Mycology

This study aims to examine the application areas of artificial intelligence (AI)-based technologies in the agricultural sector, particularly focusing on plant protection, drone usage, and digital communication dimensions. In recent years, rapid technological advancements have led to the replacement of traditional farming methods with smart agriculture practices. AI-supported agricultural technologies offer high accuracy in detecting plant diseases and harmful weeds, thereby enabling more efficient and environmentally friendly fertilization and pesticide application processes. Next-generation tools such as robots and unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) reduce the need for human labor in agricultural spraying processes, minimizing both labor costs and health risks to humans. Moreover, these technologies significantly decrease chemical usage and environmental pollution, contributing to sustainable agriculture. In this study, nine academic publications published between 2020 and 2024 were examined through a literature review method. The sample included academic articles, theses, scientific reports, and reliable digital sources, selected based on themes such as disease detection in plants, drone-based pesticide applications, and farmers' access to information through digital communication tools. The review revealed that AI-supported agricultural tools achieve over 85% accuracy in detecting plant diseases and enable a 20-30% reduction in chemical use during pesticide application, thereby reducing environmental damage. Furthermore, it was found that new media tools play a significant role in disseminating agricultural innovations and raising awareness among farmers. The findings indicate that AI-based smart agriculture practices make substantial contributions to the agricultural sector in terms of sustainable production, efficiency, and environmentally friendly approaches.

Alhamdulilllahirabbil'aalamiin, Puji dan Syukur senantiasa dipanjatkan ke hadirat Allah SWT beserta salawat dan salam kepada Nabi Muhammad SAW. Dengan rasa syukur yang mendalam, penulis persembahkan karya tulisan ini kepada: Kedua orang tua, Bapak Ichsan Ali dan Ibu Mukarromah yang selalu mendoakan, membimbing, dan mendukung sehingga penulis dapat menyelesaikan studi. Kakak-kakak, Zuyyina Fihayati dan Alvin Imanullah Ariga yang selalu medoakan dan memberi semangat untuk menyelesaikan studi. Terimakasih sudah menjadi pendukung utama, penyemangat diri, dan penyenang hati. Bapak Burhan Ma'arif Z. A, M. Farm, Apt, bapak drg. Arief Suryadinata, Sp. Ort, dan ibu Dewi Sinta Megawati, M. Sc yang telah membimbing dan mendukung sehingga dapat terselesaikan tugas akhir ini. Kepada bapak Ach. Nashihuddin, M. A yang telah membimbing dari segi keagamaan. Terimakasih sebanyak-banyaknya telah membimbing dan mendukung hingga terselesaikan tugas akhir ini. Kepada orang-orang disekitar penulis yang telah mendoakan dan mendukung serta memberi semangat. Tak cukup kata-kata untuk menggambarkan rasa terima kasih kepada semua orang yang telah mendoakan dan memberi dukungan kepada penulis, harapan penulis hanyalah semoga semua yang telah mendukung diberikan kesehatan dan rezeki oleh Allah SWT. vi PERNYATAAN KEASLIAN TULISAN Saya yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini: Nama :

As a result of our investigations of the Shumen Heights in the period 1998-2012, 878 vascular plant species were identified, belonging to 432 genera and 107 families. Most families (66.36 %) and genera (92.82 %) were presented by a small number of species: from one to four. There were eight types of floristic elements divided into 49 groups. Of the life forms, most common were the cryptophytes (33.26 %). The flora included mostly herbaceous perennials (53.42 %). A total of 418 plants were medicinal (47.61 %). There were 42 (4.78 %) ornamental plants on the territory of the Heights. The antropophytes were 476 (54.21 %). Eighty-six of the species (9.79 %) had conservation status. Three species have been recorded for the first time in the floristic region of Northeast Bulgaria.

As a result of our investigations of the Shumen Heights in the period 1998-2012, 878 vascular plant species were identified, belonging to 432 genera and 107 families. Most families (66.36 %) and genera (92.82 %) were presented by a small number of species: from one to four. There were eight types of floristic elements divided into 49 groups. Of the life forms, most common were the cryptophytes (33.26 %). The flora included mostly herbaceous perennials (53.42 %). A total of 418 plants were medicinal (47.61 %). There were 42 (4.78 %) ornamental plants on the territory of the Heights. The antropophytes were 476 (54.21 %). Eighty-six of the species (9.79 %) had conservation status. Three species have been recorded for the first time in the floristic region of Northeast Bulgaria.

Respiratory samples from cystic fibrosis outpatients were cultured on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SABD) containing antibiotics, Mycosel, and Scedosporium -selective medium (SceSel+). Thirty-two (14.7%) of 218 specimens from 11/69 (15.9%) patients yielded a Scedosporium sp., most frequently Scedosporium aurantiacum (17/218). Scedosporium was recovered on SceSel+, Mycosel, and SABD from 90.6%, 50.0%, and 46.9% of the specimens tested, respectively.

In the present study, we developed a new real-time PCR system based on the cycling probe technology (CPT), which is composed of two single tube real-time PCR assays: the Fusarium genus-specific assay and the Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC)-specific assay with primers targeting the 28s ribosomal RNA gene. The Fusarium genus-specific assay was shown to be highly specific, detecting all reference Fusarium strains with no cross-reaction with other reference fungal strains, such as Aspergillus spp. and human DNA. The FSSC-specific assay also reacted very specifically with FSSC, except for a cross-reaction with Fusarium lunatum. To validate the real-time PCR system, we tested 87 clinical isolates of Fusarium spp. Identification results from the real-time PCR system were found to be 100% concordant with those from DNA sequencing of EF-1α gene. The sensitivity testing also demonstrated high sensitivity, enabling detection of one copy of standard DNA with good reproducibility. Furthermore, both assays were shown to be extremely sensitive even when fungal cells were mixed with human cells, detecting one 3 germinated conidia spiked in 1 3 ml of human blood. To apply our new real-time PCR system to the molecular diagnosis of fusariosis, we evaluated its efficacy using a mouse model of invasive F. solani infection. Plasma and whole blood samples of infected mice were tested using the real-time PCR system. The sensitivity of the real-time PCR system was found to be 100% (4/4 n = 4) in plasma samples. In contrast, no amplification signal was detected in whole blood samples. This system could provide a rapid and precise diagnostic tool for early diagnosis, which is necessary for appropriate treatment and improvement of prognosis of disseminated fusariosis.

Calothrix confervicola Agardh ex Bornet et Flahault (Cyanoprokaryota) -a new possible causative agent of seeweed dermatitis? -M. P. Stoyneva, H. Dobrev & ГОДИШНИК НА СОФИЙСКИЯ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ "СВ. КЛИМЕНТ ОХРИДСКИ" БИОЛОГИЧЕСКИ ФАКУЛТЕТ Книга 2 -Ботаника Том 99 ANNUAL OF SOFIA UNIVERSITY "ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI" FACULTY OF BIOLOGY Book 2 -Botany Volume 99 CONGRATULATION NOTE TO PROF. DRSC DOBRINA N. TEMNISKOVA-TOPALOVA ON OCCASION OF HER 80TH BIRTHDAY It is really difficult in a brief way and in a concise style, as it has to be done in a scientific journal, to describe the various activities of Prof. DrSc Dobrina N. Temniskova-Topalova and her role in Bulgarian algology and botany. This is even more difficult to be done after the detailed and very emotional, touching paper, dedicated to her in the honour of her 70 th birthday. This article, published in a special "Festschrift in honour of Prof. Dobrina Temniskova-Topalova" (2004, Pensoft & St. Kl. Ohridski University Publishing House) and co-written by her supervisor and respected teacher Prof. D. Vodenicharov with two of her students-successors in diatomology -K. Manoylov and N. Ognjanova, with the subtitle "Life dedicated to students" is strongly recommended to all readers, who want to follow in detail the professional and life-time of Prof. Temniskova. Prof. Dobrina Temniskova was borne on November 12, 1934 in the renowned historical Bulgarian town Veliko Turnovo. There she made her first steps in elementary school and there she graduated from gymnasium. In 1952, she started her biological studies in Sofia State University, Faculty of Biology, Geology and

Calothrix confervicola Agardh ex Bornet et Flahault (Cyanoprokaryota) -a new possible causative agent of seeweed dermatitis? -M. P. Stoyneva, H. Dobrev & ГОДИШНИК НА СОФИЙСКИЯ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ "СВ. КЛИМЕНТ ОХРИДСКИ" БИОЛОГИЧЕСКИ ФАКУЛТЕТ Книга 2 -Ботаника Том 99 ANNUAL OF SOFIA UNIVERSITY "ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI" FACULTY OF BIOLOGY Book 2 -Botany Volume 99 CONGRATULATION NOTE TO PROF. DRSC DOBRINA N. TEMNISKOVA-TOPALOVA ON OCCASION OF HER 80TH BIRTHDAY It is really difficult in a brief way and in a concise style, as it has to be done in a scientific journal, to describe the various activities of Prof. DrSc Dobrina N. Temniskova-Topalova and her role in Bulgarian algology and botany. This is even more difficult to be done after the detailed and very emotional, touching paper, dedicated to her in the honour of her 70 th birthday. This article, published in a special "Festschrift in honour of Prof. Dobrina Temniskova-Topalova" (2004, Pensoft & St. Kl. Ohridski University Publishing House) and co-written by her supervisor and respected teacher Prof. D. Vodenicharov with two of her students-successors in diatomology -K. Manoylov and N. Ognjanova, with the subtitle "Life dedicated to students" is strongly recommended to all readers, who want to follow in detail the professional and life-time of Prof. Temniskova. Prof. Dobrina Temniskova was borne on November 12, 1934 in the renowned historical Bulgarian town Veliko Turnovo. There she made her first steps in elementary school and there she graduated from gymnasium. In 1952, she started her biological studies in Sofia State University, Faculty of Biology, Geology and

Calothrix confervicola Agardh ex Bornet et Flahault (Cyanoprokaryota) -a new possible causative agent of seeweed dermatitis? -M. P. Stoyneva, H. Dobrev & ГОДИШНИК НА СОФИЙСКИЯ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ "СВ. КЛИМЕНТ ОХРИДСКИ" БИОЛОГИЧЕСКИ ФАКУЛТЕТ Книга 2 -Ботаника Том 99 ANNUAL OF SOFIA UNIVERSITY "ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI" FACULTY OF BIOLOGY Book 2 -Botany Volume 99 CONGRATULATION NOTE TO PROF. DRSC DOBRINA N. TEMNISKOVA-TOPALOVA ON OCCASION OF HER 80TH BIRTHDAY It is really difficult in a brief way and in a concise style, as it has to be done in a scientific journal, to describe the various activities of Prof. DrSc Dobrina N. Temniskova-Topalova and her role in Bulgarian algology and botany. This is even more difficult to be done after the detailed and very emotional, touching paper, dedicated to her in the honour of her 70 th birthday. This article, published in a special "Festschrift in honour of Prof. Dobrina Temniskova-Topalova" (2004, Pensoft & St. Kl. Ohridski University Publishing House) and co-written by her supervisor and respected teacher Prof. D. Vodenicharov with two of her students-successors in diatomology -K. Manoylov and N. Ognjanova, with the subtitle "Life dedicated to students" is strongly recommended to all readers, who want to follow in detail the professional and life-time of Prof. Temniskova. Prof. Dobrina Temniskova was borne on November 12, 1934 in the renowned historical Bulgarian town Veliko Turnovo. There she made her first steps in elementary school and there she graduated from gymnasium. In 1952, she started her biological studies in Sofia State University, Faculty of Biology, Geology and

Emerging infectious diseases are a well-known threat to the wildlife and require complex research. There is a rapidly accumulating knowledge on the infectious disease of bats (White Nose Syndrome WNS/White Nose Disease WND) and its causative agent – the pathogenic fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans. Although mass mortality of bats, known since a decade, is currently restricted to North America, the pathogen is of global concern as a potential threat to other hibernating bat populations. Therefore fi ve years after the fi rst comprehensive synthesis on the fungal ecology and relevant knowledge gaps (F . 2011), we decided to summarize the published information on the pathogen morphology, reproduction, ecological requirements, geographic distribution and systematic position. In addition, the present review compiles the available data on the aff ected bat species, mechanisms of WND, on the host response and on the eff ective treatment strategies with possible methods for fi ghting the ...

Although the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria is a widely internationally used system for classifying species at high risk of extinction, the micro-organisms are still practically excluded from the appropriately enlisted taxa. The present paper provides a method, which gives means to assess microalgae threat status much more objectively than it was possible before and in this way to achieve quite high degree of generalization in work with this peculiar group of organisms. The method described below uses the widely accepted standard IUCN Red List system of categories, but proposes their assignment on the basis of a complex application of seven criteria relevant to microalgae and classical data, available for them. These criteria can be interpreted in the same way for all taxonomic groups of algae and for all possible territorial levels (local, national, regional, global). The criteria are denominated with Latin capital letters A-G and each of them has a numerical expression with...

The paper presents ethnomycological data on ritual, medicinal, tinder, and kindling usage of mushrooms and lichens in Bulgaria from prehistoric times till nowadays. It is based on the analysis of 17 ethnomycological sources recently available and on the authors inquiries and field trip data from the country made in the period 1986–2015. In total 18 mushrooms and 4 lichens with their usage are enlisted.

Calothrix confervicola Agardh ex Bornet et Flahault (Cyanoprokaryota) -a new possible causative agent of seeweed dermatitis? -M. P. Stoyneva, H. Dobrev & ГОДИШНИК НА СОФИЙСКИЯ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ "СВ. КЛИМЕНТ ОХРИДСКИ" БИОЛОГИЧЕСКИ ФАКУЛТЕТ Книга 2 -Ботаника Том 99 ANNUAL OF SOFIA UNIVERSITY "ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI" FACULTY OF BIOLOGY Book 2 -Botany Volume 99 CONGRATULATION NOTE TO PROF. DRSC DOBRINA N. TEMNISKOVA-TOPALOVA ON OCCASION OF HER 80TH BIRTHDAY It is really difficult in a brief way and in a concise style, as it has to be done in a scientific journal, to describe the various activities of Prof. DrSc Dobrina N. Temniskova-Topalova and her role in Bulgarian algology and botany. This is even more difficult to be done after the detailed and very emotional, touching paper, dedicated to her in the honour of her 70 th birthday. This article, published in a special "Festschrift in honour of Prof. Dobrina Temniskova-Topalova" (2004, Pensoft & St. Kl. Ohridski University Publishing House) and co-written by her supervisor and respected teacher Prof. D. Vodenicharov with two of her students-successors in diatomology -K. Manoylov and N. Ognjanova, with the subtitle "Life dedicated to students" is strongly recommended to all readers, who want to follow in detail the professional and life-time of Prof. Temniskova. Prof. Dobrina Temniskova was borne on November 12, 1934 in the renowned historical Bulgarian town Veliko Turnovo. There she made her first steps in elementary school and there she graduated from gymnasium. In 1952, she started her biological studies in Sofia State University, Faculty of Biology, Geology and

Italy is a Mediterranean country in south-central Europe that has a long tradition in mycology. The mycological journey from ancient Italy to modern advanced studies is remarkable. In this study, we outline historical studies on different fungal groups, mycologists' contributions, fungal collections, illustration techniques, and their development, including traditional and modern taxonomic approaches. In addition, the current progress of mycology is discussed, with an emphasis on plant-associated Ascomycota. Furthermore, a case study was carried out to better understand the occurrence of saprobic Ascomycota on different host plants in terrestrial habitats. We describe a novel genus, Pigmentatineomassaria (Neomassariaceae, Pleosporales), with the type species, P. italica, and another novel species, Alborbis italica (Sydowiellaceae, Diaporthales) as well as 16 novel host records, five new geographical records, two new regional records, and two host recurrent species, from Botryosphaeriaceae, Melanopsaceae (Botryosphaeriales), Hysteriaceae (Hysteriales),

The effect of interleukin (IL)-6 on cytokine production was evaluated in human monocyte cultures infected with the virulent strain of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Pb18). Peripheral blood monocytes from healthy individuals were preincubated for 24 h with or without human recombinant IL-6, and then challenged with Pb18 for 4 h and 18 h. P. brasiliensis growth was assessed by viable fungi recovery from co-cultures after plating on BHI-agar. Moreover, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a), IL-6 and IL-10 production in supernatant cultures was determined by enzyme immunoassay (ELISA). Monocyte preincubation with IL-6, and challenged with Pb18 for 4 h, led to significantly higher fungi recovery compared to non-treated co-cultures. The pretreatment of monocytes with IL-6 induced an inhibitory effect on TNF-a and IL-10 production during 18 h fungal infection. Otherwise, an autocrine stimulatory effect on IL-6 production was detected at 4 h and 18 h as represented by an elevation in IL-6 levels. The reduction in TNF-a levels and stimulation of IL-6 production induced by previous IL-6 treatment might be responsible for a significant increase in fungal growth in human monocytes. The results suggest that IL-6, by exerting a modulatory effect on cytokines production, makes monocyte more permissive for fungal growth.

Production, purification and characterisation of a black pigment from Termitomyces albuminosus as melanin is reported, for the first time, from shaken submerged culture condition using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), elemental analysis, ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS), and Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and 13 C (CP/ MAS) NMR spectra. SEM results on T. albuminosus revealed nanogranular nature of melanin nanoparticles within size range of 400-100 nm with fractal dimension D = 1.195-1.73. Elemental analysis of melanin indicated 54.6% C, 3.5% H, 2.4% N, 26.9% O, and 12% S. UV-VIS and FTIR spectra confirmed to the characteristic of melanin and were identical to the reference commercial sepia melanin. Further validation of the identity of pigment as melanin was achieved by EPR analysis. Termitomyces albuminosus melanin is postulated to be DOPA-type melanin confirmed by 13 C (CP/MAS) NMR spectral analysis showing chemical shift at 200-170 ppm carbonyl, 160-110 ppm aromatic region, and with high 40-30 ppm open chain aliphatic region. Chemical modification through oxidation and cysteinylation (Pheomelanin) is implied as indicated by relatively high sulphur content (12%).

Pythiosis is a rare infectious disease caused by Pythium insidiosum, which typically occurs in tropical and subtropical regions. The high mortality rate may be in consequence of the lack of diagnosis. The objective of this study was to evaluate reliability of a new single-tube nested PCR for detection of P. insidiosum DNA. A total of 78 clinical isolates of various fungi and bacteria, 106 clinical specimens and 80 simulated positive blood samples were tested. The developed primer pairs CPL6-CPR8 and YTL1-YTR1 are located on 18S subunit of the rRNA gene of P. insidiosum. The specificity, negative and positive predictive values were 100, 100 and 87.5 %, respectively, as compared with direct microscopy and cultivation. The detection limit of the single-tube nested PCR was 21 zoospores corresponding to 2.7 pg of the DNA. The results demonstrate that the new single-tube nested PCR offers a highly sensitive, specific and rapid genetic method for detecting P. insidiosum.

We registered for first time the use of Fistulinella wolfeana as an edible species in the Otomi communities of Tesquedó, Xajay and Tenasdá, in Amealco de Bonfil, Querétaro, México, which is part of the natural resources used during the rainy season. In addition, this species is widely distributed in the Volcanic Transmexican Belt, and it has the potential to be used as non-timber resource. The nutritional value for fresh, as well as dried samples, is described. Additionally, it has high antioxidant activity, reaching almost 90% of inhibition in 1:10 dilutions of methanolic extract, comparable with values for other members of the Boletaceae family.

Fungi have multiple uses in temperate areas of México, but an important decrease in the traditional knowledge of uses and customs of mushrooms becomes a fundamental issue for fungi conservation. However, only few studies quantify the traditional ethnomycological knowledge in México, and this study is the first quantitative report for Querétaro, a central state with both Otomí and Mestizo communities and a high fungi diversity. The present study was conducted registering traditional knowledge on the use and consumption of mushrooms in three Hñähñu (Otomí) communities (Tesquedó, Xajay, and Tenasdá) in Amealco de Bonfil, Querétaro, México, between August 2013 and November 2014. We conducted a stratified sampling, where uses common Hñähñu and Spanish names, and eight quantitative variables that conform the "Edible Mushrooms Cultural Significant Index" (EMCI) were recorded from 100 informants. For the classification and ordination analysis of species and uses, we used multivari...

The genus Trichoderma contains fungi with high relevance for humans, with applications in enzyme production for plant cell wall degradation and use in biocontrol. Here, we provide a broad, comprehensive overview of the genomic content of these species for "hot topic" research aspects, including CAZymes, transport, transcription factors, and development, along with a detailed analysis and annotation of less-studied topics, such as signal transduction, genome integrity, chromatin, photobiology, or lipid, sulfur, and nitrogen metabolism in T. reesei, T. atroviride, and T. virens, and we open up new perspectives to those topics discussed previously. In total, we covered more than 2,000 of the predicted 9,000 to 11,000 genes of each Trichoderma species discussed, which is >20% of the respective gene content. Additionally, we considered available transcriptome data for the annotated genes. Highlights of our analyses include overall carbohydrate cleavage preferences due to the...

In this study, we evaluated stand status, dendrometric variables, and fruit production of Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) trees growing in bushland and farmland-use types in dryland areas of Ethiopia. The vegetation survey was conducted using the point-centered quarter method. The fruit yield of 54 trees was also evaluated. Tree density and fruit production in ha were estimated. There was a significant difference in Tamarind tree density between the two land-use types (p = 0.01). The mean fruit yield of farmland trees was significantly higher than that of bushland trees. However, Tamarind has unsustainable structure on farmlands. Differences in the dendrometric characteristics of trees were also observed between the two land-use types. Predictive models were selected for Tamarind fruit yield estimations in both land-use types. Although the majority of farmland trees produced <5000 fruit year−1, the selection of Tamarind germplasm in its natural ranges could improve production. Th...

Mucormycosis or black fungus is a complication caused by a fungal infection. People catch mucormycosis by coming in contact with the fungal spores in the environment. It can also develop on the skin after the fungus enters the skin through a cut, scrape, burn, or other types of skin trauma. Black fungus also called COVID-associated mucormycosis, is a fungus infection in the nose which results from COVID-19. The condition is a type of mucormycosis, which is a fungus infection causing a nasal infection. The condition is rare. A systematic review of research in May 2021 identified 8 cases. The most common risk factor among patients was diabetes. Patients developed the condition after hospitalization. 7 of the 8 patients died from the condition. Early aggressive treatment may be more effective than waiting. In general any mucormycosis has a mortality rate of 54%.

Agriculture is a vital sector in India's economy, but the escalating demand for food has caused significant environmental challenges, particularly due to the incineration of agricultural residues. Annually, India produces approximately 500-550 million tons of such waste, with around 85 million tons burned, contributing to air pollution and climate change. This paper explores how mushroom farming utilizing agricultural waste as a substrate could serve as a sustainable and effective solution. Mushrooms, rich in nutrients, can grow on various waste materials, offering farmers an additional income stream while simultaneously reducing waste and environmental impact. By repurposing agricultural residues, mushroom cultivation supports a circular economy and enhances food security by introducing nutritious options into diets. Future research should focus on optimizing growth techniques and investigating mushroom properties to improve yield and sustainability. Integrating mushroom farming into conventional agriculture could help combat food shortages and promote rural development, providing economic and environmental benefits.

Antecedentes. Las onicomicosis son un grupo de afecciones ungueales causadas por dermatofitos, levaduras y hongos no dermatofitos, que pueden confundirse con otras onicopatias. Objetivos. 1. Aislar e identificar los hongos presentes en unas de manos y pies en un grupo de pacientes con infeccion por VIH que presenten lesiones compatibles con onicomicosis. 2. Comparar estos hallazgos con la microbiota presente en pacientes tambien VIH positivos pero que no evidencien clinica de onicomicosis. 3. Evaluar la asociacion entre la afectacion ungueal y diversas variables propias de la patologia de base, como la cantidad de celulas CD4, carga viral, terapia antirretroviral y otras comorbilidades. Materiales y metodos. En este estudio descriptivo, prospectivo, observacional, se evaluaron pacientes con y sin lesiones ungueales. Se observo el grado de afectacion y se tomaron muestras de escamas de unas, sometiendolas a analisis micologico de rutina. Resultados. Se observo mayor frecuencia de oni...

The experiment was carried out to study the effect of Meloidogyne graminicola on growth and biochemical parameters of rice, Oryza sativa cv. Uma under green house conditions by inoculating with different inoculum levels i.e., 0 (uninoculated), 100, 500, 1000, 5000 and 10,000 second stage juveniles per pot. With the increase in inoculum levels of M. graminicola, there was a progressive decrease in growth and biochemical characters of the crop. Significant reduction in plant height, fresh weight of plant, dry weight of shoot and root, chlorophyll, protein and starch content of grain at 500 J 2, Beyond this level the damage is stagnating and even at 20 times higher level the plant survives till maturity.

Two endophytic fungi, namely, Curvularia lunata and Nigrospora sphaerica, were isolated from Melia azedarach, an exotic tree introduced in Egypt from Asia. The fungal endophytes were identified by microscopic examination and molecular identification of nucleotide sequence by DNA sequencing of the purified PCR product. Their antagonistic activities against phytopathogenic fungi and their ability to produce important growth hormone and providing some necessary nutrients for plant growth were also evaluated. Both endophytes exhibited antagonistic activities: C. lunata caused 56 and 50% growth inhibition of Alternaria solani and Fusarium oxysporum, while N. sphaerica suppressed both pathogenic fungi by 63.4 and 56.6%, respectively. N. sphaerica was able to dissolve insoluble phosphorus, produce ammonia, and secrete 40 μg mL of IAA. In contrast, C. lunata failed to dissolve phosphorus, secreted less amount of IAA (3 μg mL), but produced ammonia. A greenhouse pot experiment was conducted ...

Calothrix confervicola Agardh ex Bornet et Flahault (Cyanoprokaryota) -a new possible causative agent of seeweed dermatitis? -M. P. Stoyneva, H. Dobrev & ГОДИШНИК НА СОФИЙСКИЯ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ "СВ. КЛИМЕНТ ОХРИДСКИ" БИОЛОГИЧЕСКИ ФАКУЛТЕТ Книга 2 -Ботаника Том 99 ANNUAL OF SOFIA UNIVERSITY "ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI" FACULTY OF BIOLOGY Book 2 -Botany Volume 99 CONGRATULATION NOTE TO PROF. DRSC DOBRINA N. TEMNISKOVA-TOPALOVA ON OCCASION OF HER 80TH BIRTHDAY It is really difficult in a brief way and in a concise style, as it has to be done in a scientific journal, to describe the various activities of Prof. DrSc Dobrina N. Temniskova-Topalova and her role in Bulgarian algology and botany. This is even more difficult to be done after the detailed and very emotional, touching paper, dedicated to her in the honour of her 70 th birthday. This article, published in a special "Festschrift in honour of Prof. Dobrina Temniskova-Topalova" (2004, Pensoft & St. Kl. Ohridski University Publishing House) and co-written by her supervisor and respected teacher Prof. D. Vodenicharov with two of her students-successors in diatomology -K. Manoylov and N. Ognjanova, with the subtitle "Life dedicated to students" is strongly recommended to all readers, who want to follow in detail the professional and life-time of Prof. Temniskova. Prof. Dobrina Temniskova was borne on November 12, 1934 in the renowned historical Bulgarian town Veliko Turnovo. There she made her first steps in elementary school and there she graduated from gymnasium. In 1952, she started her biological studies in Sofia State University, Faculty of Biology, Geology and

Mycoprotein, a sustainable protein source, can be produced from various substrates using fungi like Pleurotus ostreatus. This study optimized substrate and fermentation conditions for mycoprotein production from P. ostreatus cultivated on sugarcane straw and cassava peels. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to investigate the effects of substrate ratio, temperature, pH, and moisture on mycoprotein yield and quality. The results showed that a substrate ratio of 72:28 sugarcane straw to cassava peels, temperature of 23°C, pH 6.2, and moisture content of 68% yielded the highest mycoprotein production. The optimized conditions resulted in a mycoprotein yield of 47.2% with a protein content of 65.1%. The mycoprotein produced had a balanced amino acid profile and potential applications in food products. This study demonstrates the potential of sugarcane straw and cassava peels as substrates for mycoprotein production and provides insights into optimizing fermentation conditions.

This study describes a new species in Amanita sect. Caesareae from Quercus (oak) habitats throughout much of the southeastern US. Amanita angelica sp. nov. is distinguished morphologically from others in the section by the combination of the scarlet red pileus that fades to tawny at the center and light yellow towards the margin, the light creamcolored lamellae (not yellow), the yellow annulus and white-to yellowish-tinged stipe, and the white volva that becomes noticeably gray in patchy areas. An ITS phylogeny supports the unique phylogenetic placement of A. angelica where it is nested in a strongly supported clade including at least 10 other species of Amanita sect. Caesareae. The phylogeny supports the distinction of A. angelica apart from other named eastern North American species such as A. arkansana and A. jacksonii.

Introduction Curcumin [1, 7-bis (4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1, 6-heptadiene-3, 5-dione] is the principal curcuminoid in turmeric which is the cause of its bright yellow colour. It is a carotenoid that can be extracted from the rhizomes of the plant Curcuma longa that changes colour in alkaline conditions or high pH solution . Curcumin is an effective scavenger of many reactive oxygen species (ROS) including hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions which explains its antioxidant properties . Curcumin also shows promising potential in correcting cystic fibrosis. Although the test was only observed in animals, specifically baby hamsters' kidney cells, the research showed that through oral administration, curcumin induced the functional appearance of AF508 CTFR protein which is the affected protein in cystic fibrosis . Curcumin is industrially produced using oleoresin of turmeric as the raw material. Even the by-products that are produced from the isolation of curcumin have been tested and proven to have antibacterial activities against a range of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria which include Bacillus cereus, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa . A study using size exclusion The ginger family (Zingiberaceae) includes plants with a distinct smell and taste that are commonly used as spices in the kitchen, but also in a variety of industries (pharmaceutical, medical, and cosmetic) due to their demonstrated biological activity. This study describes the antibacterial activity of curcumin extracts from selected species of the Zingiberaceae family namely "temu emas" (Curcuma zeodoria). "temu kunci" (Curcuma manga), "temu pauh" (Curcuma amada), "lempoyang" (Zingiber zerumbit) and "cekur" (Kaempferia galangal). Extracts of these compounds were studied on Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Escherichia coli (ATCC 35218), Salmonella typhimurium (ATCC 14028), Candida albicans (ATCC 10231) and Aspergilus brasiliensis (ATCC 16404). Turbidity is taken as an indication of growth, thus the lowest concentration, which remains clear after macroscopic evaluation is taken as the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). In conclusion, amongst the studied members of Zingiberaceae, temu emas curcumin natural pigment extracts showed the best antibacterial activities against E. coli ATCC 35218 (2 µg / µL), S. typhimurium ATCC 14028 (2 µg / µL), C. albicans ATCC 10231 (2 µg / µL), A. brasiliensis ATCC 16404 (2 µg / µL) and S. aureus ATCC 25923 (3 µg / µL). The outcome of this research will be contributing towards new natural carotenoid pigment sources as potential active pharmaceutical ingredients which can be beneficial to halal healthpromoting products industry.

The physicochemical, microbiological and biochemical characteristics of wetland soils in the Eket Local Government Area were studied between March 2019 to February 2021. Soil samples were collected at depths of 0-15cm and 15-30cm and analyzed for physicochemical, Microbiological and Biochemical properties. Laboratory data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis. The results showed that sand particles dominated the particle size distribution, of the entire wetland soils, while silt and clay were very low. Chemical analysis revealed that the mean pH obtained was 6.2 ± 0.2, 6.45 ± 0.07, and 6.60 ± 0.14 for Ntak Inyang, Etebi, and Ekpene Obo wetland soils respectively. Similarly, the highest organic matter was obtained in Ekpene Obo (6.96 ± 0.74%) followed by Ntak Inyang (6.58 ± 2.69%), while Etebi had the least (4.89 ± 1.77%). The highest total nitrogen was obtained in Ekpene Obo (0.17 ± 0.02%), followed by Ntak Inyang (0.16 ± 0.07%) and Etebi having the least with (0.12 ± 0.04%). Ntak Inyang wetland soils had the highest biomass carbon (1.58 ± 00 µg-1) followed by Etebi (1.37 ± 0.44 µg-1), and Ekpene Obo the least (1.01 ± 00 µg-1). The highest biomass of Nitrogen was obtained in soils of Ekpene Obo (0.4 ± 0.01 µg-1) followed by Ntak Inyang (0.02 ± 0.02 µg-1) while soils of Etebi had the least (0.03 ± 0.01 µg-1). The Pearson correlation matrix showed that moisture content had a strong and negative relationship with bulk density (r =-0.69), while base saturation correlates positively with total nitrogen (r=0.681). Urease had a strong, and positive relationship with catalase (r=0.734), whereas bacteria relate negatively with total N (r=-0.801), and B.S (r=-0.781), but positively with catalase (r=-0.698). The negative correlation observed in most of the soil properties is a result of the low decomposition of organic matter in wetland soils, because anaerobic bacteria operate at a much slower energy level than aerobic bacteria, decomposition proceeds much more slowly in anaerobic and oxygen-limited environments such as wetlands.

This paper explores the intersection of spirituality and climate ethics, arguing that spiritual practices-especially meditation-can serve as complementary tools to conventional climate strategies. Rather than replacing scientific approaches, spiritual frameworks offer behavioral and ethical dimensions that support ecological sustainability. Drawing on traditions such as Vedic philosophy and contemporary eco-psychology, the paper examines the potential for spiritual practices to foster environmental consciousness and systemic change.

The authors discovered a new population of Hieracium lucidum Guss., a species hitherto considered strictly endemic to Monte Gallo. Useful elements for the ecological characterisation of the new population are provided. The stretch of carbonate coastline between the Egadi Islands and the western portion of the Province of Palermo displays a very high wealth of valuable floristic elements and represents an unicum in terms of both phytogeography and ecology. Considering the extreme fragmentation of the distribution pattern of many endemic and exclusive species that characterise this district, as in the case of H. lucidum, the authors suggest upgrading the strategies to protect the local botanical heritage, going beyond the species approach and thinking on a wider territorial scale. Izvleček Avtorji so odkrili novo populacijo vrste Hieracium lucidum Guss., ki so jo dosedaj za območje Monte Gallo obravnavali kot ozko endemično. Za ekološki opis nove populacije so prikazali pomembne značilnosti. Odsek karbonatne obale med Egadskimi otoki in zahodnim delom province Palermo kaže zelo veliko bogastvo dragocenih florističnih elementov in predstavlja posebnost tako v fitogeografskem kot ekološkem smislu. Glede na izjemno razdrobljenost vzorca razširjenosti številnih endemičnih in posebnih vrst, ki so značilne za to območje, kot v primeru H. lucidum, avtorji predlagajo nadgradnjo strategij za zaščito lokalne botanične dediščine, ki presegajo vrstni pristop in upoštevajo širši teritorialni obseg.

This study explores the development and market potential of oyster mushroom loaf bread, an innovation by the Mushroom Research and Production Center (MRPC) at Laguna State Polytechnic University (LSPU) Siniloan Campus. As part of the Center's commitment to sustainability, mushroom powder-a flagship product-was integrated into a loaf bread formulation to enhance nutritional value and diversify product offerings. The objectives included (1) creating a market-standard mushroom loaf bread, (2) analyzing buying and consumption behaviors, (3) assessing acceptability in terms of appearance, texture, aroma, taste, packaging, and labeling, (4) evaluating the market potential of mushroom powder, and (5) examining the relationship between demographics and loaf acceptability. Using a descriptive research design, data were collected from 100 respondentsincluding teachers, administrators, students, bakers, and vendors-through simple random sampling. Results indicated that a 10% mushroom powder formulation yielded a loaf with a balanced flavor profile and desirable crumb texture, closely resembling traditional wheat bread. Oyster mushrooms demonstrated strong familiarity among respondents, with 96% being aware of the commodity. Loaf bread consumption was also high, with most respondents purchasing bread weekly from local bakeries. The mushroom loaf received high acceptability scores, particularly for appearance (mean=4.03), while taste (mean=3.65) was slightly less favored due to the distinct mushroom flavor. The market potential of the product suggested that a 50-60-peso price range would be suitable for market entry, targeting Siniloan, Laguna, as an ideal launch location due to its supportive demographic profile. Meanwhile, a significant correlation was observed between age and acceptability, with younger respondents showing a higher preference for packaging, labeling, and size, indicating a particular sensitivity to product presentation. It is recommended that further studies explore variations in mushroom powder concentration and flavor enhancements to optimize taste, alongside targeted marketing strategies to attract younger consumers and health-conscious buyers in niche markets.

Nature has made different barriers of defense in human beings including micro biota. More than 500 species of microbes has been isolated so far in normal gut flora. These microbes play a key role in colonization resistance against invading pathogens. C. albicanss, part of normal micro biota is an opportunistic pathogen. In conditions when normal flora is in its balance state, over growth of any of the specific microbe is repressed. Once this balance is overturned then superinfection of any of the species may take place. C. albicans overgrowth takes place in the absence of unbalance micro biota(Samantha Payne, 2003).Among microbial diseases, fungal diseases are emerging rapidly especially in last twenty five years. Candida International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 4 Number 3 (2015) pp. 1067-1072 http://www.ijcmas.com

As known well, the number of the microscopical fungi spores suspended in the atmosphere varies within a range from 20.000 to 2 million and they cause allergic reactions including asthma at some inhabitants. Some of the recent studies on those aerospores found in Turkey focused on identification of the spores collected using different methods. Gravimetric and volumetric methods were used for this purpose. Two procedures such as petri plate gravitational method and Durham trap are used in gravimetric method, while Burkard or Lanzoni traps are used in volumetric method. Some genera (Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus, Alternaria, Mycelia and Scrohulariopsis) were observed dominantly using by petri plate gravitational method in some cities; Ankara, Edirne, Eskisehir, Isparta, Istanbul, Izmir, Manisa, Samsun and Trabzon. The samples collected in Aksaray, Antalya, Burdur, Bursa, Cankiri, Duzce, Eskisehir, Karabuk, Sivas and Zonguldak provinces were surveyed by Durh...

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into plant pathogen detection is transforming agricultural practices by enabling more efficient, accurate, and scalable disease management solutions. Traditional diagnostic methods, while effective, often require significant time, expertise and laboratory resources, limiting their application in large-scale and real-time scenarios. AI-powered innovations, including machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL) and computer vision, are revolutionizing the detection and diagnosis of plant diseases. These technologies analyze vast datasets from sources such as highresolution imaging, genomic sequences, environmental sensors, and remote sensing platforms to identify pathogens with unprecedented precision. AI-driven tools, such as mobile-based diagnostic apps, autonomous drones, and predictive modeling systems, empower farmers and agricultural stakeholders with real-time insights into disease outbreaks and progression. Additionally, AI enhances the interpretation of metagenomic data, facilitating the identification of novel and unculturable pathogens. This paper explores the transformative potential of AI in plant pathogen detection, highlighting its contributions to sustainable agriculture, early disease management, and food security. It also addresses challenges such as data availability, model reliability, and ethical considerations, paving the way for future advancements in AI-driven plant pathology.

Our objective was to isolate and characterize indigenous bacteria able to use 2,4-D as a sole carbon (C) and energy source from an agricultural soil in the Sauce Grande River basin (Argentina). Culturable-dependant and molecular methods combined were used to identify and characterize putatively dominant indigenous degrading bacteria. Physiological traits, chloride release and biomass production showed the degradative capacity of the isolates obtained and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to corroborate the evidence. Degrading genes (tfdA and tfdB) were detected in all isolates, and their restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) were analyzed. Altogether, our results suggest that agricultural use of 2,4-D at recommended level leads to selection for a copiotrophic degrading population. The dominant genus able to metabolize 2,4-D in this soil was identified as Cupriavidus by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and the RFLP profiles of all isolates resembled that of Cupriavidus necator JMP134, the model organism for 2,4-D degradation. The strain EMA-G showed a remarkable performance in herbicide degradation (100 % removal in <1 day) in pure culture and is a favorite candidate for future biodegradation experiments.

Los hongos poliporoides son excelentes descomponedores de la madera, aunque también hay ectomicorrizógenos; su importancia ecológica radica en que ayudan a mantener el equilibrio del ciclo del carbono en la naturaleza. Además presentan potencial biotecnológico dadas sus características nutrimentales, medicinales y degradadoras, por su capacidad de producir metabolitos secundarios y ser potencialmente cultivables. Se analiza la importancia del impacto ambiental en los ecosistemas de la subcuenca del río Metztitlán y la diversidad de este grupo de hongos asociados a ellos. Se revisaron ejemplares de herbario y se realizaron exploraciones micológicas en 13 comunidades vegetales de 11 municipios, y 37 localidades de la zona de estudio. Se determinaron 62 especies clasificadas en 13 familias y 6 órdenes, se indican los hábitos de vida de las especies, encontrándose 10 micorrízógenas, 30 saprófitas, y 22 parásitas y en relación a su uso 21 especies son comestibles, 39 medicinales, tres tóxicas, nueve con potencial en biorremediación, además de 11 potencialmente cultivables. La deforestación, la urbanización y las alteraciones de las condiciones bioclimáticas han modificado el ciclo hidrológico, el clima y la biodiversidad, lo cual afecta los ecosistemas asociados a esta subcuenca y pone en riesgo la permanencia de las especies fúngicas que tienen relevancia ecológica, económica y social en beneficio de las comunidades.

In the present study, we developed a new real-time PCR system based on the cycling probe technology (CPT), which is composed of two single tube real-time PCR assays: the Fusarium genus-specific assay and the Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC)-specific assay with primers targeting the 28s ribosomal RNA gene. The Fusarium genus-specific assay was shown to be highly specific, detecting all reference Fusarium strains with no cross-reaction with other reference fungal strains, such as Aspergillus spp. and human DNA. The FSSC-specific assay also reacted very specifically with FSSC, except for a cross-reaction with Fusarium lunatum. To validate the real-time PCR system, we tested 87 clinical isolates of Fusarium spp. Identification results from the real-time PCR system were found to be 100% concordant with those from DNA sequencing of EF-1α gene. The sensitivity testing also demonstrated high sensitivity, enabling detection of one copy of standard DNA with good reproducibility. Furthermore, both assays were shown to be extremely sensitive even when fungal cells were mixed with human cells, detecting one 3 germinated conidia spiked in 1 3 ml of human blood. To apply our new real-time PCR system to the molecular diagnosis of fusariosis, we evaluated its efficacy using a mouse model of invasive F. solani infection. Plasma and whole blood samples of infected mice were tested using the real-time PCR system. The sensitivity of the real-time PCR system was found to be 100% (4/4 n = 4) in plasma samples. In contrast, no amplification signal was detected in whole blood samples. This system could provide a rapid and precise diagnostic tool for early diagnosis, which is necessary for appropriate treatment and improvement of prognosis of disseminated fusariosis.

An anamorphic stage of a new endophytic species, Xylaria hollophyllae sp. nov., isolated from the inner bark of Korean Manchurian fir (Abies holophylla) was observed. Colony reached 25 mm in diameter on MEA medium at 25 o C in the dark after 2 weeks. Medium was pigmented yellow to brown. The fruitbody was frequently observed on PDA medium, ranged up to 150 mm in length, and resembled a club. Substrate mycelia were abundantly formed, but aerial mycelia poorly produced on PDA. Mycelia became pigmented, had knots and were variable in thickness. Anamorphic conidia were 1-celled, commonly hyaline to pigmented at the later stage, and were produced commonly on the mycelia with scars. Conidia were variable in morphology, Nodulisporium-like, ellipsoid or fusoid to ovoid, frequently slightly curved, and ranged 2.7~3.4 (av. 2.8) × 0.60 .9 (av. 0.7) µm.

Identification of the newly named pathogenic oomycete Pythium insidiosum and its differentiation from other Pythium species by morphologic criteria alone can be difficult and time-consuming. Antigenic analysis by fluorescent-antibody and inmunodiffusion precipitin techniques demonstrated that the P. insidiosum isolates that cause pythiosis in dogs, horses, and humans are identical and that they were distinguishable from other Pythium species by these means. The immunologic data agreed with the morphologic data. This indicated that the animal and human isolates belonged to a single species, P. insidiosum. Fluorescent-antibody and immunodiffusion reagents were developed for the specific identification of P. insidiosum.

L-asparaginase is an enzyme widely recognized for its crucial role in cancer treatment and food applications. In cancer study, L-asparaginase has exhibited remarkable efficacy as an anti-cancer agent. It functions by depleting the essential amino acid Lasparagine from the extracellular environment, effectively starving cancer cells that are unable to synthesize L-asparagine endogenously. This enzymatic activity has been particularly effective in treating acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), where malignant cells heavily rely on extracellular L-asparagine. Additionally, recent studies have explored its potential application in other solid tumors such as pancreatic and ovarian cancers with promising results. L-asparaginase has found extensive use in the food industry. This enzyme effectively reduces the levels of L-asparagine in food products, thereby preventing the formation of acrylamide, a potential carcinogen, during high-temperature cooking processes. Acrylamide is formed through the Maillard reaction between reducing sugars and asparagine and its presence in various commonly consumed foods poses a potential health risk. L-asparaginase has been successfully employed in the production of staple food items such as potato products, bakery goods and snacks to mitigate acrylamide formation. Additionally, this enzyme has demonstrated promise in enhancing dough quality, increasing fermentation efficiency and improving texture in various food products. Continued research and optimization of L-asparaginase's therapeutic potential and industrial applications hold promise for improving cancer treatment and enhancing food safety and quality.

The house fly, Musca domestica L. is a major pest of medical and veterinary significance which due to their ubiquitous lifestyle and broad food preference achieves a very high density in favorable climatic conditions of Indian subcontinent. This has led to several instances of severe health condition among human and animal population, calling attention towards M. domestica control through existing and innovative methods. Use of biological control agent, such as entomopathogenic fungi (ENPF) for M. domestica control has shown potential, and need to be further explored for the newer isolates suited to particular environment for greater efficacy. The present study attempted the isolation and identification of native ENPF strains suitable for M. domestica control. Five strains of ENPF were isolated from soil samples, which on preliminary identification of morphological, microscopic and spore attributes were determined to be isolates of Beauveria species. The isolates showed wide variation in pathogenicity against M. domestica, with 72.7%-100% and 36.7%-72.3% mortality against adults and larvae life stage, respectively. Isolate '1' depicting maximum insecticidal activity against M. domestica was selected for molecular identification using 18s-rRNA, and found to be Beauveria bassia HQ917687. The molecular analysis using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) showed isolate '2' to be most similar to isolate '3', while isolate '1' and '5' showed maximum variation between them. RAPD result was in conformity with various other properties of isolates; such as biomass, spore yield, hydrophobicity and insecticidal activity. The variations in activity obtained through pathogenicity assessment of fungal isolates in this study reflected the strain diversity of Beauveria isolates. The results also signified the importance of strain selection for effective control measures as well as for further consideration of commercial aspects.

Calendula officinalis (Marigold), besides extensive use in ornamentation, is famously known for its valued medicines used in cancer treatments, eye and skin care. It is cultivated in more than 145 countries. It has a multimillion-dollar floriculture industry alone. It has a wide variety of uses ranging from commercial, religious, social, medicinal and ornamental. Being a stress resistant flowering plant grown in all agroecological regions of Pakistan. However, its preferers relatively cold ecological zones including provinces of Gilgit-Baltistan and Khyber Pukhtoon Khaw. This study has attempted to assess the impact of varied climatic conditions (slope, sunshine, day length, moisture and temperature) on the growth (leaves, sepals, petals, stamens and carpels) of Calendula officinalis. Samples (N=100) were collected from three different locations in the study area (East, North and West facing). The elevation was kept the same. Results revealed that coloration (gene expression) is independent of any change in the climatic factors. flowers can be found in orange, yellow and a mix of these colors. The mean area of sepals was 0.73 mm (R² = 0.066), petals 4.84 mm (R² = 0.0229), stamen 0.085 mm (R² = 0.837), carpel 7.73 mm (R² = 0.2728), and leaves 485.22 mm (R² = 0.0902). The size of petals is 85.5% larger than sepals. Similarly, carpel is 98.9% bigger than the stamens. Sizes of different parts studied showed almost least dependencies on the climatic conditions.