Mental Lexicon

The purpose of the qualitative research was to assess models of education developed for the study to investigate how and when to incorporate second and third languages into the curriculum to improve language acquisition. Research indicates that L3 enhances and reinforces L2 and L1. The stratified systematic grounded theory study explored the perspectives of neurolinguists, psycholinguists, sociolinguists, and interdisciplinary education researchers to derive variables for constructing a new model of education. The outcome of the Internet survey revealed that 100% of the participants agreed that education must change and that teacher training must improve. Variables from the cross-disciplinary data contributed to the construction of an integrated model of multilingual education consisting of four primary models and other models to serve as tools for designing curriculum, instruction, and assessment as well as determining demographics and student meta-analysis of language abilities and storage in the brain. The first model emerged from the data to offer multilingual principles of education. The other primary models are macro, meso, and micro models. The macro model represents schools, instruction, assessment, and the curriculum cycle. The meso model depicts the developmental domains of the individual learner and includes a cyclical equation. The micro model delineates multilingual processing in the brain based on neurolinguistic research, variables from the current study, and Kees de Bot's bilingual adaptation of Levelt's language processing model. Recommendations include the incorporation of notional-functional pragmatic-aesthetic concepts as depicted in the models developed for the study and enhanced by input from published researchers with unique language and research repertoires who were located on four continents.

FORMACIÓN DE PALABRAS Y ENSEÑANZA DEL ESPAÑOL LE/L2 offers a unique combination of theory and practice that guides the reader through the main processes of word formation in Spanish. It provides a detailed analysis of the role of lexical creation in the acquisition of L2 Spanish vocabulary, as well as over a hundred practical self-reflection activities.

Key features:

• Comprehensive theoretical explanations of word formation, including theoretical and pedagogical principles and their implementation in the teaching of L2 Spanish;
• Step-by-step pedagogical introductions to the full range of lexical creation mechanisms in Spanish language, including prefixation, emotive and nonemotive suffixation and composition;
• Carefully-chosen lists of relevant issues on lexical morphology with immediate applicability to the teaching of L2 Spanish;
• Guided activities with an answer key, which helps the reader to connect theory with practice and to become familiar with the key aspects of Spanish lexical morphology;
• Guidelines on how to tackle the teaching of Spanish word formation and vocabulary in an effective and engaging way.
Written in a clear and accessible manner, Formación de palabras y enseñanza del español LE/L2 is an essential resource for teachers of Spanish at all levels. It is also an excellent reference book for language teachers who wish to integrate word formation into the teaching of the Spanish language.

The purpose of this paper is to draw on recent studies of bilingualism and emotions to argue for three types of modifications to the current models of the bilingual lexicon. The first modification involves word categories: I will show that emotion words need to be considered as a separate class of words in the mental lexicon, represented and processed differently from abstract and concrete words. The second modification involves conceptual representations: I will demonstrate that emotion concepts vary across languages and that bilinguals' concepts may, in some cases, be distinct from those of monolingual speakers. The third modification involves emotionality: I will argue that emotionality is an important feature of the bilingual lexicon, where different languages and word types display different levels of emotionality. I will also show how differential emotionality affects code-switching and language choice in bi-and multilinguals. The purpose of this paper is to draw on recent studies of bilingualism and emotions to argue that future models of the bilingual lexicon need to acknowledge – where relevant – not only linguistic and cognitive but also affective aspects of the lexicon. I will begin with a discussion of definitions of emotion and emotion-laden words. Then, I will argue that the incorporation of the affective dimension in the mental lexicon needs to take place on three levels. On the lexical level, emotion and emotion-laden words need to be considered as a separate class of words in the mental lexicon, because recent research shows that these words are represented and processed differently from abstract and concrete words. On the conceptual level, models need to address cross-linguistic differences in emotion concepts and ways in which bilinguals' representations may differ from those of monolingual speakers. On the processing level, models need to incorporate the affective processing dimension, recognizing affective priming effects and differences in emotionality across bilinguals' languages and word types. Unlike the study of visual or auditory processing, the study of emotion and emotion-laden words and of affective processing cannot be limited to the lab, because words do not have immutable meanings or stable affective dimensions – rather their meanings and affective connotations are internalized, constructed, and negotiated in context. Consequently, where possible, I will triangulate the findings of laboratory studies of bilingual affective processing and representation with findings of sociolinguistic, ethnographic, and clinical studies. In some cases I will also appeal to bi-and multilinguals' self-reports to complement the experimental data, to highlight the human dimension of this research, and to draw on people's insights about the interplay between

"This paper compares various approaches to argument structure. We start out presenting the lexical proposal that we want to defend in this paper. We then introduce phrasal proposals that are common in Construction Grammar. A historical section describes the oscillation between early lexical proposals in Categorial Grammar, phrasal approaches in phrase structure grammar (early Transformational Grammar, GPSG) back to lexical approaches in HPSG and Minimalism. We argue that there were good reasons for returning to lexical models and that the respective issues are not addressed in phrasal approaches. We go on discussing approaches that assume that sematnically compatible verbs are inserted into phrasal constructions and point out that lexical specification of valence plays an important role in various levels of description and that phrasal models can not account for this. A similar criticism applies to so-called Neodavidsonian approaches, which are discussed in a separate section.

We will show that certain relations between constructions cannot be captured with inheritance or unification but require transformations or lexical rules, and hence in non-transformational syntax the lexical approach is the only option.

Three sections are devoted to arguments from language acquisition, psycholinguistics, and statistics. We show that contrary to frequent claims the respective experiments do not provide evidence for phrasal constructions.

We conclude that argument structure properties should be represented together with lexical items. "

Research suggests that young children use a script-based slot-filler strategy to develop categories. Children are reported to develop a taxonomic strategy by about age 8. The purpose of this study was to examine how bilingual (Spanish-English) children used taxonomic versus slot-filler strategies in a categorygeneration task presented in each language. Results indicated that although younger bilingual children (M age = 5;1) generated approximately equal numbers of items in both conditions, older bilingual children (M age = 6;5) were beginning to demonstrate a taxonomic bias. Furthermore, although bilingual children tended to generate similar numbers of items in each language under the different conditions, comparisons between the two languages indicated that a large proportion (68.40%) of items was unique to either language.

So far,the study of new words and the early stages of their lexicalization and institutionalization has focused very much on the structural and semantic changes involved as well as on the gradual spread of words in aspeech community. This paper focuses on insights into the concomitant processes taking place in language users' minds. It takes up ideas on concept-formation and hypostatization put forward in the philosophy of language, word-formation and lexical semantics and relates them to recent evidence on the processing and storage of nonce-formations and recently coined complex words collected by psycholinguists and neurolinguists. The role of frequency of exposure and semantic transparency in the increasing entrenchment of concepts in language users' memories is discussed. Effects of hypostatization -the subjective impression thatthe existence of aword suggests the existenceofaclass of things denoted by the word -are shown to be very strong even in the early phases of the establishment of new words, and pragmatic exploitations of these effects are explored. 1

A growing number of scholars regard language as social co-ordination. Not only does this overcome stale debate about whether langauge is cognitive or communicative but it opens up new thinking about its evolutionary history. Focusing on populations, the paper outlines and critiques Merlin Donald’s view of the human mind. It endorses the view that the evolutionary emergence of language can be traced to mimesis or what, twenty years ago, was called the “ability to produce conscious self-initiated representational acts that are intentional” (Donald, 1991: 168). However, ecological critique rejects the original theory’s appeal to symbolic models. I therefore argue that, while Donald is regarded as likely to be correct about the evolutionary basis of language (and languaging), it is possible to simplify his account. Instead of positing 3 evolutionary thresholds (mimesis, language and writing), mimetic skills may themselves be sufficient to ground all the slow processes of human cognition. Indeed, like tool-making, they probably co-evolved with vocal coordination. As cultures developed tools together with ‘public language’, we gained skills in using distributed cognition –ways of living that were later extended by external resources such as, for example, writing, religions, laws and technologies.

We present and analyse a set of interface phenomena showing important correlations between syntactic and semantic aspects on the one hand and phonological effects on the other. Serbo-Croatian deadjectival nominalizations exhibit two different prosodic patterns: 1) prosody faithful to the base (the prosody of the lexical adjective), 2 a rising span over a long closed penultimate syllable and the syllable following it. We formulate a generalization where, all things being equal, nominalised predicational structures correspond to (1) (also when the base has postcyclic prosody), while nominalised stems correspond to (2). The paper provides a formal model of the syntactic and semantic as well as the phonological reality of these nominalizations, and an attempt at explaining these facts.

Oceanic languages typically make a grammatical contrast between expressions of alienable and inalienable possession. Moreover, further distinctions are made in the alienable category but not in the inalienable category. The
present research tests the hypothesis that there is a good motivation for such a development in the former case. As English does not have a grammaticalized distinction between alienable and inalienable possession, it provides a good
testing ground. Three studies were conducted. In Study 1, participants were asked to write down the first interpretation that came to mind for possessive phrases, some of which contained inherently relational possessums, while
others contained possessums that are not inherently relational. Phrases with non-relational possessums elicited a broader range of interpretations and a lower consistency of a given interpretation across possessor modifiers than
those with relational possessums. Study 2 demonstrated that users assign a default interpretation to a possessive phrase containing a relational possessum even when another reading is plausible. Study 3, a corpus-based analysis of possessive phrase use, showed that phrases with relational possessums have a narrower range of interpretations than those with other possessums. Taken together, the findings strongly suggest that grammatical distinctions between different types of alienable possession are motivated.

In this chapter, we address the debate between single-system and dual-system models of language by looking at the processing of multi-word phrases. We present findings that challenge the distinction between ‘stored’ and ‘computed’ linguistic forms via two experiments. The first demonstrates parallels in the processing of words and phrases: frequent four-word phrases are processed more quickly than less frequent ones, without any evidence of a frequency threshold. The second experiment shows that idiomatic phrases prime their construction just as well as non-idiomatic phrases, suggesting that they are not stored as analyzed wholes, but instead have internal structure. Taken together, the findings undermine the empirical criteria traditionally used to distinguish between ‘stored’ and ‘computed’ forms: compositional phrases showed frequency effects, even though such effects are often thought to be a marker of lexical storage, while non-compositional forms (idioms) showed evidence of internal structure, unexpected if they are stored as unanalyzed wholes. The findings show that linguistic structures are processed in qualitatively the same way regardless of where they fall on the frequency and compositionality continua, and highlight the utility of models that deal with all linguistic experience in a qualitatively similar fashion, and allow for experience to influence the learning, representation and processing of all linguistic patterns.

DISSERTAÇÃO - O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar a sistematização de unidades fraseológicas idiomáticas (UFIs) no livro didático Panorama Brasil: ensino do português do mundo dos negócios (PONCE; BURIM; FLORISSI, 2006a), uma vez que essas unidades léxicas são abundantes nesse material. O alicerce teórico construído para identificação e seleção da unidade de análise (as UFIs) inclui a taxonomia elaborada por Corpas Pastor (1996), assim como outros autores que abordam o ensino desses itens à luz das contribuições da Psicolinguística. A pesquisa foi realizada a partir da elaboração de uma matriz de análise composta pelas contribuições dos referidos autores, que orientou a discussão sobre o papel das UFIs nos textos e atividades do livro didático escolhido. Deste modo, foi possível tecer considerações sobre os momentos em que a apresentação das UFIs e as atividades propostas com a finalidade de ensiná-las foram estruturadas de modo a proporcionar os estágios de entrada/ compreensão, armazenamento/ retenção e recuperação/produção das UFIs selecionadas, conforme propõem García (2003) e Lahuerta e Pujol (1993, 1996); sobre se o design é propício à memorização dos itens léxicos (DURÃO; ANDRADE, 2009); sobre se as características fonológicas das UFIs foram exploradas para facilitar a compreensão (CHANNEL, 1988); sobre a seleção das UFIs conforme os graus de transparência e/ou opacidade (GARCÍA, 2003); sobre se a apresentação das UFIs é semanticamente motivada (em uso – textos – ou em campos semânticos) de modo a estimular associações no léxico mental (AITCHISON, 1987; CHANNEL, 1988; LAHUERTA, PUJOL, 1993, 1996; McCARTHY, 1990; GARCÍA, 2003), entre outros aspectos. Os resultados apontam para a apresentação das UFIs e o desenho das atividades como favoráveis ao ensino de UFIs no estágio de compreensão, no que diz respeito ao grau de transparência das UFIs e à exploração de tópicos recomendados pelos autores da matriz teórica. No entanto, foram identificadas lacunas no que diz respeito aos momentos de retenção e produção das UFIs. Como contribuição, sugere-se o enriquecimento de atividades que favoreçam as etapas mencionadas.

Palavras-chave: Português para Estrangeiros. Unidades Fraseológicas idiomáticas. Ensino de Vocabulário.

As a human product, language reflects the psychological experience of man (Radden and Dirven, 2007). One model of language and human cognition in general is connectionism, by many linguists regarded as mathematical and, therefore, too reductive. This opinion trend seems to be reversing, however, due to the fact that many cognitive researchers begin to appreciate one attribute of network models: feature emergence.  In the course of a network simulation properties emerge that were neither inbuilt nor intended by its creators (Elman, 1998); in other words, the whole becomes more than just the sum of its parts. Insight is not only drawn from the network's output, but also from the means that the network utilizes to arrive at the output.
It may seem obvious that the events of life should be meaningful for human beings, yet there is no widely accepted theory as to how we derive that meaning. The most promising hypothesis regarding the question how the world is meaningful to us is that of embodied cognition (cf. Turner 2009), which postulates that the functions of the brain evolved so as to ‘understand’ the body, thus grounding the mind in an experiential foundation. Yet, the relationship between the body and the mind is far from perspicuous, as research insight is still intertwined with metaphors specific for the researcher’s methodology (Eliasmith 2003). It is the aim of this paper to investigate the conceptual metaphor in a manner that will provide some insight into  the role that objectification, as defined by Szwedek (2002), plays in human cognition, and identify one possible consequence of embodied cognition.
If the mechanism for concept formation, or categorization of the world, resembles a network, it is reasonable to assume that evidence for this is to be sought in language.  Let us then postulate the existence of a network mechanism for categorization and concept formation present in the human mind and initially developed to cope with the world directly accessible to the early human (i.e. tangible). Such a network would convert external inputs to form an internal, multi modal representation of a perceived object in the brain. The sheer amount of available information and the computational restrictions of the brain would force some sort of data compression, or a computational funnel. It has been shown that a visual perception network of this kind can learn to accurately label patterns (Elman, 1998) and form prototypes. What is more, the compression of data facilitated the recognition of prototypes of a given pattern category rather than its peripheral representations, an emergent property that supports the prototype theory of the mental lexicon (cf. Radden and Dirven, 2007).
The present project proposes that, in the domain of cognition, the process of objectification, as defined by Szwedek (2002), would be an emergent property of such a system, or that - if an abstract notion is computed by a neural network designed to cope with tangible concepts - the data compression mechanism would require the notion to be conceptualized as an object to permit further processing. The notion of emergence of meaning from the operation of complex systems is recognised as an important process in a number of studies on metaphor comprehension (Terai 2008, Utsumi 2005) as well as cognitive models of mind. Feature emergence is said to occur when a non-salient feature of the target and the vehicle becomes highly salient in the metaphor (Utsumi 2005). Therefore, for example, should objectification emerge as a feature in the metaphor KNOWLEDGE IS A TREASURE, the metaphor would be characterised as having more features of an object than either the target or vehicle alone.
This is investigated through a psychological experiment where 79 participants were asked to evaluate either conceptual metaphors or their components in terms of features on four seven-point scales (one of which was the „object-ness”, or tangibility of the metaphor target). The metaphor target domains were abstract concepts, and source domains were concrete, tangible phenomena. Response was measured for target words in metaphorical and non-metaphorical contexts. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) shows that there is a significant increase in perceived concreteness for the metaphorical condition, with no relevant differences across the primed and non-primed groups of subjects.
Therefore, the existence of an evolutionary neural mechanism for categorisation is carefully put forward; one that is able to cope with both concrete and abstract notions, the by-product of which are the abstract language-related phenomena, i.e. metaphors. The model presented in this paper aims at providing a unified account of how the various types of phenomena, objects, feelings etc. are categorized in the human mind, drawing on empirical evidence from a language based study.

This paper presents an empirical study that
investigates the vocabulary knowledge of 92 Saudi
university learners of English as a Foreign Language
(EFL) near the start and near the end of their
university studies. Two tests were used to measure
the participants’ vocabulary size: the well-established
Eurocentres Vocabulary Size Test (EVST) (Meara &
Jones, 1990) test and a newly created XK_Lex (Al-
Masrai, 2009), designed to make a more accurate
measurement of vocabulary size. Results suggest that
Saudi university students’ vocabulary size is about
2000 to 3000 words on entry to university and
around 5000 words nearer graduation. These figures
thus emphasise that Saudi university learners’ level
is, on average, some way short of the kind of level
associated with complete fluency in EFL. Thus, the
study suggests further English language support for
the graduated students.

The experience of embarrassment was explored in two experiments comparing
monolingual and bilingual speakers from cultures varying in the degree of elaboration of the embarrassment lexicon. In Experiment 1, narratives in English or
Korean depicting three types of embarrassing predicaments were to be rated on
their embarrassability and humorousness by Korean-English bilinguals, Korean
monolinguals, and Euro-American monolinguals. All groups judged certain
predicaments (involving social gaffes) to be the most embarrassing. However,
significant group and language differences occurred in judgments of the intensity
of embarrassment and amusement judgments evoked. Euro-Americans exhibited
higher overall levels of amusement than the two Korean groups who, in
turn, reported higher levels of embarrassment, particularly for certain predicament
types and contexts (ingroup members present). Further, for the bilinguals,
inept performance predicaments in English were judged more embarrassing
than those in Korean, whereas all predicament types were judged more amusing
when framed with English emotion labels. Bilinguals also appeared to show a
heightened embarrassability relative to both monolingual groups. Experiment
2 found lexical selection differences in open-ended responses to embarrassing
predicaments depicted in each language, with Euro-Americans preferring to give
justifications or use humor to minimize the embarrassment and Korean-English
bilinguals preferring to give apologies or say nothing. The findings are interpreted
to reflect the influence of culturally-mediated schemas guiding the activation
and processing of emotion vocabulary.

Un élément clé pour l’étude du lexique mental dans l’apprentissage du vocabulaire des langues est celle du raisonnement par analogie qui entame deux phénomènes très caractéristiques dans l’apprentissage des langues dû à la diversité de celles-ci -le transfert et l’interférence-. Comme dans autres domaines cognitifs, le raisonnement par analogie est propre de la nature de l’être humain. Certes, cette manière de raisonner peut être outil pour résoudre certains problèmes propres à l’apprentissage comme dans le transfert positif, mais dans certain cas il peut nuire à une confusion et le rendre problématique et déclencher ce qu’on appel « une interférence ». Les systèmes linguistiques divergent en phonologie, en syntaxe, en grammaire, etc, et dans tous ces aspects l’apprenant des langues rencontre des similitudes et des différences par rapport à son système linguistique et le système linguistique de la langue cible. Ce qui rendre très fréquent l’usage de raisonnement par analogie en découvrant le fonctionnement de la nouvelle langue par rapport à la sienne. Le but de cet article est de décortiquer la nature de cette analogie, et plus spécifiquement sont côte problématique qui est « l'interférence »; nous nous demandons quels sont les facteurs qui favorisent telle démarche. C’est important aussi de savoir, dans quel degré l’apprentissage d’une langue influence l’apprentissage d’une autre, à savoir L2 sur L3. De la même manière si les habitudes que quelqu’un a de la langue maternelle menacent interférer dans les habitudes que quelqu’un doit se créer de la langue cible, et si le mélange de ces deux habitudes est la conséquence directe des interlangues. Finalement, une question qui s’est posée depuis les années 50 avec l’entreprise des chercheurs sur le CAH (contrast Analysis Hypothesis) est de savoir si en connaissant tous ces points clés de l'interférence des langues ils pourraient dans une certaine mesure être évités au moment de l'enseignement et de l’apprentissage de la langue cible et ainsi conduire à un enseignement des langues plus propre et moins encombrant avec des erreurs.

The present research factorially examined the effects of homophone density, visual frequency, and phonological frequency (defined here as the cumulative
frequency of homophone mates) in Chinese visual word recognition. Stimuli were compound characters matched in semantic and phonetic radical neighbourhood
density and in average visual frequency of orthographic neighbours. In contrast to a previous study with Chinese by Ziegler, Tan, Perry, and Montant (2000), no facilitative effect of phonological frequency was observed. Unlike previous findings with English readers of inhibitory effects of homophones,
a facilitative effect of homophone density was restricted to low visual frequency words and was obtained for Chinese in both lexical decision (Exp. 1) and naming (Exp. 2), similar to Ziegler et al. (2000). Our results suggest that, when there is less possibility of sublexical competition between similar spellings, homophone density effects are facilitatory. This outcome supports theoretical positions regarding the mental representation of homophones that assume a
single representation for homophones at the phonological word form level.

It has been suggested that the Romance first person singular indicative constitutes a natural class with the present subjunctive paradigm for the purposes of stem selection (Maiden 2005), thus forming a kind of ‘diagonal syncretism’, as the latter shares no morphosyntactic features with the former. The existence of such patterns has been taken to be an argument for autonomous morphology and the existence of unnatural ‘morphomes’, in the sense of Aronoff (1994). Our experimental investigations with native speakers of Portuguese, Italian, and Spanish reveal that this pattern is underlearned, and that speakers do not generalize it to novel forms, instead preferring the 2nd person singular indicative to the 1st person as the base for the derivation of the subjunctive paradigm (and the 2nd person indicative as opposed to the 2nd person subjunctive as the base for the derivation of the 1st person indicative as well). The results implicate a role for naturalness biases in morphological structure, and an awareness that the first person singular is an unreliable and idiosyncratic base for productive inflectional identity. We then study the underlearning of the L-morphome in terms of historical change in the salience of these patterns. We demonstrate, through means of diachronic corpus studies spanning five centuries, a change in the ratio of first conjugation verbs to second & third conjugation verbs, and a resulting decrease in the relative type frequency of where morphomic verbs reside. If indeed learners need increased evidence in order to incorporate and actively uptake unnatural patterns, this lexical support has dwindled over time. Even though many of the morphomic verbs have maintained a very high token frequency (allowing them to survive as memorized), their productivity has diminished over time, and hence they go unlearned as a generalizable pattern. When the distribution of irregular alternations is overshadowed in the lexicon, a morphologically unnatural pattern may cease to maintain its status as part of the grammar.

According to the Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio & Desrochers, 1980), words that are associated with rich visual imagery are more easily learned than abstract words due to what is termed the concreteness effect (Altarriba & Bauer, 2004; de Groot, 1992, de Groot et al., 1994; ter Doest & Semin, 2005). The present study examined the effects of attaching visual imagery to abstract words through use of a meaning recall test. Eighty-seven American university students of first-year Spanish participated in the study. Participants were placed in either picture or non-picture groups and were given a treatment of 12 abstract and 12 concrete words. The treatment included three input phases lasting approximately 17 minutes. The posttest and delayed posttest involved a meaning recall test to measure receptive knowledge in which participants were supplied the L2 lexical item and asked to write the L1 translation. The results indicated that participants in the abstract picture group outperformed those in the abstract non-picture group on both posttest and delayed posttest; however, no such effect was found for concrete words. Findings suggest that meaning recall of abstract words can be facilitated by usage of metaphorical, emotive, or symbolic imagery.

Considerable research has investigated the effect of preschool education on subsequent school success and proposed a positive link between the two. Less research, however, has directly investigated the influence of preschool education on children's vocabulary development. This paper reports on a study that examines the impact of preschool education on children's first language (L1) vocabulary development in early childhood settings and the potential impact this has on the successive acquisition of second language (L2) vocabulary in later school years. To conduct the study, data from 200 Arabic-English successive bilingual children were collected. The data are scores on receptive vocabulary knowledge in L1 and L2 of two groups of fourth grade schoolchildren (with and without preschool education). The results show that: (1) preschool education contributes largely to L1 vocabulary development and L2 vocabulary acquisition; (2) there is a strong link between L1 and L2 receptive vocabulary knowledge; and (3) bilingual mental lexicon size is predicted by preschool education. The present study provides further insights on the relation between preschool education and L1 vocabulary growth and the influence of this on sequential bilingualism. These findings will allow informed decisions on the support for preschool education by parents and educational policymakers.

"The aim of this study is to experimentally investigate Evaluative Morphology (EM) in an Italian agrammatic speaker. In the neurolinguistic literature, to our
knowledge, there are no previous attempts to systematically analyze possible deficits, specifically concerning EM in agrammatic speakers.
Previous theoretical works argued that Italian EM should be considered
as a specific type of lexical process, different from both inflection and
derivation (Scalise, 1984). In recent years, there have been many
works devoted to the study of EM from a syntactic viewpoint (e.g. Cinque
2006, 2011; Ott 2011, De Belder, Faust and Lampitelli 2009, 2012). Data from agrammatic production are crucial for checking the validity of a syntactic approach to evaluative markers. The results show that our agrammatic (Crossed) aphasic speaker doesn’t have a specific deficit for EM. This fact seems to weaken a syntactic approach to EM, where e.g. evaluative markers are treated as functional heads within an extended projection. In fact, given that agrammatic speakers are standardly assumed to be impaired with the production of morphosyntactic functional items (see e.g. Berndt & Caramazza, 1980; Miceli et al., 1989), words with evaluative morphemes appears to be stored in the lexicon and not syntactically derived."

The number of words a native speaker of a language knows is incredibly vast. However, this is not just word that represents mental lexicon. Words have properties to which in a very complex way they are associated. This paper reviews the related literature and different perspectives on what mental lexicon is, what is its organization, how words are related in the mental lexicon. It has also been discussed how second language mental lexicon is stored in the brain.

Öz: Tipolojik olarak yapım ve çekim sistemi bakımından sondan eklemeli diller arasında yer alan Türkçede, söz yapımı ve çekiminde ekleme dışında yöntemlerin de kullanıldığı bilinmektedir. Bunlardan birisi olan yineleme, pek çok dünya dilinde yapım ve çekim kategorilerinde işlevsel olarak kullanılmaktadır. Söz türetim işleviyle kullanıldığı dillerde yineleme, farklı bir morfo-sentaktik sınıfa ait olmasına gerek kalmadan, onu oluşturan kelimelerden farklı bir anlama sahip yeni kelimeler türetebilir. Gramatikal bir işaretleyici olarak ise, özellikle eklemeli dillerde bir çekim eki gibi davranarak çeşitli çekim kategorilerinde bazı eklerin yerini alabilmesi dikkat çeker. Türkçede yineleme yöntemi işlevsel açıdan incelendiğinde, çeşitli tarihî ve çağdaş Türk dili alanlarında hem bir söz türetim yöntemi olarak kullanıldığı hem de çekimsel bir işaretleyici gibi davrandığı görülür. Bu çalışmada, tarihî ve çağdaş Türk dili alanlarında söz yapımı yollarından yineleme ile oluşturulmuş örnekler incelenmiş; yineleme yönteminin, diğer bazı dünya dillerinde olduğu gibi Türkçede de söz türetimi işleviyle kullanıldığı ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. Ayrıca, yineleme yoluyla oluşan bazı dil birimleri gramerleşme teorisiyle açıklanmaya çalışılmış; yinelemenin semantik ve morfolojik kategorilerde çokluk, sıralamaüleştirme, benzerlik, sınırlama, küçültme, derecelendirme, yüklemleştirme gibi çok çeşitli işlevlerle farklı semantik değerleri işaretleyen bir çekim unsuru olarak kullanıldığı, örnekleriyle birlikte sunulmuştur. Anahtar sözcükler: yineleme, ikileme, sözlükselleşme, söz yapımı, gramatikalleşme, dilbilgiselleşme

Chapitre méthodologique d'un livre co-écrit par Éliane Pons et J.-J. Pinto. Ce dernier, pour raisons professionnelles, n'avait indiqué son nom que dans cette partie intitulée "Esquisse d'une psychanalyse scientifique" (allusion respectueuse au titre de Freud "Esquisse d'une psychologie scientifique"), où se trouve expliquée en détail la méthode originale d'analyse de discours inventée et enseignée par lui : l'Analyse des Logiques Subjectives© (A.L.S.©).

Il est conseillé d'avoir sous les yeux le tableau suivant : https://www.academia.edu/11428232/Tableau_des_atomes_s%C3%A9mantiques_concrets_et_abstraits_entrant_en_jeu_dans_lAnalyse_des_Logiques_Subjectives_A.L.S._

Cet ouvrage, épuisé, peut se retrouver dans les bibliothèques suivantes :

Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF) : http://catalogue.bnf.fr/servlet/RechercheEquation;jsessionid=E33BC2970E7DECF469F13F517B40E8E3?TexteCollection=HGARSTUVWXYZ1DIECBMJNQLOKP&TexteTypeDoc=DESNFPIBTMCJOV&Equation=IBN%3D2951064608&host=catalogue, ... et :

Bibliothèque Université d'Aix-Marseille (AIX-MRS-Aix-Lettres Sci. Humain.) : http://www.sudoc.abes.fr/CMD?DB=2.1&ACT=SRCHA&PRS=HOL&HLIB=130012101&IKT=8910&TRM=463928452

Nowadays, we still have not a generally shared theory on what it does mean ‘feeling’ anything. Even worse is the definition of ‘think-ing’ and ‘consciousness’ (at all its levels) and the role of ‘feeling’ in their explanation. That’s why we need a shared taxonomy of affective life, starting from the different possible meanings of ‘feeling’ in several disciplines. In fact, every field of research (neuroscience, philosophy, psychology, etc.) often uses the same word in order to refer to very different phenomena. First of all, we wish to put out these different meanings that are implicit every time the word ‘feeling’ is used, in order to build up a lexicon of affective life, shared among different dis-ciplines and even languages. This analysis is based above all on a sys-tematic critique of current neuroscientific language, based on many variations of mereological fallacy.
Moreover, an analysis of an ‘unorthodox’ taxonomic level of affective life is provided in this paper.  The ‘mirror concepts’ of ‘background feeling/emotions’, added in the existing affective classification by A. Damasio, underline the grounding dimension of body for ‘feeling’, mostly underestimated, or even completely ignored in standard cogni-tive approaches to feeling.

This paper offers new evidence confirming the lexicalist view that, in contrast to phrasal expressions, products of the word-formation component of languages such as German are predisposed to accomplish the naming function of the mental lexicon. For this purpose, we will investigate newly formed adjective-noun compounds, e.g., 'Hochlampe' ('high_lamp'), 'Rotdach' ('red_roof'), and their potential to function as lexical labels as well as their capacity to represent names for kinds. The affinity of compounds to be lexicalized and their tendency to undergo semantic specialization will be traced back to the markedness of novel compound expressions, which will lead to a pragmatic analysis along the lines of Levinson’s M-principle. A parallel design for word-formation and syntax as two distinct domains of grammar will be implemented, in which recursive structure building capacities are shared, but with specific configurational restrictions holding in each domain as well as distinct functional profiles.

How stable or how permeable to attrition are a multilingual’s first and second languages during life periods characterized by dynamic changes in language-use frequencies? This longitudinal study sheds some light on this issue by investigating changing patterns in a multilingual speaker’s tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states. Over a period of 10 years, the multilingual recorded more than 100 TOT states, together with 400 non-target word associations, as they occurred with words from the speaker’s five languages (L1 German, L2 Russian, L3 English, L4 Spanish, and L5 Portuguese). During the period, the L1 was consistently used less than the L3 and L4, providing a setting in which L1 attrition might occur. Data were analyzed with respect to the changing frequencies of TOT state occurrence in the different languages, the contribution of each language to the word associations generated during word search, the typological relatedness of targets and associates, and the linguistic context of initial learning of each language. Rates of TOT states and percentages of cross-language word associations and within-language word associations fluctuated in response to dynamic patterns of language use and maintenance, demonstrating the value of data on word-retrieval failure for studies of language attrition. The data reveal that the speaker’s L1 appeared to gain stability after an early period suggestive of attrition, despite low frequency of use overall. This finding supports the view that the L1 is exceptional, highly resistant to attrition, but also suggests that temporary impairment of L1 can occur when a multilingual speaker’s overall set of interacting language systems comes out of balance.

This paper presents an empirical study investigating the relationship between first language
(L1) lexical organisation and second language (L2) vocabulary development. The
participants consisted of 191 native Arabic learners of English as a foreign language (EFL)
within higher secondary education in Saudi Arabia. To conduct the study, two receptive
vocabulary size tests (L1 Arabic-Lex and L2 English X-Lex) were used with an L1 lexical
organisation test (ALOT) which was designed for the purpose of the study. Learners' L1
lexical organisation scores were found to be associated with their L1 and L2 receptive
vocabulary scores. However, the strong correlation found between lexical organisation and
the size of the lexicon in learners’ L1 might well suggest that lexical networks and the size of
the lexicon are one unified system. Nevertheless, to find any potential interaction between L1
lexical organisation and size on L2 vocabulary acquisition, ‘moderation’ analyses were
performed. Moderation results revealed three levels of interaction; low, average and high.
The low level shows that a low level of lexical organisation leads to low levels of L1 and L2
vocabulary size. The same relationship trend was logged for average and high levels. These
results thus emphasise the importance of a well-structured L1 mental lexicon on L2
vocabulary acquisition.

Le but de cette étude est d’expliquer les différences entre le lexique enregistré
par les dictionnaires et le lexique potentiel. On estime que le nombre des mots du vocabulaire de la langue maternelle varie de 20.000 à 150.000; la plupart des estimations oscillant autour de 50.000. Puisque le rôle du contexte, dans lequel les mots acquièrent de nouvelles significations, semble fondamental, l'auteure se propose
d’observer les relations entre le lexique et l’univers extralinguistique.

Initial vocabulary acquisition is established through mapping second language (L2) word form to the existing first language (L1) meaning. However, although raised by some research, the effect of word translation equivalence on L2 vocabulary uptake is downplayed or disregarded. This study investigates the relationship between L1 lexical translation equivalence and L2 vocabulary acquisition in an experimental setting. A total of 156 native Arabic participants were given a vocabulary test in which they had to identify whether a word was known to them and then to supply the meaning of the word in their L1 and/or L2. The findings showed that L2 words with direct Arabic translation equivalents were significantly learned than words which do not. The study also indicated a smaller word frequency effect on learning words with non-direct L1 translation equivalents.

Цель исследования — мультидисциплинарное изучение феномена полисемии (многозначности) языковых единиц с помощью теоретических, экспериментальных и статистических методов. Хотя полисемии посвящено большое количество работ, это явление ранее не исследовалось комплексно. Коллективом авторов было проведено исследование, которое сочетало элементы словарного описания, статистического анализа, опросов, а также изучение электроэнцефалограмм и движений глаз. Исследование показало, что при развитии полисемии используется большее количество различных семантических сдвигов, помимо хорошо известных метафоры и метонимии. Эти сдвиги составляют сложную иерархическую систему и часто комбинируются друг с другом при образовании новых значений. Наше восприятие значения как нового связано с когнитивным «расстоянием», которое различается для разных типов сдвигов: так, метафорически образованное значение воспринимается как более далекое от исходного, чем метонимическое значение. Словарное представление значений только отчасти коррелирует с устройством ментального лексикона и с частотностью разных значений. Лексикографическое представление, основанное на семантических принципах, более удобно для восприятия, чем представление, основанное на частоте употребления. В ходе исследования возникли новые вопросы, в частности, различаются ли представления далекой и близкой метонимии в нашем ментальном лексиконе.

We present results from cross-modal priming experiments on German participles and noun plurals. The experiments produced parallel results for both in¯ectional systems. Regular in¯ection exhibits full priming whereas irregularly in¯ected word forms show only partial priming: after hearing regularly in¯ected words (-t participles and -s plurals), lexical decision times on morphologically related word forms (presented visually) were similar to reaction times for a base-line condition in which prime and target were identical, but signi®cantly shorter than in a control condition where prime and target were unrelated. In contrast, prior presentation of irregular words (-n participles and -er plurals) led to signi®cantly longer response times on morphologically related word forms than the prior presentation of the target itself. Hence, there are clear priming differences between regularly and irregularly in¯ected German words. We compare the ®ndings on German with experimental results on regular and irregular in¯ection in English and Italian, and discuss theoretical implications for single versus dual-mechanism models of in¯ection. q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Lexical access tasks are designed to measure efficiency of lexical access, but task demands and methods vary greatly. Many lexical access tasks do not account for confounding factors including competence in other linguistic abilities. In this study, preschoolers were given two lexical access tasks. In the single-category naming (SCN) task, children rapidly named animals. In the multi-category naming (MCN) task, children named one item from each of 10 categories. Children were also tested on vocabulary, syntax, and articulation. First, scores on each task increase with age. Second, the two lexical access scores were only moderately correlated, suggesting that different 'lexical access' tasks measure different abilities. Finally, we compared scores on each of the lexical access tasks with scores on the other linguistic tasks, demonstrating that different linguistic abilities are involved in each task at different ages. Results suggest that even very similar tasks capture different aspects of lexical access, and that the SCN task is a purer lexical access test.

The present study investigates the relationship between the morphological processing of regular and irregular words and second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. In considering that monolingual Arabic speakers derive a large number of new words from roots by leaning heavily on the regularity of rules in Arabic (Bar & Dershowitz, 2012; Habash, 2010), they are expected to experience difficulty when developing the lexicon of a language with less regular rules, such as English. To examine this assumption empirically, data were collected by administering an English receptive vocabulary knowledge test that included 100 regular and irregular inflected and derived words to 450 Arabic English as a foreign language (EFL) learners from schools in Saudi Arabia. The test also included pesudowords (non-words) to act as
‘gatekeepers’ against the possibility of guessing. The t-test results revealed a non-significant difference in learners’ uptake of L2 words, whether regular or irregular. However, the study indicates that word frequency plays a statistically significant role in learning L2 vocabulary that is irregularly inflected or derived. The frequency effect on irregular word morphology found in this study is in line with the approach of a dual-route mechanism. This approach suggests that irregular words are not rule-based, so are stored in the mental lexicon as full entries, whereas regular words are not. This article suggests that introducing rules for deriving new words from base forms to EFL learners in the early stages
of learning would be very useful for L2 vocabulary development.

This paper investigates the claim that language change (grammaticalization) is driven by cognitive processes, such as schemas and their instantiations. Instead of determining linear stages relating successive states in language evolution, we argue that cognitive schemas are the source of prototypical paths that linguistic items go through in a parallel diffusive fashion during use. The analysis is based on data from Arabic (Classical and colloquial) related to the deictic element ta used in a variety of lexical, morphological, and syntactic constructs. The study proceeds by presenting an overview of the synchronic variation patterns of the element ta and investigating the different cognitive processes involved in all the instantiations of the schema BE IN FRONT OF associated to the element ta.

Among various study topics of advanced second language (L2) learners, mental lexicon shares a unique significance. This paper will introduce a comparative experiment between advanced Chinese English as a Second Language (CESL) learners and English as first language (EL1) speakers. The research question of the study is whether advanced CESL learners have a different English mental lexicon organization compared with EL1 speakers. The study adopts the word association test as its main research method. The main finding of the experiment is that advanced Chinese ESL learners' mental lexicons are less active and more limited than EL1 speakers. Based on the finding, the study concludes that the two test groups may apply different models for their mental lexicon organizations. The result of the ESL group prefers the Similarity-based Model while the mental lexicon organization of the EL1 group fits the Theory-based Model. Finally, the paper discusses the pedagogical implications of the study. It confirms the importance of lexical instruction in advanced L2 instruction and suggests combining vocabulary's semantic information with various social contexts to create effective lexical instruction for learners.

This study examines Zipf's law as a predictor of the relationship between word frequency and lexical coverage in Arabic. Zipf's law has been applied in a number of languages, such as English, French and Greek, and revealed useful information. However, word derivation processes are far more regular and extensive in Arabic than they are in English and it is suspected that how words are defined may significantly affect the outcome of this kind of analysis. The concept of the lemma as applied to English could be redrawn for Arabic entirely credibly. In this study, Arabic lemmatised frequency lists generated from a large Web-based corpus have been used to calculate coverage. Results show that Zipf's law does apply in Arabic, and the findings suggest that the most frequent 9,000 lemmatised words provide approximately 95% coverage, and 14,000 words give nearly 98% coverage. These results suggest that the relationship between word frequency and coverage in Arabic is comparable, to a certain degree, to English and Greek, but not to French. However, the definition of the lemma used in this study is probably more relevant to European languages than to Arabic and if this was changed it would significantly change the results.

The widespread occurrence of ideophones, large classes of words specialized in evoking sensory imagery, is little known outside linguistics and anthropology. Ideophones are a common feature in many of the world’s languages but are underdeveloped in English and other Indo-European languages. Here we study the meanings of ideophones in Siwu (a Kwa language from Ghana) using a pile-sorting task. The goal was to uncover the underlying structure of the lexical space and to examine the claimed link between ideophones and perception. We found that Siwu ideophones are principally organized around fine-grained aspects of sensory perception, and map onto salient psychophysical dimensions identified in sensory science. The results ratify ideophones as dedicated sensory vocabulary and underline the relevance of ideophones for research on language and perception.

We describe the use of a weakly supervised bootstrapping algorithm in discovering contrasting semantic categories from a source lexicon with little training data. Our method primarily
exploits the patterns in sentential contexts where different categories of words may appear. Experimental results are presented showing that such automatically categorized terms tend to agree with human judgements.