Morphological theory

With the rise of colonialism, from the 15 th century on Europeans entered into contact with other continents, foreign cultures and languages. By and by, linguists came to realise, first, that not all languages are related, and that for some of them the categories of Latin cannot be applied; second, that most European languages are similar not only because of universalist principles of grammar but, simply, because they are related. The Danish linguist Rasmus Rask (1787-1832) and the german August Schleicher were among the first to establish language relatedness based on methods of comparative analysis. Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) described in detail a consonant shift, known as Grimm's Law. Grimm's Law states that a chain of consonant changes took place from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic in the first millennium BC, which accounts for regular phonetic contrasts between otherwise related words in germanic and other Indo-European languages -cf: frère à brother, dent à tooth, etc. A. Schleicher introduced the model of a common language family tree. Most European languages belong to language families which evolved from a common proto-language -Proto-Indo-European (PIE). PIE is a theoretical construct, a reconstruction based on the comparison of related languages and language subgroups. It was spoken during the Neolithic age, from around 4500 Bc to around 2500 Bc. The comparative method of analysis demonstrating genealogical relatedness is considered to be the most outstanding achievement of 19th century linguistics. Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, "to share") is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signals (a common "code"). The sender conveys information to the receiver through a "communication channel": To make sure that the message reaches its recipient successfully, the form of encoding should be appropriately chosen so as to overcome potential barriers. Communication is not specific to human language: it is part of the life of all biological organisms. One way or another, all living creatures communicate. E. O. Wilson 1 defines biological communication as "Actions on the part of one organism that alter the probability pattern of behavior in another organism in an adaptive fashion". The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, or biochemical. Some species make use of a number of channels. Elephants, for instance, communicate with every sense they have: touch, taste, smell, vision and hearing. * Spiders, like plants, have mainly chemical communication but can also communicate with visual and acoustic (vibratory) signals. In the photograph below, you can see a jumping spider displaying rich colour and ornamentation during the courtship period. Insects (arthropods) communicate using sounds -cf. the chirping of crickets or the buzzing of cicadas. 2 Edward Vajda. Retrieved from: . htm There are two major hypotheses about the emergence of human language. According to creationists, a superior species or a deity created men and gave them language. creationists assert that there is a qualitative difference between the cognitive, mental and language capacities of men and other species -a gap that evolution cannot account for.

Morphological complexity is expected to decrease under mass admixture from adult second language speakers. While this has been chiefly shown for morphological richness, an unresolved question is whether the effect extends to aspects of morphological boundedness. Here we report a case study of Sino-Tibetan verbs, contrasting verbal expressions of two languages with very large (Chinese, Burmese) and of two languages with very small (Bunan, Chintang) numbers of second language speakers. We find that while the amount of second language speakers accounts for differences in the range and number of inflectional categories (degrees of synthesis), it does not affect the way in which morphological constituents are bound together, reflecting fortification through a mix of diachronically stable and universally preferred patterns. This calls for theoretical models that narrow down the range of changes that are driven by second language speaker admixture, and for extensive empirical testing on a ...

BACKGROUND: The management of unruptured aneurysms is controversial, with the decision to treat influenced by aneurysm characteristics including size and morphology. Aneurysmal bleb formation is thought to be associated with an increased risk of rupture. OBJECTIVE: To correlate computational fluid dynamic (CFD) indices with bleb formation. METHODS: Anatomic models were constructed from 3-dimensional rotational angiography data in 27 patients with cerebral aneurysms harboring a single bleb. Additional models representing the aneurysm before bleb formation were constructed by digitally removing the bleb. We characterized hemodynamic features of models both with and without the blebs using CFDs. Flow structure, wall shear stress (WSS), pressure, and oscillatory shear index (OSI) were analyzed. RESULTS: There was a statistically significant association between bleb location at or adjacent to the point of maximal WSS (74%, P = .019), irrespective of rupture status. Aneurysmal blebs were ...

Akan, like any other language, has both regular and irregular complex nominals (CNs). However, previous studies of Akan nominals have been constructive in approach, mostly adhering to a strict form of the principle of compositionality and assuming that the morphological, phonological and semantic properties of CNs can be accounted for fully by tweaking those of their constituents. Consequently, CNs whose properties cannot be so accounted for are either ignored or forced into the mould of regular ones. In this study, I do three things. First, I present a detailed empiricallybased assessment of attested CNs in Akan based on a dataset of 1000 CNs drawn from a variety of written sources. This shows that Akan CNs may be grouped into four; compounds, affix-derived CNs, those formed by tonal changes and "lexicalized" forms, which have the form of phrases but occur as CNs and are mostly only partially compositional. Secondly, I present a detailed discussion of the formal and semantic properties of all the attested compounds and a subset of the lexicalized nominals. Thirdly, on the basis of the latter discussion, I examine what the formation and structure of CNs reveal about the interaction between morphology and syntax and about the architecture of the grammar. The analyses show that the formation of CNs in Akan may at once involve morphological and syntactic structure in a way that renders untenable the view that morphology and syntax constitute two completely different modules of the grammar which may be assumed to interact only because the output of the former is the input to the latter. The present study provides support for the constructional view of the grammar. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First, I would like to thank the Lord God Almighty for seeing me through yet another phase of life. It has been hard, but His grace and mercy have been there. As an African I understand that no one can really claim to be self-made. Thus, naturally, I would like to acknowledge those who have made it possible for me to come to this point. However, presently, the urge to say thanks to some people who have helped me through this rather demanding four-plus years is overwhelming. I would, therefore, like to thank the following:  Professor Francis Xavier Katamba, my supervisor. You have been more than a supervisor. There were times when I thought giving up would be a good idea but your gentle guidance helped me cope. I am grateful.  Current and former faculty of the Linguistics and English Language (LAEL) Department who knew my name and shared a smile with me -Professor Paul

This study offers an overview of Rhodian Greek compounding. Based on a dataset of 2000 single-word dialectal compounds, it provides a detailed description and classification of the compounds attested in this southern variety of Modern Greek. The main types of dialectal compounds are presented emphasizing observations on their (a) morphological structure, (b) headedness, and (c) morphosyntactic and semantic relations between their constituents. The examination of the dataset revealed a variety of compound patterns, some of which are not common in Standard Modern Greek. Specifically, the discussion focuses, inter alia, on (i) leftheadedness in endocentric compounds, (ii) the high productivity of exocentric compounds, and (iii) the presence of loan constituents.

In this paper, an electromagnetic articulography (EMA) study is conducted on four standard Korean speakers to examine their articulation of Korean /l/. Their articulation of /l/ is compared to another sonorant, /n/, in the context of the vowels /a/, /i/, and /u/. Lateralization is quantified by calculating the lateralization angles of both the left-and right-side parasagittal sensors, and retroflexion is examined by observing the angle of elevation seen in the tongue-tip sensor. Considerable intra-and inter-speaker variance is observed in the articulation of /l/, with a general tendency for /l/ to be asymmetrically lateralized in coda position, suggesting a lateral approximant articulation. Lateralization appears to be optional in onset position, but the tongue tip is generally raised, indicating a flap, retroflex lateral, or lateral flap articulation. Coda /l/ is also observed to have a tendency to have a raised tongue tip in the context of /a/, suggesting it is a retroflex lateral approximant in this environment.

This chapter investigates to what extent the relationship between an affix and its position in the word is influenced by iconicity. Two affix-order strategies are recognized: template morphology (stipulated fixed order whereby affixes are assigned to slots) and layered morphology (step-by-step derivation involving semantic scope, as a rule). Meaning is associated with words, affixes, and positions. The iconicity of affix order varies from low (templatic) to high (scopal), with mixed templatic-scopal systems in between. The mirror principle and the relevance principle relate affix order to word order. Affix order systems of many languages, initially analyzed as templatic, have, when more data became available, later been reanalyzed as scopal. A scopal relationship is easier to detect in combinations of two affixes (bigrams) than in longer sequences. Unmotivated affix order patterns, if analyzed in terms of bigrams and trigrams, turn out to be regular patterns. Affix order tends to be iconic.

This study investigated the role of domain-general cognitive processes, specifically inhibitory control, verbal working memory (WM), and nonverbal reasoning, on children’s productive grammar skills, focusing on Turkish past tense (e.g. fırçala-DI brush-PAST.3sg) and causative suffix (e.g. fırçala-t-TI brush-CAUSE-PAST.3sg), representing the broader categories of inflectional versus derivational morphology, respectively. We tested 84 5-year-old Turkish-learning children from a densely populated district in Istanbul, Türkiye on a sentence completion task to assess the use of morphology. Children were more successful in producing the correct suffix for the past tense than causative suffix, when using both familiar and pseudo verbs. Zero-order correlations showed significant relations between correct suffix use and all cognitive assessments. However, regression analyses revealed that only nonverbal reasoning predicted children’s overall correct suffix use and inhibition predicted it only for the past tense with pseudo verbs. Hence, children who have better reasoning abilities may have more robustly abstracted the grammar rules of their native language. Children with better inhibitory control can more effectively suppress the primed present tense verb and correctly use the past tense. This ability is particularly evident when dealing with pseudo verbs, which make the task more abstract. These findings imply the consideration of domain-general cognition in the development of abstract grammar in childhood.

Categories may be functional or lexical (Jespersen 1924; Abney 1987 a.o.). Yet, some categories, such as prepositions, are known to be hybrid. To capture the in-between status of prepositions Zwarts (1997) proposed that the functional-lexical divide is structured by means of three independent privative parameters, viz. [+/-lexical], [+/-functional] and [+/-categorial]. In this article I adapt and develop this proposal to demonstrate that derivational affixes are a hybrid category as well. More specifically, I show that derivational affixes have lexical meaning and that they are an open class, which defines them as [+lexical]. Yet, they obligatorily select a complement, which makes them [+functional]. They may or may not determine the category of their functional superstructure, which renders them [+/-categorial]. It is thus argued that derivational affixes are not purely functional or lexical, just like prepositions. Yet, within the lexical-functional divide these two hybrid categor...

In this article we report on a systematic comparison of presentational sentencesin Icelandic and Swedish, looking in particular at possible thematicroles of the pivot and how they correlate with positional options. Despitesome well-known differences between the languages (only Icelandic allows‘high’ IP-pivots and pivots with transitive verbs), it turns out that the restrictionson VP-pivots are similar, both in terms of roles and positions.VP-pivots have to be Themes and may co-occur with other DPs, but onlyif the pivot is the last DP argument. We show how these restrictions to someextent reflect the argument structure proposed in Platzack (2010). In additionwe show that we need to distinguish presentational sentences among thedifferent Transitive Expletive Constructions discussed in Hakansson (2017). (Less)

In this proposed study we are to investigate the variations in the geometry of the stenosis that exists at the bending regions in the left coronary artery with the basis of idealized 3D simulated artery models. Understanding the effects of plaque morphological characteristics such as the severity of stenosis, location, and eccentricity index is the main motive of this study. Atherosclerotic plaque severity is generally considered an indicator of cardiovascular diseases. However, the occurrence or probability of heart attack is not determined only by the stenosis severity. In fact, besides plaque severity, other local factors such as the location, bending regions, angle variations, and eccentricity of the plaques also play a vital role in such cases. Here, we have demonstrated the effects of stenosis based on its geometry and what impact it has on arterial flow patterns. We have shown the association of lesion eccentricity with other hemodynamic factors. The changes in the hemodynamic parameters have shed light on the conditions of left coronary artery stenosis at different locations of the artery, which is responsible for cardiovascular disease in human patients. To evaluate these effects, twelve computer-generated 3D artery models are considered. In these idealized models, we have considered three factors: bifurcation angle, stenosis degree, and eccentricity index of the plaque. Among the first seven are with a bifurcation angle of degrees with one healthy model and eccentric and concentric stenosis of 25%, 50%, and 75% severity and the other seven are of 70° angular bifurcation with the same stenosis severity and geometry. Here, we have used open-source software for 3D model construction, mesh and grid generation, and hemodynamic simulations. From the resulting data we have analyzed significant changes in the behavior of arterial blood flow, for example, velocity profile, Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR), and Wall Shear Stress (WSS). Finally, these findings of variations in the stenosed bifurcated geometry will provide a more concise insight for a more specific assessment of those plaques that are vulnerable to cause coronary heart disease.

In this study, I parameterize the five tests proposed by Stevens (2005) for characterizing an element as an affixoid and formulate ten criteria for prefixation. Using these criteria, I analyze the morphological status of the initial components of Modern Greek words beginning with pale- and paʎo-. Contrary to Giannoulopoulou’s (1999) analysis of paleo- as a “confix” and paʎo- as a “stem”, I argue that pale- is a stem that has two allomorphic realizations: pale~paʎ. pale- is marked as [+learnèd] and paʎ- as [-learnèd]. While paʎo- historically derives from pale-, it has acquired a distinct morphological status and should now be considered a prefixoid. The ten criteria I present could serve as a model for determining the morphological status of initial elements in other Greek morphological structures and potentially in other languages where this status is ambiguous. Finally, I propose that prefixation in Greek differs from that in word-based languages. In Greek, prefixation is not a case of morphologization; rather, prefixes originate in and remain confined to the morphological domain.

Lexical models diverge on the question of how to represent complex words. Under the morpheme-based approach, each morpheme is treated as a separate unit, while under the word-based approach, morphological structure is derived from complex words. In this paper, we propose a new computational model of morphology that is based on graph theory and is intended to elaborate the word-based net-work approach. Specifically, we use a key concept of network science, the notion of shortest path, to investigate how complex words are learned, stored, and processed. The notion of shortest path refers to the task of finding the shortest or most optimal path connecting two non-adjacent nodes in a network. Building on this notion, the current study shows (i) that new complex words can be segmented into mor-phemes through the shortest path analysis; (ii) that attested English words tend to represent the shortest paths in the morphological network; and (iii) that novel (unattested) words receive higher acceptability ratings in experiments when they are formed along established optimal paths. The model’s perfor-mance is tested in two experiments with human participants as well as against the behavioral data from the English Lexicon Project. We interpret our empirical results from the perspective of a usage-based model of grammar and argue that network science provides a powerful tool for analyzing language structure.

EN: Prefixoids are the left-most elements attaching to roots or stems, which emerge from lexemes, and behave like derivational or inflectional affixes tending to slightly grammaticalize to a limited extent, showing an increase in productivity. In Turkish, certain adjectival constituents of the ADJ+N type compounds like ana 'lit. mother=PFmain, PFprimary' as in anafikir 'gist', baş 'lit. head=PFmain' as in başkent 'capitol', or ön 'lit. front=PFpre-' as in ön(-)basım 'pre-edition' show this tendency and are used productively to name concepts by behaving like prefixoids in spontaneous naming needs to fill the lexical gaps. Thus, though Turkish does not have an established prefixation mechanism typologically, these elements give rise to a blurry and controversial territory between compounding and prefixation. In the present study, such adjectival constituents will be investigated within the continuum between compounding and affixation, and it will be advocated that these constituents are at the very beginning of a morphologization/grammaticalization process.

TR: Önekimsiler, sözcükbirimlerden ortaya çıkarak kök ya da gövdelere eklenip en sola bitişen öğelerdir ve türetkenlikte bir artış göstererek sınırlı ölçüde kısmen dilbilgiselleşme eğiliminde olan türetim ya da çekim ekleri gibi davranırlar. Türkçede, anafikir, başkent, ön(-)basım gibi SIFAT+AD tipi bileşiklerin bazı sıfat bileşenleri bu eğilimi gösterir ve bu bileşenle sözlüksel boşlukları doldurmak için anlık adlandırma ihtiyaçlarında önekler gibi davranır, ayrıca kavramları adlandırmak için türetken bir şekilde kullanılır. Dolayısıyla Türkçe tipolojik olarak yerleşik bir önekleme mekanizmasına sahip olmasa da bu unsurlar birleştirme ve önekleme arasında bulanık ve tartışmalı bir alan ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, bu tür sıfat bileşenleri birleşme ve ekleşme arasındaki süreklilik içinde incelenecek ve bu bileşenlerin bir biçimbilgiselleşme/dilbilgiselleşme sürecinin en başında olduğu savunulacaktır.

All known human societies are fundamentally shaped by the use of one or several language systems. The core-function of language in a human society is transmitting information, which is encoded and decoded by means of lexicon and grammar. Ideally, a code should be uniform and consistent in time. Yet, it is an empirical observation that all languages change. Change is omnipresent in language, constantly generating variation at all its levels, including grammar. It is observed that in different languages change in grammar may operate in different ways and proceed at different pace. In recent decades a consensus among linguists has emerged according to which explanatory theories of language and language use not referring to change are impossible. This is valid independently of whether language change is assumed to target particular synchronic states (cf. Haspelmath 2019) or, conversely, typologically common synchronic states are seen as merely reflecting properties of change (cf. Cristofaro 2013, 2014, 2019, 2021). It follows that in order to understand grammar we need a deeper understanding of the principles underlying grammatical change.

This paper discusses morphological alternations in the so-called strong preterits in Spanish. The starting point is the variation phenomenon known as Analogical Strong Preterits, which is characterized by the formation of 3PL on the basis of 3SG, adding the exponent /n/: dij-on , instead of general dije-ro-n 'they said'. Although this is the way in which the 3PL is obtained in the rest of the paradigm, Spanish preterits regularly present the segment-ro-at the left of-n. The varieties with Analogical Strong Preterits preserve the segment-ro-in all the other verbs (canta-ro-n 'they sang'), but shows this particular form in the case of strong preterits. Within the framework of Distributed Morphology, we explore the morphological alternations found in relation to verbal stems (dec-/dij-for √SAY) and functional morphology (ro/-o for T/Pers). Our approach focuses on the properties of Vocabulary Items and the locality of terminal nodes for vocabulary insertion, avoiding thus any kind of post-syntactic operation.

The present study investigates the relationship between morphological structure and word meaning with respect to the associative vs. dissociative account of derivational morphology in Modern Greek. To this end, we conducted an online lexical decision task employing the immediate cross-modal priming paradigm with 48 adult native speakers. Ninety prime–target pairs, each comprising a (derived/pseudo-derived) suffixed verb or adjective as auditory prime and its (real/putative) noun-base as visual target, were equally distributed in 3 critical semantic transparency conditions (i.e., transparent, e.g., viðóno–víða ‘to screw’–‘screw’; semitransparent, e.g., psaróno–psári ‘to psych out’–‘fish’; opaque, e.g., skotóno–skótos ‘to kill’–‘dark’). Reaction time analyses revealed statistically significant and equivalent priming in the transparent and semitransparent condition, yet no priming at all in the opaque condition. This dichotomous priming pattern (opaque ≠ semitransparent = transparent) implies that the observed effect is neither purely formal nor purely semantic, but rather morphosemantic. In particular, the locus of priming seems to be situated in the morphologically shared prime–target stem that is recognized as a genuine morpheme (combining both form and meaning) to the same extent in the transparent as well as the semitransparent pairs, though it is not recognized in the opaque pairs. Thus, our experimental findings suggest that morphological structure depends crucially on word meaning, underpinning an associative account of derivational morphology, according to which semantically transparent and semitransparent derivatives are considered as [+constructed] words, while semantically opaque derivatives and pseudo-derivatives are treated as [–constructed] words.

The article deals with irregularities in the morphological make-up of Italian verbal forms, focusing on perfect and past participle forms. It aims to account for root-based contextual allomorphy in the framework of Distributed Morphology (Halle & Marantz 1993). Building upon the generalisation that morphological irregularities result whenever the thematic vowel is absent, the article provides a synchronic account and a diachronic analysis by means of a restricted set of morphophonological rules, thus challenging both the traditional view, according to which morphological irregularities follow from stress positioning, and paradigm-based accounts.

The article deals with irregularities in the morphological make-up of Italian verbal forms, focusing on perfect and past participle forms. It aims to account for root-based contextual allomorphy in the framework of Distributed Morphology (Halle & Marantz 1993). Building upon the generalisation that morphological irregularities result whenever the thematic vowel is absent, the article provides a synchronic account and a diachronic analysis by means of a restricted set of morphophonological rules, thus challenging both the traditional view, according to which morphological irregularities follow from stress positioning, and paradigm-based accounts.

The use of expressions something similar/something like that/and the like is a pervasive feature of spoken natural language, and thus must be accounted for if we hope to develop a semantic account of dialogue. These expressions exhibit an anaphoric type dependency, but at the semanticpragmatic level rather than the syntactic level. The meaning of these utterances depends upon the context of utterance: if the meaning of the utterance is regardedas fixed, then utterances which intuitively are coherent receive incoherent interpretations. To model what happens with utterances containing these phrases, we require both a formal theory of discourse structure, and accessibility to the lexicon.

Concept-naming is one of the most fundamental activities performed by speakers, who need either ready-made labels to talk about entities or devices to build new labels (be they rules or processes, schemas or analogical mechanisms). Knowing how languages perform the basic function of creating labels to name concepts, especially complex concepts, is crucial to understanding their creative potential in building new (potentially stable) categories and, more generally, to understanding how they (may) categorize reality, and refer to it. What are the strategies employed by languages for naming complex concepts? How do they differ cross-linguistically, and what are the limits of their variation? Are there strategies that are more widespread than others, or even universal? 1 These are questions for lexical typology and/or word-formation typology, but what we know about the typology of complex concept naming is very limited compared to what we know about domains like word order or inflectional morphology. There may be different reasons behind this state-of-affairs. Analysing all of them falls outside the scope of the present introduction: we will just discuss some factors that we deem relevant for our current purposes.

This paper explored the inflectional morphology of the Tiv and English languages. The inflectional affix is an item that performs grammatical functions without changing the part of speech of the word to which it is attached. The study is an exercise in Applied Linguistics which adopts contrastive analysis as a tool in the description of the languages. The paper observes that there are some similarities and differences in the morphemic distributions of the two languages. It therefore justifies the fact that differences are likely to influence the teaching and learning of a language. Unlike English, the inflectional morphemes in the Tiv language can also occur by alternation in tone. In other words, there are some rules on the plural formations or pronunciations. There is no set of Tiv morphemes referring to its particular gender as observed in English. Whether plural or past tense, the affixes in Tiv are only affixed at the levels of suffixation, infixation and tone. The study concludes that difficulties in teaching or learning of English language as L2 are often experienced in areas of differences, however, learning difficulties can also be in the area of similarities. The study, therefore, advocates that language teachers/syllabus planners should make adequate use of the findings of contrastive or error studies as a research tool in designing syllabus for the teaching/learning of second languages.

Taking into account some general definitions of compounds found in the pertinent linguistic literature and their frequent syntactic features (such as fixed order and recursiveness) we have analysed and investigated semantic compositionality and some other features pertaining to these linguistic items. Furthermore, we have drawn attention to the possibility of implementing certain criteria in connection with the distribution of noncanonical compound constituents. It has been pointed out that distributional evidence is applicable for English non-canonical compounds in electrical engineering discourse. Moreover, distribution is used as an indicator of lexical integrity of these linguistic items. Apart from fairly clear cases, different examples of English non-canonical compounds taken from the specialised discourse of electrical engineering have been examined by way of illustration and certain results of our analysis have been presented.

Morphology and Syntax are very important studies in learning English. Morphology learns about how the words are structured and how they are put together from smaller part. It can be considered as the grammar of words. Meanwhile, Syntax discusses how the sentence is structured. The objectives of the research are to find out inflectional morphemes, derivational morphemes, and the patterns of clause structure which are found in political news on online Tempo in January 2019. This research used qualitative design and content analysis design where the source of data was article political news on Online Tempo in January, 2019. The major instrument of this research is the researchers themselves because they actively obtained and clustered the data and the secondary data was data sheet. The findings revealed three types of morphosyntactic, firstly, the researchers found 5 patterns of inflectional morpheme with 26 words. The most dominant pattern of inflectional morpheme was singular changin...

In Construction Morphology (CM), a compound is treated as a construction at the word level with a systematic correlation between its form and meaning, in the sense that any change in the form is accompanied by a change in the meaning. Compound words are coined by compounding templates which are called abstract schemas in CM. These abstract constructional schemas generalize over sets of existing compound words and specify how new compound words can be created. The schemas dominate the compounds so that they inherit all predictable morphological and semantic properties from these schemas. Also, CM adopts a paradigmatic approach to word formation, that is, the creation of new compound words is caused by the extension of a systematic form-meaning relationship in a set of existing compound words to new cases resulting in new compounds. Regarding these properties of CM, This paper studies Persian compound nouns in the framework of Construction Morphology. From this perspective, two types ...

Introduction Within the typology of word prosody, there is a growing body of evidence for initial three syllable windows in which primary accent must be located on the first three syllables of the prosodic word (Caballero 2011, Kager 2012). In this paper, we argue that Ese'eja (Takanan; Bolivia/Peru) also demonstrates this rare type of window. We report on findings of a verbal accent study (Vuillermet 2012), which systematically documents the position of accent in a large number of inflected verbs, resulting in a corpus of nearly 2,000 verb forms. This corpus demonstrates a three syllable window, and reveals a complex but consistent system varying according to (1) stem syllable count, (2) root transitivity, and (3) the type of suffix added. Accent position cannot be accounted for by reference to purely phonological structure such as syllable count, the quantity of the syllable, the quality of the vowel, or the sonority of the onset. We decompose the Ese'eja metrical window into an interaction of morphologically-assigned accent patterns from various suffixes, using common OT constraints. We classify inflectional suffixes into dominant, recessive, and rightmost-preserving, and tense/mood suffixes in particular to different Suffix Accent Groups (SAGs). Each SAG type triggers a specific cophonology (Inkelas & Zoll 2007). SAGs 1 and 3 assign accent to the ultima of the stem, while SAGs 2 and 4 assign accent to the penult of the stem. Additionally, SAG 1 suffixes have a cophonology ranking which enforces the creation of iambs (RHTYPE=I >> RHTYPE=T), whereas SAGs 2/3/4 enforce trochees. After all inflectional material is added to the stem, iterative footing takes place resulting in rhythmic accent across the word. The leftmost foot in the word receives primary accent, and is realized with primary prominence phonetically. Because iterative footing and rhythmic accent are established before primary accent delegation, we therefore classify Ese'eja accent as a 'count system' with bottom-up parsing, and see it as challenging the Primary Accent First (PAF) model (van der Hulst 1996). We argue that the Ese'eja count system cannot be reduced to a prosodic system with only rhythm plus phrase edge prominence without primary word stress. Further, we contrast our analysis with that of Kager (2012) advocating for ternary feet with weak layering. The main difference between these approaches is that under our analysis, the relative ranking of RHTYPE constraints across co-phonologies accounts for the different patterns, whereas under ternary feet the main parameter involves the ranking of ALIGN-HD-L. Moreover, when morphologically-assigned accent falls outside of the initial three syllable window, we argue that Ese'eja demonstrates a novel type of repair, which we call 'rhythmic repair'. Under this type, when accent is assigned outside of the metrical window, primary prominence appears on a 1 Sincere thanks go first to the Ese'eja people who have engaged with this linguistic research, without whom none of this would be possible. We are particularly indebted to Calixto Callaú Casirno who patiently provided most elicited data on which this article is based. We also thank our respective departments, in particular

On-line processing of Greek 2nd group verbs was examined through a psycholinguistic experiment using the masked priming technique. The critical comparison concerned the effect of past tense primes on present tense targets between the two forms of the same verb: 2nd group basic verbs and their alternative forms. Results showed that alternative forms benefit from morphological priming whereas basic forms do not, and this cannot be compatible with a decompositional approach. We propose an interpretation with a lexeme based approach and the interactive activation model (IAM, McClelland & Rumelhart, 1981). In this discussion, we underline the difficulty in avoiding methodological caveats when transferring logic and material constitution techniques (mostly based on orthographic-phonological criteria) directly from one language to another. The experiment presented here highlights the need to consider the verbal system in its complexity when depicting morphological processing in a given language. KEYWORDS: Aorist, masked priming, lexeme based approach, typological variation. none" phenomenon and that different levels of semantic, orthographic or phonological similarity induce graded effects of morphological facilitation, at least as far as the priming technique is concerned (

This collection of papers on phrasal compounding is part of a bigger project whose aims are twofold: First, it seeks to broaden the typological perspective by providing data for as many different languages as possible to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon itself. Second, based on these data which clearly show interaction between syntax and morphology it aims to discuss theoretical models which deal with this kind of interaction in different ways. Models like Generative Grammar, assume components of grammar and a clear-cut distinction between the lexicon (often including morphology) and grammar. Other models like construction grammar do not assume such components and are rather based on a lexicon including constructs. A comparison of these models on the basis of this phenomenon on the morphology-syntax interface makes it possible to assess their descriptive and explanatory power.

A very broad conceptual diagram of the epistemology of the field of urban morphology is provided as a first step to illustrating the potential connections between different schools of thought. A study of the methods of generating knowledge in this field shows that there are many conceptual and methodological practices that are shared. This shared epistemology can become a basis for comparing the kinds of theories and knowledge generated by different schools of thought. The methods used, the bases for judging their validity, and the scope of enquiries are considered. A systematic definition of the elements that morphologists use for their interpretations is proposed.

In the present study, we attempted to specify the constructional schemas relevant to the compounds made by the present stem ‘sāz’ in Persian within the framework of the construction morphology (Booij, 2010). To this end, 150 compounds were brought together from numerous sources, such as the Persian Corpus of Bijankhan, Persian novels as well as some Persian websites. Having collected the data, we tabulated and categorized them on the basis of the preverbal elements. Afterwards, a comparison was made, as a result of which it was indicated that there can be a general constructional schema inside which 5 sub-schemas can be placed. Certainly, the broad schema denotes the construction by which a noun (preverbal element) is combined with the verbal element (present stem sāz) to create an adjective that implies the agent of an action, namely the agent of building or making an object. However, there were two exceptions among the whole dataset: a compound in spite of resembling the other compounds regarding its construction denotes the semantic role of patient: dastsāz (handmade), referring to an object which is made by hands as well as the compound ʤāsāz (embedded object), whereas in other compounds, the stem means the agent that builds, creates or makes. Consequently, as might be expected, two broad constructional schemas have been obtained: one relevant to the agents and the other relevant to patients.

The paper borrows the concept of (non)concatenation from morphology and applies it to wordformation patterns both within and outside the scope of derivational morphology, arguing at the same time for a broader, lexicological approach to lexeme-formation (as a model of vocabulary expansion) than that identifying word-formation with derivational morphology. It arrives at the conclusion that the binary division of lexeme-formation into either concatenative or nonconcatenative patterns does not reflect the character of many patterns accurately enough.

Despite presenting challenges for speakers, complex linguistic features such as lexically conditioned inflection (LCI) persist across different languages. LCI forms part of not entirely predictable paradigms which require lexeme-specific knowledge to master. Moreover, LCI remains one of the oldest morphological phenomena in certain languages. Previous research has linked the persistence of such complexity to language-external factors like geographic and social circumstances of speech communities.

This dissertation delves into the question whether language-internal properties are associated with the distribution of inflectional complexity. LCI is compared with other inflectional paradigms across 41 genetically and geographically distant languages. The study shows that LCI is mostly found in phonologically prominent syllables and obligatory paradigms, suggesting that its persistence is attributable to the interaction of different levels of language structure. These findings underscore the relevance for usage-based theories to integrate structural effects into the factors that stabilize morphological complexity.

BACKGROUND: The management of unruptured aneurysms is controversial, with the decision to treat influenced by aneurysm characteristics including size and morphology. Aneurysmal bleb formation is thought to be associated with an increased risk of rupture. OBJECTIVE: To correlate computational fluid dynamic (CFD) indices with bleb formation. METHODS: Anatomic models were constructed from 3-dimensional rotational angiography data in 27 patients with cerebral aneurysms harboring a single bleb. Additional models representing the aneurysm before bleb formation were constructed by digitally removing the bleb. We characterized hemodynamic features of models both with and without the blebs using CFDs. Flow structure, wall shear stress (WSS), pressure, and oscillatory shear index (OSI) were analyzed. RESULTS: There was a statistically significant association between bleb location at or adjacent to the point of maximal WSS (74%, P = .019), irrespective of rupture status. Aneurysmal blebs were ...

Incidental detection of unruptured intracranial aneurysms (UIA) has increased in the recent years. There is a need in the clinical community to identify those that are prone to rupture and would require preventive treatment. Hemodynamics in cerebral blood vessels plays a key role in the lifetime cycle of intracranial aneurysms (IA). Understanding their initiation, growth, and rupture or stabilization may identify those hemodynamic features that lead to aneurysm instability and rupture. Modeling hemodynamics using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) could aid in understanding the processes in the development of IA. The neurosurgical approach during operation of IA allows direct visualization of the aneurysm sac and its sampling in many cases. Detailed analysis of the quality of the aneurysm wall under the microscope, together with histological assessment of the aneurysm wall and CFD modeling, can help in building complex knowledge on the relationship between the biology of the wall and hemodynamics. Detailed CFD analysis of the rupture point can further strengthen the association between hemodynamics and rupture. In this chapter we summarize current knowledge on CFD and intracranial aneurysms.

This paper gives an overview of four senses of the terms "lexical (item/entity)" and "lexicon", as well as several senses of the term "lexicalization". That these terms have different senses in the literature has been discussed before, and it has been noted that this polysemy is sometimes confusing, but here I provide not only concrete definitions and succinct discussion of the relevant issues, but I also propose two new terms: INVENTORIUM (the unpredictable elements of a language) and MENTALICON (the elements that a speaker stores in memory). The latter two are crucially different because all speakers store many predictable elements.

Quoi de plus simple que la réduplication ? /olɨ/ « il est content », /olɨolɨ/ « il est très content » (exemple émérillon rapporté par F. Rose 1). Sous son apparence de simplicité, le phénomène soulève néanmoins nombre de questions, au croisement de la phonologie, de la morpho-syntaxe et de la sémantique. Selon les langues, voire à l'intérieur d'une même langue, la réduplication peut prendre différentes formes-redoublement partiel ou total du terme-, affecter une ou plusieurs catégories grammaticales-nom, verbe, qualifiant, quantifiant-et remplir différentes fonctions. Afin de dresser un inventaire des valeurs qu'elle peut prendre, et de rechercher si les différentes valeurs recensées peuvent être ramenées à certains dénominateurs communs, le présent volume réunit des travaux divers à plusieurs titres. Par leur objet d'étude, tout d'abord : langues des Amériques, d'Asie, d'Afrique ou d'Europe. Mais également par les approches et points de vue théoriques adoptés. Au fil de l'ouvrage se dessinent des réponses aux questions telles que celle du lien entre formes et valeurs : un certain gabarit phonologique (par exemple la réduplication à l'identique d'un mot entier) est-il préférentiellement associé à une certaine valeur sémantique qui se retrouverait dans des langues diverses ? Cette question débouche sur d'autres interrogations générales : la présence d'emplois spécialisés de la réduplication dans une langue, par exemple une valeur d'itération, une ou plusieurs valeurs modales, aspectuelles et temporelles, s'accompagne-t-elle nécessairement d'un éventail de gabarits phonologiques distincts, chacun correspondant à l'un des emplois ? Dans quelle mesure le degré de complexité du signifié coïncide-t-il avec le degré de complexité du signifiant ? La partie du discours concernée (catégorie

This paper provides evidence that the inveterate way of assessing linguistic items' degrees of analysability by calculating their derivation to base frequency ratios may obfuscate the difference between two meaning processing models: one based on the principle of compositionality and another on the principle of parsability. I propose to capture the difference between these models by estimating the ratio of two transitional probabilities for complex words: P (affix | base) and P (base | affix). When transitional probabilities are comparably low, each of the elements entering into combination is equally free to vary. The combination itself is judged by speakers to be semantically transparent, and its derivational element tends to be more linguistically productive. In contrast, multi-morphemic words that are characterised by greater discrepancies between transitional probabilities are similar to collocations in the sense that they also consist of a node (conditionally independent element) and a collocate (conditionally dependent element). Such linguistic expressions are also considered to be semantically complex but appear less transparent because the collocate's meaning does not coincide with the meaning of the respective free element (even if it exists) and has to be parsed out from what is available.

Word formation in Albanian studies represents many problems that have been identified not only in university level but even in the pre-university one. This paper intends to examine the concept of the head as part of the word formation process, as this is a term, which is not encountered in the Albanian traditional studies. It will be introduced in this study from the perspective of the generative grammar theory. The aim of this paper is to discuss and argue about the similarity of the process and of the terminology when used at the syntactic and morphological level. Furthermore, there will be introduced some criteria based on which the head is defined at each level, and by providing arguments that some of these criteria are not applied at both levels. Then, it will be examined how the term head is applied at the morphological level, by describing its features when it is a derivational morpheme, or when it is the root/base form.  Finally, two ways of approaching word-formation will b...

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has grown as a tool to help understand the hemodynamic properties related to the rupture of cerebral aneurysms. Few of these studies deal specifically with aneurysm growth and most only use a single time instance within the aneurysm growth history. The present retrospective study investigated four patient-specific aneurysms, once at initial diagnosis and then at follow-up, to analyze hemodynamic and morphological changes. Aneurysm geometries were segmented via the medical image processing software Mimics. The geometries were meshed and a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis was performed using ANSYS. Results showed that major geometry bulk growth occurred in areas of low wall shear stress (WSS). Wall shape remodeling near neck impingement regions occurred in areas with large gradients of WSS and oscillatory shear index. This study found that growth occurred in areas where low WSS was accompanied by high velocity gradients between the aneurys...

Teknologi Nasional, https://www.itenas.ac.id/ WORD FORMATION: An introduction to the study of syntax in English Phonological Level and Morphological Process The existence of words is distributed in series or structures consisting of various levels in linguistics 2. Identifying words in terms of phonological unit, such as syllables that are formed systemically from the smallest element of the secondary articulation 3 , for example, [collect] is phonetically concrete, consisting of the syllables /kə/ and /ˈlekt/, and the smallest elements of the first independent syllable are /k/ and /ə/ and so on. Bloomfield (1933:178) stated that words are free forms, which consist entirely of (two or more) smaller free forms. In short, a word is the smallest free form. A number of words in English are monosyllabic or have only one syllable, such as |bar|, |both|, |since|, |strengthted|, and also the definite article or definite article |a| or |an|. Morphologically, a word is a unit of language, in the form of a single or combined morpheme, or independent (free morpheme). Even at the morphology, words are the largest units and the smallest units are morphemes. Observing words also includes terms of word form and lexemes, for example, |collect| is a form or appearance of a word, it is a verb element that fills the predicate function in morphosyntactic studies (see also Mathews 1974:20). Kridalaksana (2008:110) defined a word as the smallest unit in syntax, it arises from a lexeme through a morphological process. Gramatical Relationships Observing words in syntactic diagrams (grammatical units) is abstract. At the syntactics, words are the smallest units, hierarchically become components or elements that form larger syntactic units, they are phrases, clauses and sentences. As the smallest unit in syntax, words act as fillers for syntactic functions, and as markers of syntactic categories, as well as as connectors in units or parts of syntactic units. In a conversation, words act as fillers for syntactic units in the form of full words or function words. Full words are words that lexically have meaning and have the possibility of undergoing morphological processes. They are an open class, and can be independent as a unit of speech, for example, |house|, |wind|, |man|. Function words are words and lexically have no meaning, do not undergo morphological processes. They are a closed class and cannot be independent in speech, including prepositions, conjunctions, articles and pronouns.

don't look at compounds in this paper, a complex topic with a large literature. The meaning of compounds is virtually never semantically compositional, requiring pragmatics, at a minimum, to determine the relevant relation between their component parts (see Bezuidenhout 2019). 3 There are two kinds of functors, a point which will be of interest in Sect. 3 on delimiting the domain of non-compositional content: (i) categorizers (nominal, verbal, adjectival) which may be phonologically realized by various affixes, including '-tion', '-ize', '-al', and (ii) functional items that project further levels of structure like the determiners (e.g. 'the') and number (e.g. plural) for nominal structures; or tense (e.g. past) and aspect (e.g. the perfective/imperfective contrast, as in 'has eaten the apple' vs. 'was eating the apple') for verbal structures. (2017) for a clear account of developments within the lexicalist approach and of the issues that led to a radical redrawing of the lexicon/syntax boundary on constructivist and other root-based accounts.

This collection of papers on phrasal compounds is part of a bigger project whose aims are twofold: First, it seeks to broaden the typological perspective by providing data for as many different languages as possible to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon itself. Second, based on these data, which clearly show interaction between syntax and morphology, it aims to discuss theoretical models which deal with this kind of interaction in different ways. For example, models like Generative Grammar assume components of grammar and a clearcut distinction between the lexicon (often including morphology) and grammar which mostly stands for the computational system (syntax). Other models, like construction grammar do not assume such components and are rather based on a lexicon including constructs. A comparison of these models makes it then possible to assess their explanatory power. The field of morphology and syntax started to acknowledge the existence of phrasal compounds predominantly in the context of Lexicalist theories because a number of authors realised that they are not easy to handle in models of linguistic theory which demarcate the lexicon (morphology) from syntax. Commenting on Carola Trips & Jaklin Kornfilt. Further insights into phrasal compounding. In Carola Trips & Jaklin Kornfilt (eds.), Further investigations into the nature of phrasal compounding, 1-11. Berlin: Language Science Press.

This article provides a comprehensive review of urban morphology schools, with a focus on the English, Italian, and French schools of thought. The analysis follows standard academic methods, identifying central themes and important considerations while integrating current insights and knowledge in the field. By presenting a transparent and systematic study aligned with academic standards, this article contributes to the expansion of knowledge in urban morphology and provides a clear framework for future research. The English School, rooted in the work of Otto Schluter and popularized by MRG Conzen, emphasizes the study of the urban landscape and its impact on the city-making process. The Italian School, pioneered by Saverio Muratori and Gianfranco Caniggia, focuses on the morphology of existing cities and the relationship between buildings and urban form. The French School, founded by Philippe Panerai, Jean Castex, and Jean Charles Depaule, combines design theory and city-building theory, incorporating ideas from sociologists and architectural historians. The article highlights the contributions of these schools and their relevance in understanding urban from analysis. Finally, a comparison is made among these schools, along with providing criticism to enhance our understanding of them.

This paper compares two analyses of interfixal-paradigmatic formations in Polish, such as listonosz ‘mail carrier’ and korkociąg ‘corkscrew’. They are often interpreted as exocentric compounds consisting of a noun stem and a verb stem connected by a linking vowel, i.e. as [N+LV+V]N formations (Kurzowa; Booij, “Morphology”). The proposal defended here is the treatment of such lexemes as [N+LV+[V]N]N compounds, in which the right-hand verb stems are assumed to undergo conversion into nouns. Semantic arguments are presented in support of such an assumption. Moreover, differences are emphasised between properties of the interfixal-paradigmatic formations in question and features of exocentric compounds in which the verb stem stands in the initial position, e.g. moczymorda ‘drunkard’. The analysis adopted here in the framework of Construction Morphology involves the simultaneous application of two morphological operations, namely compounding and nominalisation (i.e. verb-to-noun conversi...

A recent trend in psycholinguistic research has been to posit prediction as an essential function of language processing. The present paper develops a linguistic perspective on viewing prediction in terms of pre-activation. We describe what predictions are and how they are produced. Our basic premises are that (a) no prediction can be made without knowledge to support it; and (b) it is therefore necessary to characterize the precise form of that knowledge, as revealed by a suitable theory of linguistic representations. We describe the Parallel Architecture (PA: Jackendoff, 2002; Jackendoff & Audring, 2020), which makes explicit our commitments about linguistic representations, and we develop an account of processing based on these representations. Crucial to our account is that what have been traditionally treated as derivational rules of grammar are formalized by the PA as lexical items, encoded in the same format as words. We then present a theory of prediction in these terms: linguistic input activates lexical items whose beginning (or incipit) corresponds to the input encountered so far; and prediction amounts to pre-activation of the as yet unheard parts of those lexical items (the remainder). Thus the generation of predictions is a natural byproduct of processing linguistic representations. We conclude that the PA perspective on pre-activation provides a plausible account of prediction in language processing that bridges linguistic and psycholinguistic theorizing.

German, Dutch and English have surprisingly large sets of verbal diminutives: verbs ending in-el/-le and carrying an attenuative and/or iterative meaning. These verbs exhibit particular properties that make them interesting for morphological theory. Focussing on Dutch data, this paper sketches the challenges that arise with respect to structure, productivity and meaning, and proposes a constructionist account that allows for a better understanding of the issues. The central notion is the schema, a generalization over the structure of complex words. In contrast to rules, whose main function is to generate new words, schemas motivate existing words by marking their structure as non-arbitrary. We discuss the modelling options this gives us and apply them to the verbal diminutives.