the Loango National Park, Gabon. The behaviour qualified as customary, that is occurring in most or all adult males, involved a distinct smashing technique, and resulted frequently in food sharing with other group members. Our observations shed new light on the hitherto little understood percussive technology of chimpanzees, and expand our current knowledge on chimpanzees’ dietary and predatory repertoires with respect to rept...

The present work explores the production and functional relationships that may exist between bipolar cores and spheroids in Olduvai Gorge. Percussion experiments have been conducted to determine: if the bipolar technique is an adequate solution to split large and heavy quartz blocks into cuboid-shaped fragments, and in which percussion activities those bipolar fragments are modified from cuboid to spherical shape. In light of the results achieved, it can be concluded that: the bipolar technique is the most efficient technique to produce portable and manageable cuboid-shaped slab fragments, and bipolar cuboid-shaped fragments can be modified to subspherical shape through intensive percussive processes. The associations established between use patterns and functional parameters have allowed us to suggest that food pounding is the most plausible functional context for such shape modification.

We report here on the identification and characterization of thin basalt anvils, a newly discovered component of the Acheulian lithic inventory of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov (GBY). These tools are an addition to the array of percussive tools (percussors, pitted stones and anvils) made of basalt, flint and limestone. The thin anvils were selected from particularly compact, horizontally fissured zones of basalt flows. This type of fissuring produces a natural geometry of thick and thin slabs. Hominins at GBY had multiple acquisition strategies, including the selection of thick slabs for the production of giant cores and cobbles for percussors. The selection of thin slabs was carried out according to yet another independent and targeted plan. The thinness of the anvils dictated a particular range of functions. The use of the anvils is well documented on their surfaces and edges. Two main types of damage are identified: those resulting from activities carried out on the surfaces of the anvils...

This paper outlines a methodology for campaigning on environmental issues at a time when hope is in short supply. Brief consideration is given to the real world context. Current environmental concerns are set within the present economic downturn. Our science is generally much better, and many more players are interested in the environment. There has been a media revolution in the last 10 years, and there are now many more ways of communicating information. The equation ‘Proposal + People + Opportunity = Change’ is explored. The principles elucidated are applied to a case study of ‘The Bee Cause’, a Friends of the Earth campaign. The implications for Christian leaders are then investigated

We report here on the identification and characterization of thin basalt anvils, a newly discovered component of the Acheulian lithic inventory of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov (GBY). These tools are an addition to the array of percussive tools (percussors, pitted stones and anvils) made of basalt, flint and limestone. The thin anvils were selected from particularly compact, horizontally fissured zones of basalt flows. This type of fissuring produces a natural geometry of thick and thin slabs. Hominins at GBY had multiple acquisition strategies, including the selection of thick slabs for the production of giant cores and cobbles for percussors. The selection of thin slabs was carried out according to yet another independent and targeted plan. The thinness of the anvils dictated a particular range of functions. The use of the anvils is well documented on their surfaces and edges. Two main types of damage are identified: those resulting from activities carried out on the surfaces of the anvils...

More than 2 million years ago in East Africa, the earliest hominin stone tools evolved amidst changes in resource base, with pounding technology playing a key role in this adaptive process. Olduvai Gorge (now Oldupai) is a famed locality that remains paramount for the study of human evolution, also yielding some of the oldest battering tools in the world. However, direct evidence of the resources processed with these technologies is lacking entirely. One way to obtain this evidence is through the analysis of surviving residues. Yet, linking residues with past processing activities is not simple. In the case of plant exploitation, this link can only be established by assessing site-based reference collections inclusive of both anthropogenic and natural residues as a necessary first step and comparative starting point. In this paper, we assess microbotanical remains from rock clasts sourced at the same quarry utilized by Oldowan hominins at Oldupai Gorge. We mapped this signal and ana...

The presence of cobbles with activity-related marks in the Mesolithic site of Font del Ros (Berga, Spain), and in particular one group of artefacts e pitted stones e raises problematic issues associated with the characterization of percussion activities. Although these artefacts have generated an extensive bibliography on ethological, ethnographic, ethnoarchaeological and archaeological levels, various questions persist in relation to their possible contextual function. In this paper we present the results of an experimental programme in which three types of activities that could create pitted stones are reproduced: bipolar knapping of vein quartz, hazelnut cracking, and hazelnut grinding. The aim of this experimental programme is to describe marks and use-wear traces related to such activities. Results indicate that pit formation is associated with bipolar knapping activity. However, the description of pitted stones related to hazelnut processing presents problems when it comes to define diagnostic attributes.

In recent years, there is growing interest in the study of percussion scars and breakage patterns on hammerstones, cores and tools from Oldowan African and Eurasian lithic assemblages. Oldowan stone toolkits generally contain abundant small-sized flakes and their corresponding cores, and are characterized by their structural dichotomy of heavy- and light-duty tools. This paper explores the significance of the lesser known heavy-duty tool component, providing data from the late Lower Pleistocene sites of Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Spain), dated 1.4–1.2 Myr. Using quantitative and qualitative data from the large-sized limestone industries from these two major sites, we present a new methodology highlighting their morpho-technological features. In the light of the results, we discuss the shortfalls of extant classificatory methods for interpreting the role of percussive technology in early toolkits. This work is rooted in an experimental program designed to reproduce the w...

Through an examination of Anglican services of Confirmation, both historical and across the Communion, Phillip Tovey argues that there are unresolved tensions in Common Worship's provision. He argues that the case for exclusively episcopal confirmation is weakening. Bishops should focus more on mission and leading initiation of converts and we should let confirmation become a pastoral rite that could be led by a presbyter. Common Worship Initiation Services has been around since 1998. There has been quite a swell of criticism of the baptism rite's length and language. As yet, not much attention has been drawn to the confirmation material. On the surface it looks like the ASB and has often been introduced in parishes with an ASB ethos. I want, however, to argue that the inherent tensions in the initiation provision are a result of an uncompleted baptism debate and that this will fuel a desire for further reform. The way I propose to do this is to begin by looking at models of confirmation in Church of England Prayer Books, then to look at the unresolved tensions in Common Worship, and finally suggest a radical way forward.

Percussive technology continues to play an increasingly important role in understanding the evolution of tool use. Comparing the archaeological record with extractive foraging behaviors in nonhuman primates has focused on percussive implements as a key to investigating the origins of lithic technology. Despite this, archaeological approaches towards percussive tools have been obscured by a lack of standardized methodologies. Central to this issue have been the use of qualitative, non-diagnostic techniques to identify percussive tools from archaeological contexts. Here we describe a new morphometric method for distinguishing anthropogenically-generated damage patterns on percussive tools from naturally damaged river cobbles. We employ a geomatic approach through the use of three-dimensional scanning and geographical information systems software to statistically quantify the identification process in percussive technology research. This will strengthen current technological analyses o...

Unless the world has changed beyond recognition, everyone reading this article will have seen something frightening that is referred to as 'Islamic' in this week's news media. Most readers will also have spoken with Muslims this week, and some will have Muslims in their family or be or have been Muslims themselves. What difference, I wonder, does this make to your study of the Bible? What difference does it make to the sermons that you will be preaching or hearing next Sunday? This article aims to give you a taste of what difference it could (and, perhaps, should) make, by exploring the questions raised by an Islamic context for the reading of particular passages of the Bible.

We report here on the identification and characterization of thin basalt anvils, a newly discovered component of the Acheulian lithic inventory of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov (GBY). These tools are an addition to the array of percussive tools (percussors, pitted stones and anvils) made of basalt, flint and limestone. The thin anvils were selected from particularly compact, horizontally fissured zones of basalt flows. This type of fissuring produces a natural geometry of thick and thin slabs. Hominins at GBY had multiple acquisition strategies, including the selection of thick slabs for the production of giant cores and cobbles for percussors. The selection of thin slabs was carried out according to yet another independent and targeted plan. The thinness of the anvils dictated a particular range of functions. The use of the anvils is well documented on their surfaces and edges. Two main types of damage are identified: those resulting from activities carried out on the surfaces of the anvils...

Experimental work into the use-life of spheroids or chopper forms with dihedral battered ridges have suggested that they are the results of percussive activities such as the extraction of marrow from large mammal bones. A recent study of Oldowan assemblage from the Upper Bed I at Olduvai Gorge revealed an assemblage strongly supporting this interpretation of percussor use-life. We sampled a Developed Oldowan assemblage from HWK W site comprised of 59 lithic artifacts in association with large mammal bones from an intact stratigraphy. The majority of artifacts and faunal remains rested on the surface of an earthy clay layer above Tuff IE (1.83 Mya; see Deino 2012) at the contact with an overlaying volcaniclastic sandstone. This, together with the composition of the assemblage, may suggest that a single behavioral episode is represented at this level. Technologically, the assemblage is percussive in character. Percussors were identified based on the criteria of Schick and Toth (1994) ...

Percussive technology continues to play an increasingly important role in understanding the evolution of tool use. Comparing the archaeological record with extractive foraging behaviors in nonhuman primates has focused on percussive implements as a key to investigating the origins of lithic technology. Despite this, archaeological approaches towards percussive tools have been obscured by a lack of standardized methodologies. Central to this issue have been the use of qualitative, non-diagnostic techniques to identify percussive tools from archaeological contexts. Here we describe a new morphometric method for distinguishing anthropogenically-generated damage patterns on percussive tools from naturally damaged river cobbles. We employ a geomatic approach through the use of three-dimensional scanning and geographical information systems software to statistically quantify the identification process in percussive technology research. This will strengthen current technological analyses o...

Anthropogenic disturbances have a detrimental impact on the natural world; the vast expansion of palm oil monocultures is one of the most significant agricultural influences. Primates worldwide consequently have been affected by the loss of their natural ecosystems. Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascilularis) in Southern Thailand have, however, learned to exploit oil palm nuts using stone tools. Using camera traps, we captured the stone tool behavior of one macaque group in Ao Phang-Nga National Park. Line transects placed throughout an abandoned oil palm plantation confirmed a high abundance of nut cracking sites. Long-tailed macaques previously have been observed using stone tools to harvest shellfish along the coasts of Thailand and Myanmar. The novel nut processing behavior indicates the successful transfer of existing lithic technology to a new food source. Such behavioral plasticity has been suggested to underlie cultural behavior in animals, suggesting that long-tailed macaques have potential to Int J Primatol

We report here on the identification and characterization of thin basalt anvils, a newly discovered component of the Acheulian lithic inventory of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov (GBY). These tools are an addition to the array of percussive tools (percussors, pitted stones and anvils) made of basalt, flint and limestone. The thin anvils were selected from particularly compact, horizontally fissured zones of basalt flows. This type of fissuring produces a natural geometry of thick and thin slabs. Hominins at GBY had multiple acquisition strategies, including the selection of thick slabs for the production of giant cores and cobbles for percussors. The selection of thin slabs was carried out according to yet another independent and targeted plan. The thinness of the anvils dictated a particular range of functions. The use of the anvils is well documented on their surfaces and edges. Two main types of damage are identified: those resulting from activities carried out on the surfaces of the anvils...

We report here on the identification and characterization of thin basalt anvils, a newly discovered component of the Acheulian lithic inventory of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov (GBY). These tools are an addition to the array of percussive tools (percussors, pitted stones and anvils) made of basalt, flint and limestone. The thin anvils were selected from particularly compact, horizontally fissured zones of basalt flows. This type of fissuring produces a natural geometry of thick and thin slabs. Hominins at GBY had multiple acquisition strategies, including the selection of thick slabs for the production of giant cores and cobbles for percussors. The selection of thin slabs was carried out according to yet another independent and targeted plan. The thinness of the anvils dictated a particular range of functions. The use of the anvils is well documented on their surfaces and edges. Two main types of damage are identified: those resulting from activities carried out on the surfaces of the anvils...

In recent years, there is growing interest in the study of percussion scars and breakage patterns on hammerstones, cores and tools from Oldowan African and Eurasian lithic assemblages. Oldowan stone toolkits generally contain abundant small-sized flakes and their corresponding cores, and are characterized by their structural dichotomy of heavy- and light-duty tools. This paper explores the significance of the lesser known heavy-duty tool component, providing data from the late Lower Pleistocene sites of Barranco Leo´n and Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Spain), dated 1.4–1.2 Myr. Using quantitative and qualitative data from the large-sized limestone industries from these two major sites, we present a new methodology highlighting their morpho-technological features. In the light of the results, we discuss the shortfalls of extant classificatory methods for interpreting the role of percussive technology in early toolkits. This work is rooted in an experimental program designed to reproduce the ...

We report here on the identification and characterization of thin basalt anvils, a newly discovered component of the Acheulian lithic inventory of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov (GBY). These tools are an addition to the array of percussive tools (percussors, pitted stones and anvils) made of basalt, flint and limestone. The thin anvils were selected from particularly compact, horizontally fissured zones of basalt flows. This type of fissuring produces a natural geometry of thick and thin slabs. Hominins at GBY had multiple acquisition strategies, including the selection of thick slabs for the production of giant cores and cobbles for percussors. The selection of thin slabs was carried out according to yet another independent and targeted plan. The thinness of the anvils dictated a particular range of functions. The use of the anvils is well documented on their surfaces and edges. Two main types of damage are identified: those resulting from activities carried out on the surfaces of the anvils...

Despite a strong increase in the research on hominin percussive tool use, the primary focus in the study of technological behaviour still lies on flaked stone artefacts, especially for the Middle Palaeolithic. This paper aims to contribute to a more thorough understanding of the full spectrum of homi;nin technological behaviour, by presenting a systematic analysis of ground stone tools from the Last Interglacial Middle Palaeolithic site Neumark-Nord 2/2 (NN2/2) (Germany). At NN2/2, coarse gravel-and cobble-sized pieces (n = 351) were sourced from local outcrops of glacial deposits, with a preferential selection for quartzite and sandstone. Low-power use wear analysis and the archaeological context of these finds provide evidence for the possible use of at least 58 pieces for active (hammerstones) and 5 for passive (anvils) percussive tasks, specifically lithic production and potentially bone processing. These grounds stone tools are larger and heavier than the manuports. The hammerstones were preferentially made of quartz and quartzite, while the anvils are mostly of limestone. The limited build-up of use wear on the tools is interpreted as expedient use. The presence of post-depositional surface modifications, their relatively expedient use and their potential application on
soft contact materials (e.g. nuts) resulted in a relatively low discernibility of the wear.
With expediency being a key factor in Middle Palaeolithic lithic technology, we can
expect comparable patterns for other similar-aged ground stone assemblages. Moreover,
external factors, like geological context and raw material availability, post-depositional
conditions and research focus and intensity, further contribute to the invisibility of such
finds in the Middle Palaeolithic record.

Heavy-duty scrapers are documented as a specific morphotype in ancient African andEurasian toolkits from the Oldowan into the Acheulian. They are characterized by a flatplatform perpendicularly oriented to a carinated edge. The convex surface of that edge dis-plays semi-peripheral, unidirectional removals associated with steep retouch and/or crushmarks. This morphotype has been described from numerous sites covering a long temporalscale and are diversely referred to in French as “rostro-carénés” or “nucléus-racloirs” andin English as “massive scrapers”, “core scrapers”, “large scrapers”, or “heavy end-scrapers”.Morpho-technological definitions and interpretations are reviewed to track the origin andevolution of heavy-duty scrapers over time and space. Results show that tools referred to asheavy-duty scrapers were made on thick cobbles during the Oldowan, and later, at the onsetof the Acheulian, on Large Flakes, while smaller-sized items in Late Acheulian sites assumeend-scraper morphologies. But should all of these tools really be grouped under a singledenomination? Experimental work explores whether heavy-duty scrapers are the result ofknapping processes, or if their morphology could be derived from other kinds of activities.Chronological continuity of the attributes specific to heavy-duty scrapers points to theirrole in ancient toolkits, suggesting that these scarce but ubiquitous primitive implementsare, on equal footing with chopper-cores, one of the oldest morphotypes in the world.© 2017 Acad´emie des sciences. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

The earliest dispersal of humans into North America is a contentious subject, and proposed early sites are required to meet the following criteria for acceptance: (1) archaeological evidence is found in a clearly defined and undisturbed geologic context; (2) age is determined by reliable radiometric dating; (3) multiple lines of evidence from interdisciplinary studies provide consistent results; and (4) unquestionable artefacts are found in primary context 1,2. Here we describe the Cerutti Mastodon (CM) site, an archaeological site from the early late Pleistocene epoch, where in situ hammerstones and stone anvils occur in spatio-temporal association with fragmentary remains of a single mastodon (Mammut americanum). The CM site contains spiral-fractured bone and molar fragments, indicating that breakage occured while fresh. Several of these fragments also preserve evidence of percussion. The occurrence and distribution of bone, molar and stone refits suggest that breakage occurred at the site of burial. Five large cobbles (hammerstones and anvils) in the CM bone bed display use-wear and impact marks, and are hydraulically anomalous relative to the low-energy context of the enclosing sandy silt stratum. 230

We report here on the identification and characterization of thin basalt anvils, a newly discovered component of the Acheulian lithic inventory of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov (GBY). These tools are an addition to the array of percussive tools (percussors, pitted stones and anvils) made of basalt, flint and limestone. The thin anvils were selected from particularly compact, horizontally fissured zones of basalt flows. This type of fissuring produces a natural geometry of thick and thin slabs. Hominins at GBY had multiple acquisition strategies, including the selection of thick slabs for the production of giant cores and cobbles for percussors. The selection of thin slabs was carried out according to yet another independent and targeted plan. The thinness of the anvils dictated a particular range of functions. The use of the anvils is well documented on their surfaces and edges. Two main types of damage are identified: those resulting from activities carried out on the surfaces of the anvils and those resulting from unintentional forceful blows accidents de travaille). Percussive activities that may have been associated with the thin anvils include nut cracking and the processing of meat and bones, as well as plants.

In this article we present an experimental approach focused on bipolar core technology. The main goal is to define the major constraints and parameters faced when identifying the bipolar component of the Early Pleistocene site of Vallparadís (Spain). For these experiments we have used the same varieties of raw materials and blanks as those documented in the archaeological record. The methodological framework applied in the study of the experimental sample is largely based on the most diagnostic parameters recurrently cited in bipolar-related literature: double striking platforms and opposite battering damage. This information has been encoded by grouping blanks, cores and detached elements in morphotechnical types. The results suggest that the reduction process is conditioned by the morphology and fracture consistency of the knapped nodules. Although blank morphology does not categorically determine the final shape of the cores and flakes, there is a clear correlation between them. The most diagnostic parameter for identifying bipolar objects in statistical terms is the presence of opposite battering damage. However, there are many non-diagnostic pieces generated throughout the bipolar knapping process. Hence we consider it pertinent to analyse the archaeological assemblage of Vallparadís according to alternative meth-odological approaches (e.g. morphotechnical types).

Field techniques used in the excavation of archaeological sites are rarely specified in academic publications, under the tacit understanding that fieldwork methods are standardized enough to make their description unnecessary. Although that is probably the case in commercial archaeology, it is however an unwarranted assumption as far as academic archaeology is concern, and neglects the wide range of different field techniques used during archaeological excavations by each research team. In this paper, we outline field methods used by our research group in the excavation of Palaeolithic sites in Spain and East Africa, from the selection of localities for excavation to the digital processing of the resulting spatial and archaeological data. Our aim is to contribute to consolidating a corpus of standard practices in modern research archaeological excavation, whose quality control is essential to guarantee a successful collection of data used for the interpretation of archaeological remains.

Field techniques used in the excavation of archaeological sites are rarely specified in academic publications, under the tacit understanding that fieldwork methods are standardized enough to make their description unnecessary. Although that is probably the case in commercial archaeology , it is however an unwarranted assumption as far as academic archaeology is concern, and neglects the wide range of different field techniques used during archaeological excavations by each research team. In this paper, we outline field methods used by our research group in the excavation of Palaeolithic sites in Spain and East Africa, from the selection of localities for excavation to the digital processing of the resulting spatial and archaeological data. Our aim is to contribute to consolidating a corpus of standard practices in modern research archaeological excavation, whose quality control is essential to guarantee a successful collection of data used for the interpretation of archaeological remains.

In recent years, there is growing interest in the study of percussion scars and breakage patterns on hammerstones, cores and tools from Oldowan African and Eurasian lithic assemblages. Oldowan stone toolkits generally contain
abundant small-sized flakes and their corresponding cores, and are characterized by their structural dichotomy of heavy- and light-duty tools. This paper explores the significance of the lesser known heavy-duty tool component, providing
data from the late Lower Pleistocene sites of Barranco Leo´n and Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Spain), dated 1.4–1.2 Myr. Using quantitative and qualitative data from the large-sized limestone industries from these two major sites, we
present a new methodology highlighting their morpho-technological features. In the light of the results, we discuss the shortfalls of extant classificatory methods for interpreting the role of percussive technology in early toolkits. This work is rooted in an experimental program designed to reproduce the wide range of percussion marks observed on the limestone artefacts from these two sites. A visual and descriptive reference is provided as an interpretative
aid for future comparative research. Further experiments using a variety of materials and gestures are still needed before the elusive traces yield the secrets of the kinds of percussive activities carried out by hominins at these,
and other, Oldowan sites.

Field techniques used in the excavation of archaeological sites are rarely specified in academic publications, under the tacit understanding that fieldwork methods are standardized enough to make their description unnecessary. Although that is probably the case in commercial archaeology, it is however an unwarranted assumption as far as academic archaeology is concern, and neglects the wide range of different field techniques used during archaeological excavations by each research team. In this paper, we outline field methods used by our research group in the excavation of Palaeolithic sites in Spain and East Africa, from the selection of localities for excavation to the digital processing of the resulting spatial and archaeological data. Our aim is to contribute to consolidating a corpus of standard practices in modern research archaeological excavation, whose quality control is essential to guarantee a successful collection of data used for the interpretation of archaeological remains.

The present work explores the production and functional relationships that may exist between bipolar cores and
spheroids in Olduvai Gorge. Percussion experiments have been conducted to determine: if the bipolar technique
is an adequate solution to split large and heavy quartz blocks into cuboid-shaped fragments, and inwhich percussion
activities those bipolar fragments are modified from cuboid to spherical shape. In light of the results
achieved, it can be concluded that: the bipolar technique is the most efficient technique to produce portable
and manageable cuboid-shaped slab fragments, and bipolar cuboid-shaped fragments can be modified to subspherical
shape through intensive percussive processes. The associations established between use patterns and
functional parameters have allowed us to suggest that food pounding is the most plausible functional context
for such shape modification.

The present work explores the production and functional relationships that may exist between bipolar cores and
spheroids in Olduvai Gorge. Percussion experiments have been conducted to determine: if the bipolar technique
is an adequate solution to split large and heavy quartz blocks into cuboid-shaped fragments, and inwhich percussion
activities those bipolar fragments are modified from cuboid to spherical shape. In light of the results
achieved, it can be concluded that: the bipolar technique is the most efficient technique to produce portable
and manageable cuboid-shaped slab fragments, and bipolar cuboid-shaped fragments can be modified to subspherical
shape through intensive percussive processes. The associations established between use patterns and
functional parameters have allowed us to suggest that food pounding is the most plausible functional context
for such shape modification.

Percussive technology continues to play an increasingly important role in
understanding the evolution of tool use. Comparing the archaeological record with
extractive foraging behaviors in nonhuman primates has focused on percussive
implements as a key to investigating the origins of lithic technology. Despite this,
archaeological approaches towards percussive tools have been obscured by a lack
of standardized methodologies. Central to this issue have been the use of
qualitative, non-diagnostic techniques to identify percussive tools from
archaeological contexts. Here we describe a new morphometric method for
distinguishing anthropogenically-generated damage patterns on percussive tools
from naturally damaged river cobbles. We employ a geomatic approach through the
use of three-dimensional scanning and geographical information systems software
to statistically quantify the identification process in percussive technology research.
This will strengthen current technological analyses of percussive tools in
archaeological frameworks and open new avenues for translating behavioral
inferences of early hominins from percussive damage patterns.

Burmese long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis aurea) are one of a limited number of wild animal species to use stone tools, with their tool use focused on pounding shelled marine invertebrates foraged from intertidal habitats. These monkeys exhibit two main styles of tool use: axe hammering of oysters, and pound hammering of unattached encased foods. In this study, we examined macroscopic use-wear patterns on a sample of 60 wild macaque stone tools from Piak Nam Yai Island, Thailand, that had been collected following behavioural observation, in order to (i) quantify the wear patterns in terms of the types and distribution of use-damage on the stones, and (ii) develop a Use-Action Index (UAI) to differentiate axe hammers from pound hammers by wear patterns alone. We used the intensity of crushing damage on differing surface zones of the stones, as well as stone weight, to produce a UAI that had 92% concordance when compared to how the stones had been used by macaques, as observed independently prior to collection. Our study is the first to demonstrate that quantitative archaeological use-wear techniques can accurately reconstruct the behavioural histories of non-human primate stone tools.