Middle Bronze Age Metallurgy

Tis paper argues that what is presently considered normal practice in
Romanian archaeology is too narrow with respect to the variety of data
that can potentially be collected from the feldwork as well as later, in
the laboratory, from the archaeological material, and that this is caused
by the dominance of the culture-historical paradigm, which is ultimately limited to the identifcation of social groups and does not provide the theoretical tools necessary for the meaningful integration of these new categories of data (i.e., it cannot use them to explain how societies work). Further, it argues that the scope of what is presently seen as standard knowledge in Romanian archaeology should be very much widened to include whatever domain of the social and natural sciences is necessary in
order to provide better archaeological results. It also draws attention to
the consequences of the delay of such a change in archaeology: the risk
of losing precious information in the feld, in a period when expanding
infrastructure works and construction of residential areas are destroying
archaeological sites at a quicker rate than in earlier times.
At the same time, the paper highlights that the changes needed in
Romanian archaeology cannot be left to archaeologists at the individual
level alone, and that an extensive process of institutional development is
absolutely necessary.

Several archaeological items discovered during recent years within the Suceava County, by various owners of metal detectors, have recently become part of the collections of the National Museum of Bukovina. Among them, a copper axe with raised sides, belonging to the "Randleistenbeil" type ("flanged axe"), as it is known in the specialized literature. By means of this presentation, the authors are introducing the item into the scientific circuit, pointing out also the results of non-destructive analyses, as well as an attempt of reconstructing the technological process of manufacturing the item. Considering the morphological characteristics and the analogies of the axe found at Adâncata, the name "Târpești-Hlăpești-Adâncata" variant is proposed for this category of objects discovered in the eastern Carpathian area, related to the autochthonous cultural manifestations dated to the interval spreading from the end of the third millennium BC until the 18 th-17 th centuries BC, that is between the end of the Early Bronze Age and the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age.

The archaeological excavation of a Bronze Age shield is an almost unprecedented event. So, too, is to find one within a stratified sequence along with bones and pottery. Such an occurrence happened during excavations at »Milsom’s Corner« in South Cadbury (Somerset) in 1997. At first sight, this discovery offers a unique opportunity to date and contextualise the deposition of a shield. However, its placing in a silted ditch on the ridge of a spur is wholly atypical of shield find circumstances in the British Isles, for these are otherwise from wetland locations. The circumstances of the deposition of the South Cadbury shield therefore assume particular interest and it transpires that they may be unusual in more than one respect.

The DNA is present in every cell of a person’s body, not only in the cell’s nucleus but also in its cytoplasm, in mitochondria. Of great importance is the fact that, except for the rare occurrence of a mutation, the DNA in every cell of the person’s body is identical. As a result, DNA can be taken from saliva, sweat, blood, hair, skin or bone cells for individual identification. The many opportunities to obtain DNA evidence can be seen, for example, in the number of places where saliva has been identified: a bite mark, an area licked, bed linens, a mask worn, paper tissue, a washcloth, a cigarette butt, a toothpick, the rim of a bottle or glass, but all of those sources are available just for present DNA. In the case of old DNA, also called ancient DNA (aDNA), the things are different and the possibilities to analyse the substrate of genetic information are limited to bone fragments or teeth. Even in these conditions, the DNA analysis is a very accurate and powerful tool for getting...

Dan Aparaschivei (b. 1976, Pașcani), senior scientific researcher at the Romanian Academy-Iași Branch, Institute of Archaeology. Specialist in the history and archeology of the Roman and Late Roman era in the Lower Danube region. He has published and edited 10 volumes and published over 60 papers and studies. He received the award "A.D. Xenopol" of the Romanian Academy for the book Orașele romane de la Dunărea Inferioară (secolele I-III) [Roman cities from the Lower Danube (1st-3rd centuries)], University Ed. Al. I. Cuza, Iași, 2010. He is an active member of several scientific committees and professional associations in Romania and Europe. Coordinates systematic archaeological research on the Ibida and Aegyssus sites (Moesia Inferior/Scythia province), along with numerous preventive archaeological research in the eastern region of Romania. Alexandru Berzovan (b. 1986, Caransebeș), scientific researcher at the Romanian Academy-Iași Branch, Institute of Archaeology. Has concerns about the Late Iron Age, currently dealing with the East-Carpathian Romanian space. Participant in numerous national and international conferences, published several books, volumes and studies at prestigious publishing houses and journals in country and abroad (see vol.

Asăndulesei (Iaşi) (membres). Web-editor: Ştefan Caliniuc La responsabilité du contenu scientifique et sur la forme des articles revient intégralement aux auteurs. Les manuscrits, les livres et les revues proposés en échange et pour comptes-rendus, ainsi que toute la correspondance seront adressés à la Redaction:

The DNA is present in every cell of a person’s body, not only in the cell’s nucleus but also in its cytoplasm, in mitochondria. Of great importance is the fact that, except for the rare occurrence of a mutation, the DNA in every cell of the person’s body is identical. As a result, DNA can be taken from saliva, sweat, blood, hair, skin or bone cells for individual identification. The many opportunities to obtain DNA evidence can be seen, for example, in the number of places where saliva has been identified: a bite mark, an area licked, bed linens, a mask worn, paper tissue, a washcloth, a cigarette butt, a toothpick, the rim of a bottle or glass, but all of those sources are available just for present DNA. In the case of old DNA, also called ancient DNA (aDNA), the things are different and the possibilities to analyse the substrate of genetic information are limited to bone fragments or teeth. Even in these conditions, the DNA analysis is a very accurate and powerful tool for getting...

Interdisciplinary investigations of the human osteological remains help us to understand the genetic diversity, the mobility or the paleodiet of the past communities and offer us insights on the diagenetic processes. The present study aims to assess the results of chemical, mineralogical and microscopic analyses performed on different human osteological remains selected from archaeological sites situated in Eastern Romania in order to understand the diagenetic transformations involved in the site formation processes and to estimate their influence on the historical interpretation.

This study presents the first ancient mitochondrial DNA (amtDNA) results obtained by sampling human bones selected from an Early Bronze Age funerary context with the aim of identifying the haplogroup and starting to build an amtDNA reference database based on samples selected from Eastern Romania. The human bones analysed in this study were part of the Stoicani “Cetățuia” (Galați county) necropolis located in the Covurlui Plateau. The M6 funerary context does not contain any grave goods, his chronological and cultural characteristics being inferred based on its association with similar funerary contexts in the necropolis. The amtDNA obtained by analysing osteological remains attributed to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age in the Eastern Romania region helped us to identify the coexistence of different communities in the timespan characterized by accentuated human group mobility.

Interdisciplinary investigations of the human osteological remains help us to understand the genetic diversity, the mobility or the paleodiet of the past communities and offer us insights on the diagenetic processes. The present study aims to assess the results of chemical, mineralogical and microscopic analyses performed on different human osteological remains selected from archaeological sites situated in Eastern Romania in order to understand the diagenetic transformations involved in the site formation processes and to estimate their influence on the historical interpretation.

Shell-tempered ware identified at Gârcina–Slatina Cozla II-III (Neamț County) was analysed in terms of microscopic, mineralogical and chemical characteristics for revealing its technological parameters. The site located near Piatra Neamț, on the Cozla hillside was used for the exploitation of salt-water resources by the Cucuteni communities and, later on, during the Early Bronze Age. Selected pottery samples were examined using optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Results show that the studied pottery samples although similar in the added temper have distinctive features in terms of raw material quality, processing and firing regime.

This study presents the first ancient mitochondrial DNA (amtDNA) results obtained by sampling human bones selected from an Early Bronze Age funerary context with the aim of identifying the haplogroup and starting to build an amtDNA reference database based on samples selected from Eastern Romania. The human bones analysed in this study were part of the Stoicani “Cetățuia” (Galați county) necropolis located in the Covurlui Plateau. The M6 funerary context does not contain any grave goods, his chronological and cultural characteristics being inferred based on its association with similar funerary contexts in the necropolis. The amtDNA obtained by analysing osteological remains attributed to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age in the Eastern Romania region helped us to identify the coexistence of different communities in the timespan characterized by accentuated human group mobility.

Field survey activities in the Verdele brook basin, South of Hoisești village, Neamț County, have led to the identification and integration of new sites in the national archaeological database. At first, we made a visual analysis of the Verdele brook basin (left tributary of the Bistrița River), a stage followed by the identification of the places that presented specific parameters of areas with archaeological traces. In this context, South of the Hoisești village, on the left high terrace of the Verdele brook, on a flattened hillock delimited by two fossil riverbeds, we identified many archaeological traces. The fieldwalking activity continued during four agricultural seasons in which we took in consideration the distribution of the artefacts, the degree of damage inflicted to the area and the way the use of agricultural machinery was affecting an archaeological site. In order to confirm the presence of the archaeological content, the artefact distribution and the need to recover a...

The present work aims at investigating the technology used in the production of the Cucuteni C ceramic ware discovered at Poduri–Dealul Ghindaru archaeological site, with the help of a multidisciplinary approach making use of chemical and mineralogical analysis. The studied potsherds have shown the presence of different types of tempers, as determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The type of tempers present within the ceramic matrix was identified by EDX and XRD analysis, while the dispersion of the different additives in the ceramic microstructure was determined by SEM measurements

Since the natural environment is directly related to human activities, it is
one of the important aspects of archaeological research. Morphology and
characteristics of the terrain, layout of water surfaces, and watercourses are related
to the potential of inhabiting an area, and the types of surrounding ecosystems.
Therefore, it is important to have an insight into the dynamics of changes of
geomorphology and hydrography in a certain area, when researching a specific
period and area. The present-day landscape of the plain part of Banat differs
significantly from the medieval one since extensive melioration works were carried
out throughout the 19th century. These works included drying up a huge amount of
water masses including lakes, ponds, and swamps, and "taming'' wild watercourses,
especially those whose springs were in the Carpathians, which enabled the
formation of arable lands and making previously unsuitable areas habitable.
Archaeological remains from southern Banat indicate that medieval settlements
were built on elevated terrain (on loess plateaus or loess terraces), right next to
watercourses and in between swampy areas. The distribution of water bodies was
one of the important limiting factors for the formation of these settlements, and since
it differs considerably from the present-day state, it is of great importance to have
an insight into palaeohydrography of the area. The aim of this research is to propose a model of the potential distribution of water surfaces in Southwestern Banat during
the Middle Ages. Modelling was done by GIS analyses using available data which included historical maps, topographic, geologic and geomorphologic data. In
addition, data obtained from historical sources, as well as zooarchaeological
analyses, are combined to make a wider picture of the natural environment.

Interdisciplinary investigations of the human osteological remains help us to understand the genetic diversity, the mobility or the paleodiet of the past communities and offer us insights on the diagenetic processes. The present study aims to assess the results of chemical, mineralogical and microscopic analyses performed on different human osteological remains selected from archaeological sites situated in Eastern Romania in order to understand the diagenetic transformations involved in the site formation processes and to estimate their influence on the historical interpretation.

This study presents the first ancient mitochondrial DNA (amtDNA) results obtained by sampling human bones selected from an Early Bronze Age funerary context with the aim of identifying the haplogroup and starting to build an amtDNA reference database based on samples selected from Eastern Romania. The human bones analysed in this study were part of the Stoicani “Cetățuia” (Galați county) necropolis located in the Covurlui Plateau. The M6 funerary context does not contain any grave goods, his chronological and cultural characteristics being inferred based on its association with similar funerary contexts in the necropolis. The amtDNA obtained by analysing osteological remains attributed to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age in the Eastern Romania region helped us to identify the coexistence of different communities in the timespan characterized by accentuated human group mobility.

Interdisciplinary investigations of the human osteological remains help us to understand the genetic diversity, the mobility or the paleodiet of the past communities and offer us insights on the diagenetic processes. The present study aims to assess the results of chemical, mineralogical and microscopic analyses performed on different human osteological remains selected from archaeological sites situated in Eastern Romania in order to understand the diagenetic transformations involved in the site formation processes and to estimate their influence on the historical interpretation.

This study presents the first ancient mitochondrial DNA (amtDNA) results obtained by sampling human bones selected from an Early Bronze Age funerary context with the aim of identifying the haplogroup and starting to build an amtDNA reference database based on samples selected from Eastern Romania. The human bones analysed in this study were part of the Stoicani “Cetățuia” (Galați county) necropolis located in the Covurlui Plateau. The M6 funerary context does not contain any grave goods, his chronological and cultural characteristics being inferred based on its association with similar funerary contexts in the necropolis. The amtDNA obtained by analysing osteological remains attributed to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age in the Eastern Romania region helped us to identify the coexistence of different communities in the timespan characterized by accentuated human group mobility.

Interdisciplinary investigations of the human osteological remains help us to understand the genetic diversity, the mobility or the paleodiet of the past communities and offer us insights on the diagenetic processes. The present study aims to assess the results of chemical, mineralogical and microscopic analyses performed on different human osteological remains selected from archaeological sites situated in Eastern Romania in order to understand the diagenetic transformations involved in the site formation processes and to estimate their influence on the historical interpretation.

Interdisciplinary investigations of the human osteological remains help us to understand the genetic diversity, the mobility or the paleodiet of the past communities and offer us insights on the diagenetic processes. The present study aims to assess the results of chemical, mineralogical and microscopic analyses performed on different human osteological remains selected from archaeological sites situated in Eastern Romania in order to understand the diagenetic transformations involved in the site formation processes and to estimate their influence on the historical interpretation. Rezumat. Analiza interdisciplinară a fragmentelor osteologice umane contribuie la înțelegerea diversității genetice, a mobilității și paleodietei comunităților din trecut, dar și la evidențierea proceselor diagenetice care au afectat structura materialului osteologic. Studiul prezent își propune să integreze date privind compoziția chimică, mineralogică și structurală a unor fragmente osteologice selectate...

Interdisciplinary investigations of the human osteological remains help us to understand the genetic diversity, the mobility or the paleodiet of the past communities and offer us insights on the diagenetic processes. The present study aims to assess the results of chemical, mineralogical and microscopic analyses performed on different human osteological remains selected from archaeological sites situated in Eastern Romania in order to understand the diagenetic transformations involved in the site formation processes and to estimate their influence on the historical interpretation.

This study presents the first ancient mitochondrial DNA (amtDNA) results obtained by sampling human bones selected from an Early Bronze Age funerary context with the aim of identifying the haplogroup and starting to build an amtDNA reference database based on samples selected from Eastern Romania. The human bones analysed in this study were part of the Stoicani “Cetățuia” (Galați county) necropolis located in the Covurlui Plateau. The M6 funerary context does not contain any grave goods, his chronological and cultural characteristics being inferred based on its association with similar funerary contexts in the necropolis. The amtDNA obtained by analysing osteological remains attributed to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age in the Eastern Romania region helped us to identify the coexistence of different communities in the timespan characterized by accentuated human group mobility.

The Costișa archaeological culture has been known for more than half a century and it has been categorized as belonging to the Middle Bronze Age in the Eastern Carpathian area. From the very beginning it was supposed to be the result of local connections with southern Monteoru-type elements and northern ones such as Komariw-Bialy-Potik. This assessment was made on the basis of a comparative analysis of the known archaeological investigation methods (stratigraphy and pottery typology). The present contribution employs another type of analysis of the pottery from the eponymous site. Thus, starting from the archaeological database consisting of seven pottery shards, the following scientific investigations were performed: SEM-EDS analysis, optical spectroscopy, and chemical modules analysis. The aim was to cover all the steps followed during modern pottery investigation, from the archaeological description of the artefacts and the initial macroscopic evaluation, to the integration by the archaeologist of the data obtained from the other types of analysis. The results of these analyses could provide multiple coherent answers regarding the history of a site, the ceramic technology, the relations between the local community and the Monteoru ones. Rezumat: Cultura Costișa este cunoscută de peste o jumătate de secol. Aceasta a fost încadrată în perioada mijlocie a epocii bronzului din zona de răsărit a Carpaților Orientali. Încă de la debutul cercetărilor, cultura Costișa a fost considerată ca fiind rezultatul îmbinării unor elemente nordice de tip Komariw-Bialy-Potok cu elemente sudice de tip Monteoru. Această primă evaluare a fost făcută pe baza analizei comparative a rezultatelor aplicării metodelor de investigare arheologică (stratigrafie și tipologie ceramică). Contribuția actuală încearcă să utilizeze și alt tip de investigare a materialului ceramic din situl omonim. Astfel, pornind de la o bază de date arheologice formată din șapte fragmente de ceramică, au fost aplicate și următoarele tipuri de investigație NECULAI BOLOHAN 200 științifică: macroscopie și microscopie optică, analiza SEM-EDS, spectroscopie optică, module de analiză chimică. Am dorit parcurgerea tuturor etapelor unui tip actual de investigare a olăriei, care începe cu descrierea arheologică a artefactelor și prima evaluare macroscopică până la integrarea de către arheolog a datelor rezultate ca urmare a utilizării analizelor multiple. Rezultatele acestor investigații ar putea oferi mai multe răspunsuri coerente cu privire la următoarele aspecte: istoria de unui sit, tehnologia ceramică, relațiile dintre comunitatea locală și comunitățile Monteoru.

Shell-tempered ware identified at Gârcina–Slatina Cozla II-III (Neamț County) was analysed in terms of microscopic, mineralogical and chemical characteristics for revealing its technological parameters. The site located near Piatra Neamț, on the Cozla hillside was used for the exploitation of salt-water resources by the Cucuteni communities and, later on, during the Early Bronze Age. Selected pottery samples were examined using optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Results show that the studied pottery samples although similar in the added temper have distinctive features in terms of raw material quality, processing and firing regime.

A partir del estudio de cuatro objetos metálicos (una daga y tres puntas de flecha) procedentes de otras tantas cuevas del entorno geográfico de Castro Urdiales, culturalmente encuadrables entre el Calcolítico final y el Bronce medio, y cuya analítica ha proporcionado su fabricación en cobre de origen foráneo a la costa cantábrica, se concluye que llegaron hasta aquel prolífico lugar de la costa tanto desde diferentes puntos de la Península como por diferentes caminos. Se reflexiona en torno a la especial presencia de objetos foráneos en la etapa media de la Edad del Bronce, llegados hasta el centro de la cornisa cantábrica desde todos los puntos cardinales.
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Four metal objects (a dagger and three arrow-heads) from four caves in the Castro Urdiales area can be dated culturally from the late Chalcolithic to the Middle Bronze Age. Their analysis has shown that they were made from copper not present on the Cantabrian coast, with the conclusion that these objects came to that prolific coastal place from different parts of the Iberian Peninsula and by different routes. The particular presence of allochthonous objects, which reached the middle sector of the northern Spain from all points of the compass in the middle Bronze Age, is discussed. PALABRAS CLAVE: Arqueometalurgia. Bronce antiguo. Bronce medio. Calcolítico final. Campaniforme. Cobre. Metalistería prehistórica. Metalurgia prehistórica.

to the period Ha B or horizon 5, but there is no information about the original composition and the character of the inventory (cf. König 2004, 214, pl. 67, cat. no. 27). Perhaps the spearhead from Ometala could also be characterized as an 'heirloom' in the bronze hoard. The spearheads of the Palaiopyrgos type were deposited in tombs of the northwestern Peloponnese during the twelfth century BC or the period LH III C (cf.

Present archaeological research acknowledges the possibility to view globalisation as a phenomenon that occurred in the Bronze Age as well, stretching from the eastern Atlantic to the western Pacific, an unravelling that is coined bronzization. In essence, it expresses the idea of peoples of the age are interconnected and the directional and non-directional flow of ideas and goods, all facilitated by a transculture, what is bronze. The tangible and intangible transported through these flows are adapted and entangled into the local, a phenomenon which is termed glocalisation, that gave birth to slightly varied, but nevertheless genetically related products.
The present paper explores glocalisations of human-nature relations in Bronze Age ritual social milieus of the Aegean and Eastern Carpathian Basin (ECB). Ritual is outlined as performative utterance and enacted social memory which if interpreted through a phenomenological prism elucidates the locally entangled agencies of nature. Moreover, landscape archaeology is employed to explore phenomenological extents of glocalised rituals. The impact of a cascading nature over human senses and perceptions is underscored through definitions of meadow- and sylvanscapes, both viewed as essential background against which rituals are performed and that trigger enactments of social memory.
Ritual meadowscapes of the Aegean are recognised in sacred ‘gardens’ of the elites, information about which is conveyed to us mostly through visual (frescoes, glyptic, pottery) and written (Linear B) media that is exemplified through well-known finds. Evidence in the archaeological record for these is sought in archaeobotany, especially for flowers and trees, while palaeobotany is employed to understand how and when the human-nature relation represented by ‘gardens’ is born, that is to say is glocalised in the Aegean. Furthermore, a glocalisation of the same relation in the ECB is recognised through funerary sylvanscapes. The materialisation of ritual in this latter region is seen in the funerary aspects of daily life, since these do not end with the interment of the deceased, but continue on with the periodical visit of the burial ground by a distinct group of individuals to enact social memory tied to the location and past individuals. The recognition of Bronze Age woodlands is owed to the landscape approach to funerary aspects of the ECB. Through the successful combination of palaeobotany, paleozoology, geomorphology, hydrology and lithology in a GIS system archeco-zones are defined, which in the case of a specific sub archeco-zone allowed for the clear association of woodlands with a distinct set of burials. Intimacy of woodlands opposed to the wild woods must have been an imperative for the Bronze Age people, since revisiting hostile environments for enactment of rituals or even disposal of the loved ones is unimaginable.
The paper argues for two Bronze Age glocalisations of human-nature relations, which are recognisable through landscape archaeology approaches and a phenomenological mind set. It proposes two distinct methodologies, one rooted in classical archaeology and only partially in natural sciences, while the other relies heavily on data and tools from the latter scientific fields. Ultimately, both illustrate how Bronze Age people relate through all of their senses and perceptions to their environment and nature, but also how these are major factors in the choice of place, time and people for performative utterances and enactments of social memory. Lastly, the study demonstrates that similar ideas are in circulation in the same time over larger areas and their local adaptations give birth to the nuanced facets of what we call the Bronze Age world.

The various geographical features had a major impact on the behaviour of prehistoric communities, which can be determined by identifying a series of characteristics and preferences regarding the geographical location of the settlement and the resources exploited. In a well-defined space, the population, as well as the development of human groups, is determined by the micro-and macro-regional geographical characteristics. The use of this type of analysis in the study of Cracău-Bistrița Depression, between the late Chalcolithic and the early Hallstatt, will contribute to a better knowledge of this segment of archaeological research in Romania. The present approach, combined with a high number of thorough field researches, can generate predictive models, thus contributing to a more complex overview of the archaeological characteristics, but also of geographical, geological conditions, etc. preferred by prehistoric communities in this area and beyond. Rezumat. Diversele particularități geografice au avut un impact major asupra comportamentului comunităților preistorice, care poate fi determinat prin identificarea unei serii de constante și preferințe în ceea ce privește locul amplasării sistemelor de locuire și resursele exploatate. Într-un spațiu bine delimitat, popularea, precum și dezvoltarea grupurilor umane este determinată de caracteristicile geografice micro-și macroregionale. Utilizarea acestui tip de analiză în studiul depresiunii Cracău-Bistrița în intervalul cuprins între Eneoliticul dezvoltat și Hallstattul timpuriu, va contribui la o mai bună cunoaștere a acestui segment al cercetării arheologice din România. Demersul de față, reprezentat de analiza spațială a așezărilor, îmbinat cu un număr ridicat de cercetări de teren amănunțite, poate genera modele predictive, contribuind astfel la obținerea unei imagini de ansamblu cu mult mai complexă asupra caracteristicilor arheologice, dar și asupra condițiilor geografice, geologice etc. preferate de comunitățile preistorice din această zonă, și nu numai.

The site in Bolduţ, Cluj County is the first site of metallurgists discovered in Transylvania.
There are practically no housing here, only workshops. Minerals, bronze droplets, tin fragments, and numerous ash deposits have been discovered.
In my opinion the latter are ritualistic.

Following our research plans one often forgets that there are several ways to see/approach the pottery, to understand its role and functionality from extracting clay up to the finest analysis. In these circumstances, one have to bear in mind that there are at least three ways to perceive and interpret pottery: pottery for the potters, pottery for archaeologists and in recent years pottery for scientists (chemists, physicists, geologists etc). Each professional group has its own language and an independent type of approach that produces different discourses. However, diversity of answers does not provide the best answer to multiple questions concerning technological segment of the community life past. So far, the dominant interpretation was that ethnographic analogy might provide the best answers. However, the diversity of archaeological data implies the necessity of collaboration with other sciences such as chemistry, physics, materials engineering etc. In this context, after a long experience in the field of ‘classical archaeology’, the attention was turned to a newer, more multidisciplinary approach.

The current investigations allowed us to set forth some assumptions or conclusions, which concern the evolution of the Costişa community in the context of the passage from Early Bronze Age to Middle Bronze Age and in the Middle Bronze Age within the eastern Carpathians area. On the account of the precious research it can be established that there existed some interference between Monteoru Ic4 and the beginning of the Costişa communities, and contacts intensied during the Monteoru Ic3–Ic2 phases. There is enough evidence to place the beginning of the Costişa culture at the very end of the 3 rd millennium BC. The idea of a Central European contribution in dening Costişa features became an established truth. If we look back in time, a similar phenomenon occurred in the case of the Globular Amphora culture that penetrated through Volhynia and western Podolia to the northern half of Moldavia. Accepting this scenario, these communities in the northern half of Moldavia might represent an extremely southern extension of the Komariw-Bialyi Potik groups blended in the area by some Carpathian Basin features. Nevertheless, the newly created identity might represent in some extent the result of negotiating places, artefacts, strategies and multilateral relationships. By bringing together the archaeological data, we can conclude that during the final stage of the Early Bronze Age and the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age the communities in the foothills of the eastern Carpathians could act together with other contemporary communities (Mnogovalikovaya culture, Monteoru culture) as a mediator between areas of the Carpathian Basin and neighbouring areas. In this scenario, salt may have played an important role. The hilltop settlement of Siliştea seems to have had all the necessary characteristics (location, altitude, orientation, visibility) in a close spatial relation to the salt springs in the Cracău-Bistriţa catchments.

Common salt (sodium chloride) is an invisible object for archaeological research, but the ancient texts, the history, the ethnography and our everyday life confirm that both Man and Animal cannot live without it. Salt is a primordial reference for humanity. This “fifth element” is universal in a double sense, diachronically and diatopically. How can archaeology and related disciplines or sciences approximate this soluble good, this “white gold”, this invisible past?

From the diatopic and diachronic perspective, common salt—with all its natural or artificial metamorphoses—has influenced humanity in the most diverse aspects. This is why, within a brief enumeration, the salt-related research themes are intriguingly various: explorations (hunting for salt), exploitation techniques, techniques to obtain different products, exploitation and use tools, transport and storage containers, human and animal feeding, conservation (meat, bacon, cheese, vegetables, green goods, fruits). The themes also include manufacture-related uses (including the construction of salt houses), mythology, religion, cult, rituals, beliefs, superstitions, mentalities, secret societies, magic, vows, curses, prohibitions, popular medicine, sexuality, economy, hide working, population, alchemical procedures, scientific and cultural representations, treatment of the deceased, barter, commerce, contraband, robbery.

On the other hand, the themes also include human and animal mobility, the attraction exerted on savage beasts, symbolic uses, folk literature (stories, tales, and proverbs) and cult literature, the control of salt resources, conflicts, strategic value, geographic perceptions, professions related to salt exploitation and uses, economic, legal and administrative regulations, vocabulary, toponymy, anthroponomy and the list can go on.

All these themes already constitute a study object for an impressive number of sciences, disciplines, or sub-disciplines, such as archaeology, heritage studies, history, ethnography, ethnoarchaeology, economic anthropology, food sciences, statistics, sociology, geology, mineralogy, geography, hydrology, botany, chemistry, medicine, pharmacology, ethology, theology, agronomy, symbology, linguistics, folklore studies, cultural studies, literary studies, hermeneutics, legal sciences, etc. Obviously, some themes must be approached only in an interdisciplinary vision.

The Costișa archaeological culture has been known for more than half a century
and it has been categorized as belonging to the Middle Bronze Age in the Eastern Carpathian area. From the very beginning it was supposed to be the result of local connections with southern Monteoru-type elements and northern ones such as Komariw-Bialy-Potik. This assessment was made on the basis of a comparative analysis of the known archaeological investigation methods (stratigraphy and pottery typology). The  present contribution employs another type of analysis of the pottery from the eponymous site. Thus, starting from the archaeological database consisting of seven pottery shards, the following scientific investigations were performed: SEM-EDS analysis, optical spectroscopy, and chemical modules analysis. The aim was to cover all the steps followed during modern pottery investigation, from the archaeological description of the artefacts and the initial macroscopic evaluation, to the integration by the archaeologist of the data obtained from the other types of analysis. The results of these analyses could provide multiple coherent answers regarding the history of a site, the ceramic technology, the relations between the local community and the Monteoru ones.

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României OMAGIU. Attila, László Signa praehistorica : studia in honorem magistri Attila László septuagesimo anno / ediderunt Neculai Bolohan, Florica Măţău et Felix Adrian Tencariu. -Iaşi : Editura Universităţii "Al. I. Cuza", 2010 ISBN 978-973-703-581-3 I. Bolohan, Neculai (ed.) II. Măţău, Florica (ed.) III. Tencariu, Felix Adrian (ed.) 903(498)

Following our research plans one often forgets that there are several ways to see/approach the pottery, to understand its role and functionality from extracting clay up to the finest analysis. In these circumstances, one have to bear in mind that there are at least three ways to perceive and interpret pottery: pottery for the potters, pottery for archaeologists and in recent years pottery for scientists (chemists, physicists, geologists etc). Each professional group has its own language and an independent type of approach that produces different discourses. However, diversity of answers does not provide the best answer to multiple questions concerning technological segment of the community life past. So far, the dominant interpretation was that ethnographic analogy might provide the best answers. However, the diversity of archaeological data implies the necessity of collaboration with other sciences such as chemistry, physics, materials engineering etc. In this context, after a long experience in the field of ‘classical archaeology’, the attention was turned to a newer, more multidisciplinary approach.