Infant Behavior

Sheri Stronach, who joined my committee near the end, I truly appreciate your willingness to take on another student, especially this late in the game. The support and encouragement I experienced within my program, were matched by those who were parts of my life outside of the University. Thank you to my family, Eric Rudrud, Janie LaBree, and Elizabeth Rudrud. The mental, physical, and financial support you have given over the years has been unbelievable. Also to my aunt and uncle, Ann and Steve Russell, who tolerated a young(er) stressed graduate student staying in their home during the first two years of my program. I will always remember our special MSNBC time. And finally, thank you to my non-family family; my Saint Cloud women,

Objective: Maternal eating disorders interfere with parenting, adversely affecting mother-infant interaction and infant outcome. This trial tested whether videofeedback treatment specifically targeting mother-child interaction would be superior to counseling in improving motherchild interaction, especially mealtime conflict, and infant weight and autonomy. The participants were 80 mothers with bulimia nervosa or similar eating disorder who were attending routine baby clinics and whose infants were 4-6 months old. They were randomly assigned to video-feedback interactional treatment or supportive counseling. Both groups also received guided cognitive behavior self-help for their eating disorder. Each group received 13 sessions. The primary outcome measure was mealtime conflict; secondary outcome measures were infant weight, aspects of mother-infant interaction, and infant autonomy. Results: Seventy-seven mothers were followed up when their infants were 13 months old. The video-feedback group exhibited significantly less mealtime conflict than the control subjects. Nine of 38 (23.7%) in the video-feedback group showed episodes of marked or severe conflict, compared with 21 of 39 (53.8%) control subjects (odds ratio=0.27, 95% confidence interval=0.10 to 0.73). Video feedback produced significant improvements in several other interaction measures and greater infant autonomy. Both groups maintained good infant weight, with no differences between groups. Maternal eating psychopathology was reduced across both groups. Video-feedback treatment focusing on mother-infant interaction produced improvements in interaction and infant autonomy, and both groups maintained adequate infant weight. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first controlled trial to show key improvements in interaction between mothers with postnatal psychiatric disorders and their infants.

Á minha filha Júlia Ayres Nuske, por todo seu amor e pelo companheirismo na coleta de dados da pesquisa. Aos meus pais, Angel (in memorian) e Marivanda, ao meu irmão, Eduardo, e a minha avó, Manoela, por todo o amor dedicado ao longo da minha vida, compreensão nos momentos de dificuldade e estresse. Ao Maurício, meu amor, por seus conselhos, compreensão e paciência nos momentos de estresse. Ao Professor Humberto Rosa, por ter me incentivado a percorrer o caminho da pesquisa, e por ter me apresentado o Professor Marcelo Goldani. Ao Professor Marcelo Goldani, pela orientação, por me ensinar sobre pesquisa, por ser meu mestre nesta área tão linda que é a saúde da criança e do adolescente, por me transformar em uma profissional crítica em relação ao conhecimento, pela oportunidade, paciência, sabedoria e ensinamentos fundamentais no início da minha carreira como nutricionista, há 11 anos, no ambulatório que foi pioneiro em seguimento de pré-termos do Hospital de Clínicas. À Juliana Bernardi por toda a parceria, pela amizade, alegria e ajuda nesta fase tão importante. Ao Charles Ferreira, por carregar as energias, pela amizade, ajuda e obrigada por me ensinar um pouquinho de Neurociências. À secretária do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde da Criança e do Adolescente, Rosane Blanguer, por sua paciência e disponibilidade. Ao Programa de Pós-Graduação, oportunidade única e especial. Ao Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) devido ao apoio no desenvolvimento desta pesquisa. Ao Hospital Conceição, incluindo os funcionários do Alojamento Conjunto, por todo o entusiasmo, curiosidade e parceria. A todas as mamães e seus bebês, por terem aceitado participar desta pesquisa e com isso proporcionar a construção desta tese. Objetivo: O objetivo desse estudo é verificar se a exposição ao tabagismo materno na vida intrauterina está relacionada a um padrão específico de expressões faciais hedônicas para o gosto doce em recém-nascidos, no início da vida. Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo transversal, controlado e observacional. Foram avaliados recém-nascidos saudáveis, com até 24 horas de vida. Para compor a amostra foram incluídos recém-nascidos de nascimento único, idade gestacional acima de 37 semanas, nascidos de parto normal, em aleitamento materno exclusivo e cujos recém-nascidos já haviam sido colocados ao seio materno previamente ao teste de reação facial hedônica resultante do gosto doce. A amostra é de conveniência e foi selecionada de forma consecutiva, de acordo com a exposição ou não ao tabaco na vida intrauterina, até atingir o número de recém-nascidos necessários para o estudo. Neste estudo, dividimos os recém-nascidos estudados em dois grupos: a)Recém-nascidos expostos ao tabagismo materno na vida uterina (n=50); b)Recém-nascidos não expostos ao tabagismo materno na vida uterina (n=150). Para comparar as expressões faciais hedônicas à sacarose em relação à exposição ou não ao tabagismo materno durante a gestação foi utilizado o teste de Mann-Whitney. Para comparar os valores extremos das expressões faciais hedônicas a sacarose entre os grupos foi aplicado o teste de Moses. Para controle de fatores confundidores como, peso ao nascimento, comprimento ao nascimento, duração da gestação, escolaridade, razão de crescimento fetal e tempo da última mamada até a hora do teste foi utilizada a Análise de Covariância (ANCOVA). Resultados: A frequência total de reações faciais hedônicas a estímulo oral doce em recém-nascidos expostos e não expostos ao tabagismo materno durante a gestação não foi diferente entre os grupos (p=0,051), no entanto, verificando os valores extremos, observou-se que o grupo exposto ao tabagismo na gestação apresenta menos valores extremos do que o grupo não exposto, provavelmente devido ao "congelamento" da reação hedônica no grupo exposto (p<0,001). Conclusão: O tabagismo materno durante a gestação pode estar relacionado a um padrão especifico de expressões faciais hedônicas para o sabor doce no inicio da vida. Não existe diferença estatística entre maior frequência de reações faciais hedônicas a substâncias doces em recém-nascidos expostos ao tabagismo na vida intrauterina, entretanto, observamos que recém-nascidos expostos ao tabagismo na vida intrauterina parecem ter as expressões faciais congeladas/sensibilizadas em relação ao consumo de uma substância doce, uma vez que recém-nascidos não expostos atingem níveis maiores de prazer em relação à ingestão de substância doce. Pode-se propor que o tabagismo materno leva a uma sensibilidade ao prazer provocada pelo sabor doce e, possivelmente, os indivíduos com esta sensibilidade poderiam aumentar o consumo alimentar por doce para tentar chegar a um maior grau de prazer. Palavras-chave: DOHaD, programação, tabagismo materno durante a gestação, reações faciais, reações hedônicas em recém-nascidos, gosto.

Á minha filha Júlia Ayres Nuske, por todo seu amor e pelo companheirismo na coleta de dados da pesquisa. Aos meus pais, Angel (in memorian) e Marivanda, ao meu irmão, Eduardo, e a minha avó, Manoela, por todo o amor dedicado ao longo da minha vida, compreensão nos momentos de dificuldade e estresse. Ao Maurício, meu amor, por seus conselhos, compreensão e paciência nos momentos de estresse. Ao Professor Humberto Rosa, por ter me incentivado a percorrer o caminho da pesquisa, e por ter me apresentado o Professor Marcelo Goldani. Ao Professor Marcelo Goldani, pela orientação, por me ensinar sobre pesquisa, por ser meu mestre nesta área tão linda que é a saúde da criança e do adolescente, por me transformar em uma profissional crítica em relação ao conhecimento, pela oportunidade, paciência, sabedoria e ensinamentos fundamentais no início da minha carreira como nutricionista, há 11 anos, no ambulatório que foi pioneiro em seguimento de pré-termos do Hospital de Clínicas. À Juliana Bernardi por toda a parceria, pela amizade, alegria e ajuda nesta fase tão importante. Ao Charles Ferreira, por carregar as energias, pela amizade, ajuda e obrigada por me ensinar um pouquinho de Neurociências. À secretária do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde da Criança e do Adolescente, Rosane Blanguer, por sua paciência e disponibilidade. Ao Programa de Pós-Graduação, oportunidade única e especial. Ao Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) devido ao apoio no desenvolvimento desta pesquisa. Ao Hospital Conceição, incluindo os funcionários do Alojamento Conjunto, por todo o entusiasmo, curiosidade e parceria. A todas as mamães e seus bebês, por terem aceitado participar desta pesquisa e com isso proporcionar a construção desta tese. Objetivo: O objetivo desse estudo é verificar se a exposição ao tabagismo materno na vida intrauterina está relacionada a um padrão específico de expressões faciais hedônicas para o gosto doce em recém-nascidos, no início da vida. Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo transversal, controlado e observacional. Foram avaliados recém-nascidos saudáveis, com até 24 horas de vida. Para compor a amostra foram incluídos recém-nascidos de nascimento único, idade gestacional acima de 37 semanas, nascidos de parto normal, em aleitamento materno exclusivo e cujos recém-nascidos já haviam sido colocados ao seio materno previamente ao teste de reação facial hedônica resultante do gosto doce. A amostra é de conveniência e foi selecionada de forma consecutiva, de acordo com a exposição ou não ao tabaco na vida intrauterina, até atingir o número de recém-nascidos necessários para o estudo. Neste estudo, dividimos os recém-nascidos estudados em dois grupos: a)Recém-nascidos expostos ao tabagismo materno na vida uterina (n=50); b)Recém-nascidos não expostos ao tabagismo materno na vida uterina (n=150). Para comparar as expressões faciais hedônicas à sacarose em relação à exposição ou não ao tabagismo materno durante a gestação foi utilizado o teste de Mann-Whitney. Para comparar os valores extremos das expressões faciais hedônicas a sacarose entre os grupos foi aplicado o teste de Moses. Para controle de fatores confundidores como, peso ao nascimento, comprimento ao nascimento, duração da gestação, escolaridade, razão de crescimento fetal e tempo da última mamada até a hora do teste foi utilizada a Análise de Covariância (ANCOVA). Resultados: A frequência total de reações faciais hedônicas a estímulo oral doce em recém-nascidos expostos e não expostos ao tabagismo materno durante a gestação não foi diferente entre os grupos (p=0,051), no entanto, verificando os valores extremos, observou-se que o grupo exposto ao tabagismo na gestação apresenta menos valores extremos do que o grupo não exposto, provavelmente devido ao "congelamento" da reação hedônica no grupo exposto (p<0,001). Conclusão: O tabagismo materno durante a gestação pode estar relacionado a um padrão especifico de expressões faciais hedônicas para o sabor doce no inicio da vida. Não existe diferença estatística entre maior frequência de reações faciais hedônicas a substâncias doces em recém-nascidos expostos ao tabagismo na vida intrauterina, entretanto, observamos que recém-nascidos expostos ao tabagismo na vida intrauterina parecem ter as expressões faciais congeladas/sensibilizadas em relação ao consumo de uma substância doce, uma vez que recém-nascidos não expostos atingem níveis maiores de prazer em relação à ingestão de substância doce. Pode-se propor que o tabagismo materno leva a uma sensibilidade ao prazer provocada pelo sabor doce e, possivelmente, os indivíduos com esta sensibilidade poderiam aumentar o consumo alimentar por doce para tentar chegar a um maior grau de prazer. Palavras-chave: DOHaD, programação, tabagismo materno durante a gestação, reações faciais, reações hedônicas em recém-nascidos, gosto.

This study describes a quantitative and qualitative methodology to assess hedonic responses to sweet stimulus in healthy newborns. A descriptive, cross-sectional, observational study, with healthy newborns (up to 24h of life), between 37 and 42 gestational weeks, vaginally born and breastfed previously to all tests. The evaluation of the newborns reactions was performed by hedonic facial expression analysis, characterized by facial expressions with rhythmic serial tongue protrusion after neutral or sweet solution intake. Initially, 1mL of water solution was provided to the newborn, followed by a 1-minute recording. Afterwards, the same amount of 25% sucrose solution was provided, performing a second recording. The concordance between researchers was analyzed by the Bland-Altman statistical method. A total of 100 newborns (n=49 males, n=51 females; mean lifetime=15h 12min±6h 29min) were recorded for neutral and sucrose solution intake, totaling 197 videos (n=3 missing in the water tr...

This study aimed to understand the screen time activities of toddlers and their parents, the relationship between toddlers' screen time and socioeconomic status (SES), the relationship between toddlers' screen time and language skills, and the screen time restrictions set by their families. Methods: The participants comprised 33 typically developing toddlers aged 12-24 months and their parents. Informed consent was obtained from the parents of all participants who passed the screening. Children's and their parents' screen time activities and other leisure activities, the family's SES, and receptive and expressive language scores were assessed. Results: A total of 96.9% of children had a mean screen time of 750 minutes per week, equivalent to 1.8 hours per day, which is significantly higher than the recommended guidelines. Children were mostly exposed to smartphones and televisions. Nine children did not meet ageappropriate language scores, and all other children had age-appropriate language scores despite having excess screen time. No significant correlation was found between language scores and screen time in children and parents. A positive correlation was found between parents' screen time and SES, but not between children's screen time and SES. Discussion: This study highlights the significance of co-viewing and interactive screen time in supporting the development of language skills. It also highlights the need to revise guidelines on screen time restrictions in young children. Guidelines should include recommendations in choosing high-quality, age-appropriate strategies to encourage co-viewing to enhance parentchild interaction. The paper also emphasizes the significance of restricting parents' screen time as it may interfere with qualitative interactions with the child leading to language delay.

Objective: This study examined the contributions of maternal bids for joint attention, relationship quality, and infant characteristics, to individual differences in infants' parallel and joint attention. Method: Fifty-two 10-month-olds and their mothers were assessed in order to investigate concurrent predictors of infant parallel attention, responding to joint attention, and initiating joint attention. Results: Parallel attention was predicted by infants' higher mental development, low expression of negative emotionality, and maternal entertaining behaviors. Responding to joint attention was marginally predicted by total maternal bids for joint attention. Initiating joint attention was predicted by the infants' low expression of negative emotionality, as well as marginally predicted by fewer maternal teaching behaviors. Conclusion: These results further the understanding of the factors influencing infant parallel as well as joint attention.

Family functioning and mother-infant relational patterns were examined in 38 clinic-referred infants and 34 matched non-referred infants. Referred infants were diagnosed with the Diagnostic Classification for Zero to Three. On the family level, referred families showed significantly lower family functioning in all domains of emotional and instrumental communication, regardless of the specific infant's diagnoses. On the dyadic level, referred mothers were more intrusive and their infants were more withdrawn during dyadic interactions. Clinic-referred mothers reported higher levels of phobia and depression. Global family functioning was predicted by the infant's clinical status, maternal intrusiveness, and maternal psychopathology. Infant mental health clinicians need to address both family level and dyadic level of functioning, regardless of the reason for the infant's referral.

Some 30 years ago, Günter Dörner proposed that exposure to hormones, metabolites and neurotransmitters during limited, sensitive periods of early development exert programming effects on disease risk in human adults. Early programming of long term health has since received broad scientific support and attention. For

Since the concept of lasting programming effects on disease risk in human adults by the action of hormones, metabolites, and neurotransmitters during sensitive periods of early development was proposed .3 decades ago, ample supporting evidence has evolved from epidemiologic and experimental studies and clinical trials. For example, numerous studies have reported programming effects of infant feeding choices on later obesity. Three meta-analyses of observational studies found that obesity risk at school age was reduced by 15-25% with early breastfeeding compared with formula feeding. We proposed that breastfeeding protects against later obesity by reducing the occurrence of high weight gain in infancy and that one causative factor is the lower protein content of human milk compared with most infant formula (the early protein hypothesis). We are testing this hypothesis in the European Childhood Obesity Project, a double-blind, randomized clinical trial that includes .1000 infants in 5 countries (Belgium, Germany, Italy, Poland, and Spain). We randomly assigned healthy infants who were born at term to receive for the first year infant formula and follow-on formula with higher or lower protein contents, respectively. The follow-up data obtained at age 2 y indicate that feeding formula with reduced protein content normalizes early growth relative to a breastfed reference group and the new World Health Organization growth standard, which may furnish a significant long-term protection against later obesity. We conclude that infant feeding practice has a high potential for long-term health effects, and the results obtained should stimulate the review of recommendations and policies for infant formula composition.

The goal of this review of the research literature is to discuss approaches to the early detection of autism in infancy. Early detection would enable diagnoses to be made before 18 months of age rather than at 24 -30 months, the age where diagnoses start to be made now. After summarizing the criteria for a deficit to be considered "core" to the disorder, the literature on research strategies used in early detection is examined. In order to guide the design of future studies, the review then turns to an overview of what is known about the processes of early social development in typically developing children that underlie the domains in which core deficits are manifested in young children with autism. The social domains covered in the review are those that show development in typically developing infants below 18 months of age: dyadic interaction and imitation; emotion discrimination; and attachment. The review concludes that all of these areas are worthy of investigation in young children, particularly those at higher risk of showing some of the core deficits of autism such as the infant siblings of children with autism.

Background: Preterm neonates who are admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) undergo several unpleasant treatments as part of their routine care throughout their hospital stay. Nesting positions are supporting techniques that help preterm neonates in the NICU to correct their posture, which may have an impact on their general health. Aim of the study: The current study aimed to determine the effectiveness of nesting positioning on physiological parameters and behavioral state, among preterm neonates in neonatal intensive care unit. Research design: A cross-over experimental research design was used in this study. Setting: The study was carried out in the neonatal intensive care unit at Kafr Eldwar General Hospital, located in El Beheira Governorate, Egypt. Subjects: A convenience sample of 65 preterm neonates was selected for the current study. Tools: Two tools were used for data collection, Tool I: Characteristics and physiological parameters of preterm neonates' assessment tool. Tool II: Assessment of Preterm Neonate's Behavior Assessment Scale. Results: it was obvious that the highest percentages (56.9 % & 78.5 % respectively) of preterm neonates demonstrated normal behavioral response in both supine and prone positions respectively compared to only 9.2% of them in pre-nesting positions. In addition, the preterm Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) in the post-prone position positively correlates with physiological parameters observed in premature neonates' post-supine and post-prone assessments. The results indicate statistical significance, with p-values of less than 0.039, 0.018, and 0.033, respectively. Conclusion: The study concluded that neonatal nesting in prone and supine positions is a simple, noninvasive, and free-of-charge method. It led to improved physiological parameters and neonatal behavioral state. Recommendations: Nesting should be integrated into the routine nursing care of preterm neonates as it is a safe, simple, and noninvasive technique that can enhance their physiological stability and behavioral state. Neonatal intensive care unit nurses should engage in training sessions that emphasize the importance and benefits of using nesting for preterm infants.

Epigenetic regulation of the placental glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) was investigated as a mechanism underlying links between maternal smoking during pregnancy (MSDP) and infant neurobehavior in 45 mother-infant pairs (49% MSDP-exposed; 52% minorities; ages 18-35). The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale was administered 7 times over the first postnatal month; methylation of placental NR3C1 was assessed via bisulfite pyrosequencing. Increased placental NR3C1 methylation was associated with increased infant attention and self-regulation, and decreased lethargy and need for examiner soothing over the first postnatal month. A causal steps approach revealed that NR3C1 methylation and MSDP were independently associated with lethargic behavior. Although preliminary, results highlight the importance of epigenetic mechanisms in elucidating pathways to neurobehavioral alterations from MSDP. Despite ongoing public health campaigns, between 10-30% of infants born in the United States are exposed to maternal smoking during pregnancy (MSDP). Infants born to poor, less educated, and underserved mothers show disproportionately higher rates of exposure . MSDP-exposed infants are increased risk for low birth weight, preterm delivery, and increased length of neonatal intensive care unit stays . In older children and adolescents, exposure to MSDP has been associated with disorders of attention, disruptive behavior and conduct as well as smoking and nicotine dependence (Buka, Shenassa, &

Children's learning about food is considerable during their formative years, with parental influence being pivotal. Research has focused predominantly on maternal influences, with little known about the relationships between fathers' and children's diets. Greater understanding of this relationship is necessary for the design of appropriate interventions. The aim of this study was to investigate the associations between the diets of fathers and their children and the moderating effects of fathers' BMI, education and age on these associations. The diets of fathers and their first-born children (n 317) in the Melbourne Infant Feeding Activity and Nutrition Trial (InFANT) Program were assessed using an FFQ and 3 × 24-h recalls, respectively. The InFANT Program is a cluster-randomised controlled trial in the setting of first-time parents groups in Victoria, Australia. Associations between father and child fruit, vegetable, non-core food and non-core drink intakes were assessed using linear regression. The extent to which these associations were mediated by maternal intake was tested. Moderation of associations by paternal BMI, education and age was assessed. Positive associations were found between fathers' and children's intake of fruit, sweet snacks and take-away foods. Paternal BMI, education and age moderated the relationships found for the intakes of fruit (BMI), vegetables (age), savoury snacks (BMI and education) and take-away foods (BMI and education). Our findings suggest that associations exist at a young age and are moderated by paternal BMI, education and age. This study highlights the importance of fathers in modelling healthy diets for their children.

Children&#39;s learning about food is considerable during their formative years, with parental influence being pivotal. Research has focused predominantly on maternal influences, with little known about the relationships between fathers&#39; and children&#39;s diets. Greater understanding of this relationship is necessary for the design of appropriate interventions. The aim of this study was to investigate the associations between the diets of fathers and their children and the moderating effects of fathers&#39; BMI, education and age on these associations. The diets of fathers and their first-born children (n 317) in the Melbourne Infant Feeding Activity and Nutrition Trial (InFANT) Program were assessed using an FFQ and 3×24-h recalls, respectively. The InFANT Program is a cluster-randomised controlled trial in the setting of first-time parents groups in Victoria, Australia. Associations between father and child fruit, vegetable, non-core food and non-core drink intakes were asses...

Background-Perinatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a major cause of neurodevelopmental impairment including cerebral palsy and intellectual disability. Brain magnetic resonance imaging is the gold standard for acute assessment of cerebral injury in HIE. Limited data are available regarding the significance of clinically manifested neurobehavioral impairments in the neonatal period.

A substantial proportion of the "apparently normal" preterm infants exhibit minor and moderate dysfunctions in neuromotor outcome as they grow older. Birth characteristics, minor abnormalities on the neonatal ultrasound scan of the brain, and motor milestones have only limited value in the early detection of these children. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether nonoptimal reaching and relatively immobile postural behavior at an early age are associated with dysfunctional neuromotor and behavioural development at school age. The preterm children and full-term children of the present follow-up study participated in a previous study on the characteristics of reaching kinematics and the kinetics of posture at 4 and 6 mo corrected age. At the age of 6 y, the children were re-assessed by means of the Touwen neurologic assessment, the Movement ABC, and the Child Behavior Check List. The results demonstrated that in preterm children without cerebral palsy, a lack of successful reaching at 4 mo and a nonoptimal quality of reaching at 6 mo are related to the development of a complex form of minor neurologic dysfunction (MND) and fine manipulative disability at 6 y. Thus, these early signs indicate the presence of clinically significant brain dysfunction. A relatively immobile postural behavior at 4 mo was associated with simple MND, coordination problems, and at 6 mo with a worse score on the Movement ABC and internalizing behavior. This suggests that a relatively immobile postural behavior points to a mild form of brain dysfunction. (Pediatr Res 58: 347-353, 2005) Abbreviations CBCL, Child Behavior Checklist COP, center of pressure CP, cerebral palsy FT, full-term GM, general movement HR, high-risk LR, low-risk MND, minor neurological dysfunction MU, movement unit PT, preterm ROP, retinopathy of prematurity

Detection of children with a developmental disorder, such as cerebral palsy, at an early age is notoriously difficult. Recently, a new form of neuromotor assessment of young infants was developed, based on the assessment of the quality of general movements (GMs). GMs are movements of the fetus and young infant in which all parts of the body participate. The technique of GM assessment is presented and the features of normal, mildly abnormal, and definitely abnormal GMs discussed. Essential to GM assessment is the Gestalt evaluation of movement complexity and variation. The quality of GMs at 2 to 4 months postterm (so-called fidgety GM age) has been found to have the highest predictive value. The presence of definitely abnormal GMs at this age-that is, GMs devoid of complexity and variation-puts a child at very high risk for cerebral palsy. This implies that definitely abnormal GMs at fidgety age are an indication for early physiotherapeutic intervention. (J Pediatr 2004;145:S12-S18) The development of the human brain is a long-lasting process. It is at approximately 30 years of age that the nervous system obtains its adult configuration (Fig ). 1,2 Development starts during the early phases of gestation with the proliferation of neurons in the germinal layers near the ventricles. Next, neurons migrate in an orderly fashion to their final places of destination, and they start to differentiate. Neuronal differentiation includes the formation of dendrites and axons, the production of neurotransmitters and synapses, and the elaboration of the intracellular signaling machinery and the complex neural membranes. The process of differentiation is particularly active in the few months before birth and the first postnatal months. However, synapse formation continues throughout life. Besides neural cells, glial cells are generated. The peak of glial cell production occurs in the second half of gestation. Some of the glial cells take care of axonal myelination. Myelination takes place especially between the second trimester of gestation and the end of the first postnatal year. However, it is first completed around the age of 30 years. A remarkable feature of brain development is that it consists not only of the creation of components but also of an elimination of elements. Approximately half of the created neurons die off (apoptosis), in particular during midgestation. Similarly, axons and synapses are eliminated, the latter especially between 18 months of age and the onset of puberty. The shaping of the nervous system by these regressive phenomena is guided by neurochemical processes and neural activity. The neural elements that fit the environment best persist, thus allowing for an adaptation of the brain to its own environment. This indicates not only that a substantial part of brain development occurs before term age, but also that throughout childhood, the brain is in a continuous process of remodeling. The presence of continuous neurobiological changes during childhood has major clinical consequences. First, the fact that a child has an age-specific nervous system invokes the need for an age-specific neurological assessment-that is, the application of neuromotor evaluation techniques that are adapted to the age-specific characteristics of the nervous system. Second, the age-dependent characteristics affect the way neural dysfunction is expressed. Neurological dysfunction in adults is expressed by means of specific and localized signs-for example, by means of the specific syndrome of a spastic hemiplegia in case of stroke. In contrast, neurological dysfunction in young infants is

According to the literature about developmental changes, periods of instability and disorganization in the social and emotional behavior in both human and non-human primate, infancy precedes major developmental achievements or transitions (Heimann, 2003; Sparrow & Brazelton, 2006). Developmental investigators have observed a more frequent and prolonged crying, clinging and bids for physical contact with mother during these periods of instability and disorganization. Some authors, according to Horwich (1974), called these periods regression periods. Rijt-Plooij and Plooij (1992) claimed that 10 regression periods could be identified during the first 20 months of human life. In an early study, Sadurní and Rostan (2002) confirmed the presence of 8 such regression periods during the first year of life of 18 Catalan babies. Their 8 regression periods were comparable to the first 8 of the 10 regression periods found by Van de Rijt Plooij and Plooij. The aim of the present study is to see ...

Educational screen media is increasingly salient in the lives of young children. Research affirms preschool-aged children can learn content from media when they attend to it, however less is known about how specific screen-based pedagogical supports (SBPS) might draw children's attention. Using eye-tracking methodology, the current study examines specific SBPSs that engage children's attention. The sample consisted of 106 3-to 5-year-olds from a poverty-impacted neighborhood. Participants viewed 12 video clips of Sesame Street that used four different SBPSs to support vocabulary: visual effects, visual + sound effects, explicit definitions, and explicit definitions + repetitions. Results indicated that children attended significantly more to the SBPSs with definitions. Findings also revealed differences in screen composition. Children attended more to people than objects, and attended more to on-screen conversations than conversations cut between screens. This study demonstrates the importance for educational media to use appropriate SBPSs and on-screen compositions to engage children.

Research on food cognition has overlooked that our modern food environment strongly differs from the environment in which our ancestors lived. In fact, in most cultures today, many decisions about food are made during a trip to the grocery store, where we might ask ourselves: Are these canned tomatoes healthy? but certainly not: Are they edible or toxic? In contrast, our ancestors had to navigate their natural environment to Find and Evaluate the beneficial foods in that environment, while Excluding the costs of consuming something harmful, and finally Decide which entities to eat. We call this the FEED problem and present an innovative perspective on food cognition. We argue that a focus on FEED can bridge the gap between different findings in the field of food cognition and shed a new light on the cognitive and brain mechanisms that drive our food behaviors. It has the potential to promote novel intervention strategies, at a time when the rise of food-related health and environmen...

Drawing on emotional security theory, this study examined linkages between interparental aggression, infant self-regulatory behaviors, and patterns of physiological and behavioral stress responses in a diverse sample of 735 infants residing in predominately low-income, nonmetropolitan communities. Latent profile analysis revealed four classes of adrenocortical and behavioral stress response patterns at 7-months of age, using assessments of behavioral and cortisol reactivity to an emotion eliciting challenge, as well as global ratings of the child's negative affect and basal cortisol levels. The addition of covariates within the latent profile model suggested that children with more violence in the home and who used less caregiver-oriented regulation strategies were more likely to exhibit a pattern of high cortisol reactivity with moderate signs of distress rather than the average stress response, suggesting possible patterns of adaptation in violent households.

Guided by the main tenets of contemporary models of the developmental origins of health and disease, this study evaluated whether individual differences in reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) moderate the effect of prenatal exposure to trauma on internalizing and externalizing behaviors during infancy. Participants were a community sample of 182 mothers (M age = 25years, 43% Caucasian, 33% Black/African American, 24% Biracial/Other) and their infants (59% girls; M age = 11.8 months). Each mother completed questionnaires that assessed IPV experienced during pregnancy and also reported on her infant's behavior problems. Infant saliva samples (later assayed for cortisol and sAA) were collected before and after a frustrating task (i.e., arm restraint). Results revealed that the association between in utero IPV and infant internalizing behaviors was most pronounced for infants with asymmetrical HPA-SNS (i.e., high-cortisol and low-sAA) reactivity to frustration, and least pronounced for infants with symmetrical HPA-SNS (i.e., low-cortisol and low-sAA or high-cortisol and high-sAA) reactivity to frustration. Higher levels of externalizing behavior, in contrast, were associated with higher levels of prenatal IPV but unrelated to either cortisol or sAA reactivity to stress. Findings replicate documented associations between maternal IPV exposure during pregnancy and offspring risk. Moreover, findings advance our understanding of individual differences in the developmental origins of health and disease and provide additional evidence that assessing multiple stress biomarkers contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of individual vulnerability to adversity.

Prenatal stress negatively affects fetal development, which in turn may affect infant hypothalamicpituitary adrenal (HPA) axis regulation and behavioral functioning. We examined effects of exposure to a traumatic stressor in families [intimate partner violence (IPV)] on both infants' HPA axis reactivity to stress and their internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Infants (n= 182, 50% girls, x̄ age = 11.77 months) were exposed to a laboratory challenge task designed to induce frustration and anger (i.e., arm restraint). Saliva samples were taken pre-task and 20 and 40

Prenatal maternal depression and a multilocus genetic profile of two susceptibility genes implicated in the stress response were examined in an interaction model predicting negative emotionality in the first 3 years. In 179 mother-infant dyads from the Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability, and Neurodevelopment cohort, prenatal depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depressions Scale) was assessed at 24 to 36 weeks. The multilocus genetic profile score consisted of the number of susceptibility alleles from the serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region gene (5-HTTLPR): no long-rs25531(A) (LA: short/short, short/long-rs25531(G) [LG], or LG/LG] vs. any LA) and the dopamine receptor D4 gene (six to eight repeats vs. two to five repeats). Negative emotionality was extracted from the Infant Behaviour Questionnaire-Revised at 3 and 6 months and the Early Child Behavior Questionnaire at 18 and 36 months. Mixed and confirmatory regression analyses indicated that prenatal depression a...

Epigenetic regulation of the placental glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) was investigated as a mechanism underlying links between maternal smoking during pregnancy (MSDP) and infant neurobehavior in 45 mother-infant pairs (49% MSDP-exposed; 52% minorities; ages 18-35). The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale was administered 7 times over the first postnatal month; methylation of placental NR3C1 was assessed via bisulfite pyrosequencing. Increased placental NR3C1 methylation was associated with increased infant attention and self-regulation, and decreased lethargy and need for examiner soothing over the first postnatal month. A causal steps approach revealed that NR3C1 methylation and MSDP were independently associated with lethargic behavior. Although preliminary, results highlight the importance of epigenetic mechanisms in elucidating pathways to neurobehavioral alterations from MSDP. Despite ongoing public health campaigns, between 10-30% of infants born in the United States are exposed to maternal smoking during pregnancy (MSDP). Infants born to poor, less educated, and underserved mothers show disproportionately higher rates of exposure . MSDP-exposed infants are increased risk for low birth weight, preterm delivery, and increased length of neonatal intensive care unit stays . In older children and adolescents, exposure to MSDP has been associated with disorders of attention, disruptive behavior and conduct as well as smoking and nicotine dependence (Buka, Shenassa, &

Existing studies of the effect on infant temperament of the 48 base pair variable number of tandem repeats polymorphism in exon 3 of the dopamine D4 receptor gene, DRD4 VNTR, and the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region, 5-HTTLPR, have provided contradictory results, and age seems to be an important factor. The present study investigated the effect of these two polymorphisms on the stability of infant temperament between 4 and 9 months of age. Furthermore, the effect of a recently discovered single nucleotide polymorphism which modulates the 5-HTTLPR (rs25531) was investigated in relation to infant temperament. The study sample consisted of 90 infants, who were assessed by parental report at the two ages under consideration using the Revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire. It was found that infants carrying the 7-repeat allele of the DRD4 VNTR had higher levels of Negative Affect. Furthermore, there was an interaction between DRD4 VNTR and 5-HTTLPR genotype such that infants with the DRD4 VNTR 7-repeat allele and the highest expressing 5-HTTLPR genotype (L A L A ) had the highest level of Negative Affect. These effects were largely driven by scores on the Falling Reactivity scale. Genetic effects were stable across age. The results emphasize the need for developmental studies of genetic effects on temperament.

Patients with congenital heart disease (CHD) demonstrate multidomain cognitive delays. Cingulo-opercular and cerebellar brain networks are critical to language functions. This is a description of our initial experience aiming to identify an anatomic correlate for CHD patients with expressive language delays. Fetal CHD patients, prospectively enrolled, underwent serial fetal (1.5T), postnatal pre- and postoperative (3T) MRI. Non-CHD patients were enrolled retrospectively from the same epoch. Comparable fetal and neonatal T2 contrast was used for manual linear cross-sectional measurement. Multivariable analysis was used for adjustments and curve fitting. Neurodevelopment was assessed with Battelle Developmental Inventory, 2nd ed. between 9 and 36 months of age. This interim analysis included patients from our longitudinal CHD study who had fetal, postnatal imaging and neurodevelopmental data-yielding a total of 62 mothers (11 CHD fetuses and 51 non-CHD fetuses). Altered brain trajecto...

AimTo examine the relationship between unsettled infant behaviour and fathers’ depressive symptoms, cognitions surrounding infant sleep (anger, doubt), and personal sleep, in a community cohort.MethodsData were collected from 102 fathers of healthy infants at 4 weeks, 4 months and 6 months of age. Measures included father report of infant sleep and crying problems, depressive symptoms, cognitions about infant sleep and own sleep quality and quantity. Data were analysed using adjusted regression models.ResultsSleep problems at 4 months of age were associated with increased depressive symptoms (adjusted mean difference 2.64 (1.27–4.00)), doubt (adjusted mean difference 1.82 (0.40–3.25)), anger (adjusted mean difference 1.86 (0.51–3.20)), poor personal sleep quantity (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 0.21; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.09–0.51) and quality (adjusted OR 0.20; 95% CI 0.08–0.51); and at 6 months of age, with increased depressive symptoms (adjusted mean difference 2.56 (1.28–3.84...

The present study examined the combined influences of maternal depression and attachment security on infants' brain activity and autonomic activity. Brain electrical activity, heart rate, and vagal tone were recorded from 159 13-15 month old infants of depressed, subthreshold depressed, and nondepressed mothers during a baseline and two social interaction conditions. Attachment behavior was observed during the traditional Strange Situation. It was found that infants of depressed mothers exhibited reduced left relative to right frontal brain activity during all conditions. Moreover, regardless of mother's depression status, insecurely attached infants exhibited relative reduced left frontal brain activity. Infants of depressed mothers were also found to exhibit higher heart rates across all conditions. These results indicate that both maternal depression and attachment security are associated with alterations in infants' psychophysiological responses.

In previous studies, infants of depressed mothers have been found to exhibit reduced left frontal brain electrical activity (EEG). The left frontal region has been hypothesized to mediate social approach behaviors and positive affective expression. These findings raise important questions about the cause and nature of atypical EEG patterns in infants of depressed mothers. The present study begins to address some of these questions by examining whether or not variations in patterns of frontal brain activity in infants of depressed and nondepressed mothers are related to variations in infant behavior as observed in naturalistic situations. If such relations exist, are they specific to certain behaviors hypothesized to be mediated by the frontal region (i.e., positive approach behaviors)? Frontal and parietal brain electrical activity was recorded from 14- to 15-month old infants of depressed versus nondepressed mothers during a baseline condition and during conditions designed to elic...

Although maternal sensitivity has been shown to influence social-emotional development, the role of verbal stimulation on infant developmental outcomes has received less exploration. Recent research has focused on intentional behaviors within the context of a mother-infant interaction as a critical influence and as distinct from sensitivity. In this investigation 6377 mother-infant dyads participated in a teaching task as part of the sample from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Birth Cohort (ECLS-B). Analyses focused in deciphering the role of maternal sensitivity and verbal stimulation as contributors to the infant's social-emotional (S-E) and cognitive (Cog) development. We further hypothesized that inclusion of infant age as a moderator of maternal behaviors would illuminate any differences between younger and older infants. Results: For the infant's S-E development, our hypothesis that maternal sensitivity would be a stronger predictor than verbal stimulation was not supported; nor did we find support for our hypothesis that the association would be moderated by age. For Cog development, only verbal stimulation had a direct positive effect on the infant's cognitive ability; our findings for moderation showed that mothers spoke more to older infants than younger infants. Conclusion: Identification of specific maternal behaviors associated with infant outcomes informs the child development field, and also provides strategies for early intervention to assist mothers with developing or maintaining a consistent relationship that includes sensitivity and verbal stimulation.

Human milk (HM) is an important source of nutrition for infants that provides all elements necessary for their growth and development. Previous studies have reported associations between breastfeeding and a reduced risk of developing obesity and late metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes. However, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Recently, intakes of HM components have been associated with infant body composition (BC), which might be implicated in the reduced risk of childhood obesity among breastfed infants. In this systematic review, electronic bibliographic databases were searched for studies that explored associations between the 24 h intakes of HM macronutrients and bioactive molecules and infant BC and/or growth parameters. Two independent reviewers screened reference lists, extracted and analysed the data and assessed the risk of bias using the National Institute for Clinical Excellence methodological checklist. Of 13 eligible studies, 10 assessed the relationships of infant BC and growth outcomes with HM macronutrients, and eight studies assessed the relationships with HM bioactive components. Significant differential associations with infant anthropometrics and BC were found for intakes and not for concentrations of several HM components, such as lactose, fat and adiponectin. This highlights that measuring concentrations of HM components without quantifying the intake by the infant may be misleading when analysing the relationships of HM components with infant outcomes. Future studies investigating the effect of HM components on infant growth and BC should consider measuring the actual intakes of HM components.

Background: Accumulating evidence indicates that prenatal maternal and fetal processes can have a lasting influence on infant and child development. Results from animal models indicate that prenatal exposure to maternal stress and stress hormones has lasting consequences for development of the offspring. Few prospective studies of human pregnancy have examined the consequences of prenatal exposure to stress and stress hormones. Method: In this study the effects of prenatal maternal psychosocial (anxiety, depression, and perceived stress) and endocrine (cortisol) indicators of stress on infant temperament were examined in a sample of 247 full-term infants. Maternal salivary cortisol and psychological state were evaluated at 18Y20, 24Y26, and 30Y32 weeks of gestation and at 2 months postpartum. Infant temperament was assessed with a measure of negative reactivity (the fear subscale of the Infant Temperament Questionnaire) at 2 months of age. Results: Elevated maternal cortisol at 30Y32 weeks of gestation, but not earlier in pregnancy, was significantly associated with greater maternal report of infant negative reactivity. Prenatal maternal anxiety and depression additionally predicted infant temperament. The associations between maternal cortisol and maternal depression remained after controlling for postnatal maternal psychological state. Conclusions: These data suggest that prenatal exposure to maternal stress has consequences for the development of infant temperament.

To determine the association between exposures to prenatal maternal cortisol and fetal and infant reactivity to challenge. Maternal cortisol levels (at 15, 19, 25, 31 and 36 weeks' gestation) and fetal movement response to vibroacoustic stimulation (VAS; at 25, 31 and 36 weeks) were assessed in 190 mother-fetus pairs. In addition, infant cortisol response to a heelstick at 24-hours of age was assessed. Early elevations in cortisol predicted a failure to respond to the VAS at 25 weeks and later elevations were associated with a larger response to the VAS among term fetuses. Further, both maternal cortisol and the fetal response to VAS were predictive of physiological stress responding in the neonate. The findings provide support for the role of prenatal glucocorticoids in shaping human CNS development.

Age and gender differences are prominent in the temperament literature, with the former particularly salient in infancy and the latter noted as early as the first year of life. This study represents a meta-analysis utilizing Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R) data collected across multiple laboratories (N = 4438) to overcome limitations of smaller samples in elucidating links among temperament, age, and gender in early childhood. Algorithmic modeling techniques were leveraged to discern the extent to which the 14 IBQ-R subscale scores accurately classified participating children as boys (n = 2,298) and girls (n = 2,093), and into three age groups: youngest (&lt; 24 weeks; n = 1,102), mid-range (24 to 48 weeks; n = 2,557), and oldest (&gt; 48 weeks; n = 779). Additionally, simultaneous classification into age and gender categories was performed, providing an opportunity to consider the extent to which gender differences in temperament are informed by infant age. Results in...

In the present chapter we explore how mothers' internal working models of their seven-month-old infants organize emotions in the parenting context, and ultimately, influence infant emotion regulation. We propose that mothers' internal working models of their infants function as emotion regulators, and influence a variety of components of the affective organization of parenting, including a) maternal emotion activation, b) qualities of maternal emotional engagement with their infants, and c) emotion regulation strategies mothers employ during emotionally challenging interactions. Results underscore the important role played by emotional processes in explaining the correspondence between maternal and infant emotion regulation strategies.

The purpose of this study was to examine the types of soothing behaviors used by mothers and fathers of infants, differences in use trajectories over time, and associated parenting outcomes. A longitudinal study of 241 families expecting their second child was performed. Data were collected at 1, 4, and 8 postnatal months and included measures of parental soothing techniques, involvement in soothing, distress in response to infant crying, and parenting self-efficacy. The average number of soothing techniques used was 7.7 for mothers and 5.9 for fathers. Soothing frequency decreased over time, and change patterns of soothing differed over time by gender. In couples who shared responsibility for soothing, fathers felt more efficacious in parenting and mothers were less upset by infant crying. Clinicians are encouraged to support fathers&#39; engagement in infant soothing, facilitate the development of fathers&#39; parenting confidence, and promote fathers&#39; involvement in children&...

ls much of this book attests, a wealth of research provides evidence that tuman infants have a core capacity for representing objects and their motions. The environment contains a diversity of objects, however, with waried properties and behaviors. Objects such as pebbles and blocks are inert; :hev move or change only in response to an external force. Objects such as rutterflies and cars have internal mechanisms generating forces that can proptl them. Self-propelled objects can be further differentiated, according to *e nature and characteristic pattern of their motions and the circumstances that evoke theni. To navigate successfully in this diverse and changing environment, perceivers and actors must categorize the objects around them appropriately, determining what kind of thing each object is and how it is iikely to behave. Here we consider three general accounts of the development of this ability in humans. First, all human learning about objects may be supported by a ;ingle core domain that identifies and tracks objects through space and time e.g., Flombaum et al., Chapter 6; but see Amso and fohnson, Chapter 9). -\s infants track pebbles and parrots, balls and cars, they may gradually learn that objects fall into general kinds with distinctive properties and behavior e.g., . Second, humans may possess a wealth of distinct core systems for representing objects of different kinds. Early in development, infants may distinguish natural from artifact objects, and they may further distinguish animals, plants, and nonliving natural kinds, as well as people from different social groups and with various properties . Finally, human learning may stem from a very limited set of core domains, such as one for reasoning about social or sentient objects and another for reasoning about all other kinds of objects (e.g.,

Parental perceptions and subjective experience of infants have long been considered important in clinical work with infants and families. Using three different samples of infants, we compare mothers' representations of their infants in clinically referred and nonreferred groups, using the Working Model of the Child Interview (WMCI). Twenty-four mothers of infants with failure to thrive (and 25 matched controls), 17 mothers of toddlers with sleep disorders (and 20 matched controls), and 13 mothers of infants seen in a general infant psychiatry clinic participated. Compared to their nonclinical counterparts, mothers of infants with clinical problems had representations of their infants that were significantly more likely to be classified distorted or disengaged. Infant gender, age, and birth order were independent of maternal classifications. We conclude that the WMCI is a useful structured interview to categorize mothers' perceptions and subjective experience of their infant and relationship with the infant. Mothers' WMCI classifications are associated with the clinical status of the infant. RESUMEN: Las percepciones de la madre y la experiencia subjetiva de los infantes han sido consideradas importantes, desde hace tiempo, en cuanto al trabajo clínico con infantes y familias. En este estudio, presentamos los resultados de una entrevista clínica acerca de las representaciones que las madres tienen de sus infantes y las comparamos con las representaciones de otras madres de infantes que no pertenecen al mismo grupo. Participaron veinticuatro madres de infantes con problemas de crecimiento (y sus 25 parejas de control), 17 madres de infants con trastornos para dormir (y sus 20 parejas de control), y 13 madres de infantes que habían sido vistos en una clínica de siquiatría infantil general. Comparados con sus contrapartes no clínicas, las madres de infantes 107 The research was supported in part by the Research Institute of the Hospital for Sick Children. We thank both Catherine Boucher, for her assistance with data collection, and the participants of the study. Requests for reprints should be directed to D.

ABSTRACTReactivation is an automatic, perceptual process in which exposure to components of a forgotten event alleviates forgetting. Most research on infant memory reactivation has used conditioning paradigms. We used the puppet imitation task to systematically examine which stimuli could retrieve 6‐month‐olds&#39; forgotten memory of the modeled actions. Infants watched an adult model a sequence of actions on a puppet, imitated the actions, and were exposed to reactivation cues 24 hr before a 7‐day (Experiment 1) or 14‐day (Experiment 2) retention test. Exposure to any component of the original event reactivated the memory during the 7‐day test, but two of the same components failed to alleviate forgetting during the 14‐day test. Increasing the number of retrieval cues facilitated 14‐day test performance. These findings reveal that the principles of reactivation are the same for conditioning and imitation paradigms: The necessary and sufficient conditions for memory reactivation ar...

Fifty-eight full term English infants took part in the study. Twenty-three 5-month old infants (mean age = 170 days, SD = 16.8) and twenty 8-month old infants (mean age = 258 days, SD = 13.8) were in the test groups. Fifteen 5-month old infants (mean age = 153 days, SD = 7.6) were in the control group.

The present paper reports the results of two longitudinal studies of the timing of visual checking and vocalizations associated with declarative pointing between ages 12 and 17 months in order to verify a developmental progression found in an earlier study by [J. Child Language 23 (1996) 307]. The first study involved nine normally developing children followed longitudinally for 6 months and the second study included 14 additional children studied for the same time period. The results of experiment 1 did not support a developmental progression in timing of visual checking and suggested some methodological difficulties with the use of videotaped stimuli to elicit the protodeclarative. Experiment 2 systematically examined three different stimulus conditions (video, mechanical dolls, caretaker-child play) to determine differences in elicitation of protodeclarative pointing. The second experiment found that mechanical dolls were significantly more effective than video or play conditions in eliciting pointing in the participants and again found no support for a developmental progression in the timing visual checking associated with pointing in these tasks. Results are discussed in terms of methodological and theoretical implications.

We have investigated 20 healthy full-term newborns between the 4th and the 6th day of life in standard conditions for laterality of arm movements, before and after introduction of a target. The durations of recording were: (a) 5 min continuously before target introduction; (b) five I-min units during target presentation. The movements studied were extension, flexion, movement with semiflexed arm with hand half-open or open toward the midline of the body, and total movements. Each of these items were counted separately and the counts were compared within and between sides. Spontaneous movements showed no side preference whereas in the presence of the target, movements toward the midline (target directed movements) showed a significant right-hand preference. newborn; upper limbs movements; laterality

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of speed, accuracy and effector on generality of motor program. Twelve males from Iran's professional futsal league participated in the study. After determining dominance leg of each participant, they were equally divided into two groups of left footedness and right footedness. In order to gather data, markers were placed on the anatomical positions. Then, participants were asked to perform 24 correct instep kicking (in accuracy and speed conditions) on a stationary ball from a marked penalty spot (6 meter) in futsal to target by dominant and non-dominant leg. Kicks were recorded by six high-speed digital cameras and kinematic data were calculated by Simi motion software. MANOVA was used for data analysis. The results indicated that there was no significant difference between the right and left footedness individuals and between dominant and non-dominant leg on the relative timing of interlimb and intralimb (p< 0.05). Also, there was no significant difference between the effect of speed and accuracy's strategies on the relative timing of interlimb and intralimb (p< 0.05). Overall, the results support the theory of generalized motor program and its prediction based on invariant relative timing and effector independence

Background: Feeding difficulties are widely acknowledged following oesophageal atresia/tracheo-oesophageal fistula repair. However, little is understood about the nature and severity of these difficulties. This study explored feeding in children with oesophageal atresia/tracheo-oesophageal fistula from the parent perspective. Methods: In collaboration with a patient support group, data were collected using a research-specific online discussion forum. Thematic analysis was used to code the data and identify themes. Results: One hundred and twenty-seven parents registered for the online forum, of whom 83 (65%) provided demographic data. Seventy-four (89%) of responders were mothers, 75 (90%) were of white ethnicity, 65 (78%) were from the UK. Six key themes were identified: feeding is a traumatic experience, feeding my child is scary, feeding is isolating and filled with uncertainty, feeding outside of the home is difficult, feeding associated emotions, developing coping strategies. Parents described features of medical, nutritional, feeding skill and psychosocial dysfunction across all stages of eating/drinking development. They described how their child's feeding difficulties had an impacted their own well-being. An interactional model of feeding difficulties in OA/TOF is proposed. Conclusions: Exploring parent experiences provides rich data from which to expand understanding of the complex nature of feeding difficulties in OA/TOF. Feeding should be viewed as a dyadic process, occurring within a family system. Intervention for feeding difficulties should be family-centred, addressing parental anxiety, trauma and uncertainty, as well as the child's underlying medical/surgical needs to optimise outcome. Further study of clinical correlates with parental experience is required.

Restrictions of preterm newborns&#39; movements could have consequences ranging from stress enhancement to impairment of their motor development. Therefore, ability to freely express motor activities appears crucial for their behavioural and physiological development. Our aim was to evaluate behavioural issues of two types of clothing used in NICU. We observed 18 healthy 34-37 post-conception week-old preterm newborns, during resting periods, when they were undisturbed by any interventions. Newborns wore either light clothing (bodysuit and a light wrapping) or heavy clothing (pyjamas, cardigan and sleep-sack). The percentages of time each subject spent in different postures were compared between clothing situations. Arm and hand postures differed in relation to clothing: babies bent their arms more and held their hands nearer their heads when in bodysuits than when in sleepwear. Consequently, babies in bodysuits spent more time touching their body or their environment whereas the ot...