Hydroforming of sheet metal

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Hydroforming of sheet metal is a manufacturing process that uses high-pressure hydraulic fluid to shape metal sheets into desired forms. This technique allows for the production of complex geometries with improved material properties and reduced waste, making it an efficient method for creating lightweight and structurally sound components in various industries.

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Key research themes

1. How can adaptive and optimized pressure path control improve formability and reduce defects in sheet metal hydroforming?

This research area investigates the role of precise control and optimization of fluid and back pressures, as well as blank holder forces, in enhancing formability and minimizing instabilities such as wrinkling and tearing during sheet metal hydroforming. Adaptive numerical methods integrating finite element analysis with control algorithms are applied to optimize loading profiles dynamically according to material behavior and geometry, thereby enabling the processing of complex shapes with high accuracy and fewer defects.

Numerical and experimental investigation of the effect of double-sided hydroforming process on wrinkling damage by optimizing loading curves with adaptive control

by Ekrem Öztürk and

2022

Key finding: This study applied a novel integration of double-sided hydroforming process (DSHP) with adaptive finite element analysis and type-2 fuzzy logic control (T2FLC) along with genetic algorithms to optimize back pressure and... Read more

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Optimizitation of the Pressure Path in Sheet Metal Hydroforming

by Dorel Banabic

2022

Key finding: Using a genetic algorithm combined with finite element modelling, this research identified optimum fluid pressure paths for producing complex two-stepped sheet metal parts in a single forming step. The optimization minimized... Read more

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Sealing Technologies for the Manufacturing of Bipolar Plates via Active and Passive Hydroforming

by Verena Psyk

2024, The 28th Saxon Conference on Forming Technology SFU and the 7th International Conference on Accuracy in Forming Technology ICAFT

Key finding: Through a comprehensive experimental characterization, the authors established quantitative relationships between forming fluid pressure, blank holder force, and frictional conditions in sheet hydroforming with die (SHF-D).... Read more

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A Novel Approach to Predict Wrinkling of Aluminum Alloy During Warm/Hot Sheet Hydroforming Based on an Improved Yoshida Buckling Test

by Sergei Alexandrov

2022, Materials

Key finding: This paper presents an improved wrinkling prediction model that incorporates through-thickness normal stresses induced by fluid pressure in warm/hot sheet hydroforming, validated experimentally using an enhanced Yoshida... Read more

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2. What modeling strategies effectively predict formability limits and strain localization in sheet metal hydroforming?

This theme focuses on theoretical and numerical models developed to predict the onset of localized necking, fracture, and forming limits in sheet hydroforming. Emphasis is given to constitutive models like the Marciniak-Kuczynski (M-K) model, forming limit diagrams (FLD), and coupled damage mechanics that incorporate microstructural and strain path effects. These models facilitate understanding material behavior under complex loading and improving the reliability of simulations used for process design and failure prevention.

Developments of the Marciniak-Kuczynski model for sheet metal formability: A review

by Dorel Banabic

2024, Journal of Materials Processing Technology

Key finding: This review consolidates extensive developments of the M-K model for predicting sheet metal formability, highlighting its evolution from simple geometrical imperfection assumptions to sophisticated versions incorporating... Read more

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Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming

by Xing ZHAO and

2017

Key finding: The book provides foundational mechanics models for sheet metal forming, including hydroforming, establishing mechanics-based approaches that bridge the gap between elastic-plastic deformation theories and industrial forming... Read more

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Controlling factors of forming limit curve: A review

by Surajit Kumar Paul

2023, Advances in Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering

Key finding: This review critically examines factors influencing forming limit curves (FLC) in sheet metals, including measurement methods, strain paths, microstructure, strain rate, and temperature effects. It highlights the relevance of... Read more

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Predictions of formability parameters in tube hydroforming process

by Bapurao Marlapalle

2022, SN Applied Sciences

Key finding: This study integrates numerical finite element analysis with experimental validation to predict formability parameters such as thinning, bulging height, and strain paths in tube hydroforming of stainless steel tubes. It... Read more

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3. How do advanced high-speed forming and assisted forming techniques influence hydroforming effectiveness and material formability?

This research theme explores the adoption of novel forming strategies such as electromagnetic forming (EMF), electrohydraulic forming (EHF), heat-assisted forming, and double-sided hydroforming to overcome traditional limitations in hydroforming. These techniques aim to increase material ductility, reduce forming forces, improve strain rates, and expand formability windows for challenging materials like high-strength aluminum alloys and lightweight metals. Experimental and numerical investigations elucidate the underlying mechanisms and process optimization strategies.

Comparative Analysis of Electrohydraulic and Electromagnetic Sheet Metal Forming against the Background of the Application as an Incremental Processing Technology

by Verena Psyk

2023, Metals

Key finding: This paper compares electrohydraulic forming (EHF) and electromagnetic forming (EMF) as high-speed incremental sheet forming processes, analyzing electromagnetic and mechanical load transmission, deformation dynamics, and... Read more

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Hydroforming of High-Strength Aluminum Tubes with Thermo-Mechanical Manufacturing Processes

by Verena Psyk

2023, The 28th Saxon Conference on Forming Technology SFU and the 7th International Conference on Accuracy in Forming Technology ICAFT

Key finding: This research investigates hydroforming of 7xxx series high-strength aluminum tubes using thermo-mechanical approaches including W-temper and hot forming under quenching conditions. Tensile testing at elevated temperatures... Read more

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Heat-assisted incremental sheet forming for high-strength materials — a review

by Khamis Essa

2023, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Key finding: This review summarizes developments in heat-assisted incremental sheet forming (ISF), emphasizing strategies to improve formability of high-strength alloys such as titanium and steels through integrated heating sources... Read more

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Experimental and Numerical Investigations on Strains of Metal Sheet Parts Processed by Electromagnetic Forming

by Dorin Luca

2024, Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing

Key finding: Through coordinated experimental and simulation studies, this work quantifies strains in aluminum, copper, and steel sheets subjected to electromagnetic forming (EMF). The findings demonstrate significantly increased forming... Read more

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All papers in Hydroforming of sheet metal

The Effect of Thermal Coefficients on Temperature Condition of the Blank in FE Analysis of Warm Hydro mechanical Deep Drawing Process

by Ekrem Öztürk and

A challenge to conduct the most accurate FE simulations in Warm Hydromechanical Deep Drawing (WHDD) process is to predict temperature condition of the blank which was held between the heated dies and cooled punch. This is possible by... more

Fig. 1. a) Warm hydroforming with die (Siegert and Jager, 2004a), b) Warm hydromechanical deep drawing (Groche et al., 2002)

it was not possible to measure the temperature distribution o the blank during WHDD. So the accuracy of the FEA was decided by comparing the center of the blank with the punch and the flange of the blank with tools. FEA’s were performed in Ls-Dyna commercial FEA package. The temperature values of 180, 50 and 20 °C were assigned for the tools, punch and blank respectively in the FE modeling of WHDD process. The analysis were conducted as implicitly and forming time in the analysis was used close to experiments. In order to ensure hea transfer between the tools and blank was performed exactly and the blank was allowed to have the temperature of the tools at a particular time. This time was determined as 15 seconds with trial and error. In the meantime the punch and tools were in contact with the blank. FE model of the process is shown in Figure 1. The model consists of four main parts namely blank, die or counter pressure chamber, blank holder and punch. While the blank was considered as elastic-plastic, the other parts were modeled as rigid parts. The diameter of the blank was set to 100 mm in all simulations. For meshing process, quadrilateral and triangle (only for punch) element types were used. Fully integrated 8-node shell elements were applied to all parts while the blank and tools were modeled with 7 and 5 integration point elements, respectively. Other details of the FE model can be found in the study of [9]. Fig. 2. FE model for hydromechanical deep drawing process (Acar et al. 2014) Pig. 2. PE model for nyaromecnaniCal deep drawings Process (AACar et dl. LUT) After the FE model was constructed, he thermal coefficients acting on the temperature condition of the blank were applied in different values and the effects of the coefficients were revealed and the most appropria' accurate temperature distribution were determined on surface conditions, the gap between the too affects the heat transfer significantly. Heat transfe e values for . Depending and blank r is affected from the heat transfer coefficient h in LS-DYN defined as follows: A and h is

The effect of the HTC on the temperature distribution of the blank through a path from center to flange of the blank (0 to 53 mm) was shown in Fig.1. It was realized that when the HTC was taken as 28 W/m2.K, the flange of the blank could not The effect of CF is seen in Fig. 4. Here, it was obviously noticed that the CF did not affect the temperature distribution of the blank. It was concluded that since there is wrinkling in Fig. 3. Effect of heat transfer coefficient @ITC) on temperature distribution of the blank

Fig. 4. Effect of thermal conductivity of the fluid between the two sliding surfaces (CF) on temperature distribution of the blank was understood that as the temperature of the tools was constant through the forming process the heat capacity of the tools was not effective. For the aluminum sheet material, as the heat capacity of 900 J/kg.K is given at the catalogues, this HC value was considered appropriate for the FEA of WHDD of the flange region of the blank, the gap occurred between the blank and tools due to the wrinkling is smaller than the GCRIT value which was set as 50 um in all simulations. In this case, it can be said that the heat transfer between the tools and blank is only characterized by HTC.

The effect of HC is shown in Fig. 5. In the simulations, when the heat capacity of the steel material used for the was set 420 and 4200 J/kg.K, any difference between temperature distributions was not observed. So it unders affect t of 180 ood that the heat capacity of the tool materials did and 900 J/kg.K for the blank material AA 5754 did affect t ools the was not he temperature condition of the blank. While the values not he temperature distribution of the blank at the beginning of the forming, it was observed that there was an apparent difference at the end of forming. Referring to these resul s, it The effect of thermal conductivity (TC) on temperature distribution is demonstrated in Fig. 6. The values of 33 and 147 W/m.K affected the temperature distribution too much. When the TC of 33 W/m.K was used, as the heat transferred to the center of the blank less than the value of 147 W/m.K, there was an appreciable difference between the center and flange region of the blank at the beginning of the forming. Because of the same reason, when the value of 147 W/m.K is used, the flange of the blank is warmer at the end of the forming. As this Fig. 5. Effect of heat capacity (HC) of aluminum and steel to temperature distribution of the blank

Fig. 6. Effect of thermal conductivity (TC) of the aluminum and steel on temperature distribution of the blank

the results were near, when the HTC values of 1400 and 2000 W/m2.K were used in the FEA, it was concluded that using of 1400 W/m2.K is convenient in the FEA of the WHDD process as used in Choi et al. (2007). consequently 12 FE simu Table 1, the same thermal ations were conducted. As seen in coefficient values were used in each simulation except for the bold written parameters. After the FE simulations terminated, t he temperature distribution of the blank was obtained through a line from center to flange of the blank prior to the starting of the punch displacement (before forming) and after the punch displacement finished (after forming) and the sheet metal blank was formed. Also these temperature distributions were compared with each other and tool temperatures. Consequently, the effect and appropriate

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An Application of Fuzzy Logic Control Algorithm in Hydro mechanical Deep Drawing Process

by H.Selçuk Halkacı and

Hydro mechanical deep drawing (HDD) process is an advanced sheet metal forming technology. The aim of this process is to form deep drawn cups without any kind of forming instability such as buckling, wrinkling or bursting (tearing). The... more

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Forming limit curves analysis of AA3104-H19 considering the through- thickness normal stress and anisotropic yield functions

by Ramin Hashemi

2016, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences

Post-print of "SM Mirfalah-Nasiri, A Basti, R Hashemi (2016) Forming limit curves analysis of aluminum alloy considering the through-thickness normal stress, anisotropic yield functions and strain rate, Abstract Based on three anisotropic... more

where o is the Chauchy stresses and L is a fourth order tensor which is calculated as following

In Eq. (12) the scalar quantity € can be derived as Adding the third linear transformation to Yld2011-18p, the Yld2011-27p yield criterion can be presented vhere S; and Si are the linear transformation of the stress deviator, and a is the yield function exponent.

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An overall review of the tube hydroforming (THF) technology

by Muammer Koç

Increasing use of hydroforming in automotive applications requires intensive research and development on all aspects of this relatively new technology to satisfy an ever-increasing demand by the industry. This paper summarizes a... more

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SIMULATION OF CUP DRAWING BY DIFFERENT METHODS

by Ayan Roy Naskar

2017, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology

The prediction of optimized forming parameters viz. the punch force, blank holding force, forming factor, and hydrostatic pressure will contribute to cost reduction of the processed metal through curtailment in material usage and... more

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Numerical and experimental study of formability in deep drawing of two-layer metallic sheets

by Ramin Hashemi

2015, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

In this paper, the formability of two-layer (aluminum-st12 steel) sheets in the deep drawing process was investigated through numerical simulations and experiments. The purpose of this research was to obtain more formability in deep... more

Dimensions of specimens used in tensile tests are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2: Typical Load—Displacement curve from the deep drawing test in Figure 2. The experimental deep drawing setup is shown in Figure 3. he load-displacement graph was used as a stopping criterion for the test. This curve is presentec

Figure 3: Experimental deep drawing setup ittps://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00170-015-6978-5 3. FEM simulation to predict LDR

Figure 4: The schematic of punch, die and blank holder Moreover, the two-layer metallic sheets were modeled as deformable part with composite shell

Figure 5: Typical view of the model including punch, blank holder, blank and die extremely thin, it was assumed that the alignment of the middle layer would not affect the 3.1. The governing yield function and hardening law

According to general form of Hill’s quadratic yield criterion [16], the equivalent stress is given Hill’s 1948 yield function was considered to model the behavior of the sheet metals. This model

Where the average value of the plastic strain ratio can be calculated by following relation:

These anisotropic parameters were computed for St12 and Al 1100 sheets. The results are shown calculated using anisotropic parameters ro, r4s and roo by the following relations [17]:

Figure 6: Comparison of necking positions from simulation and experiment for Al 1100-St 12 with aluminum inner layer and steel outer layer for a 63.38 mm blank diameter: (a) experimental result and (b) FE simulation result

Figure 7: The extended FLD for a 63.38 mm blank diameter during the process fracture would be occurred on the blank. 7 that the equivalent strain value of some elements was more than the calculated failure strain, so

with the punch and steel outer layer was in contact with the die. Figure 8: Final shapes for Al 1100-St 12 with aluminum inner layer and steel outer layer for a 62.42 mm blank diameter: (a) experimental result and (b) FE simulation result

Figure 9: The extended FLD for a 62.42 mm blank diameter

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00170-015-697¢ https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-6978-5 Figure 10: Effect of steel thickness percentage on the LDR

The effect of the friction coefficient between blank and punch on the LDR is shown in Figure12.

Figure 13: Effect of friction coefficient between blank and die on the LDR LDR will be decreased, it means that the formability of two-layer sheet will be reduced.

Conclusions The main goal in this paper was to obtain more formability in deep drawing process of two-layer lie arc radius, friction coefficient between blank and punch, friction coefficient between blan. and die, and lay-up on the formability of two-layer sheets were studied by finite element

Table 1 Mechanical and Material properties of St12 and Al 1100 sheets from tensile tests mechanical properties of each layer are presented in table 1.

Table 2 Measured values of the plastic strain ratios ASTM-E517 specification [15]. Measured values of the plastic strain ratios are given in Table 2

Table 3 The anisotropic parameters of Hill’s quadratic yield criterion Each layer was used in the Holloman’s hardening law that explains work hardening. The Holloman’s hardening law is given as follows:

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Controlling factors of forming limit curve: A review

by Surajit Kumar Paul

2021, Advances in Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering

Keywords: Forming limit diagram Strain path Punch geometry Microstructure Strain rate Temperature A B S T R A C T Sheet metal forming industry widely adopted the forming limit curve (FLC) as a limiting criterion in sheet metal forming.... more

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of forming limit diagram (FLD).

Fig. 2. (a) Schematic of forming limit diagram (FLD) in orthotropic axes, (b) schematic of FLD representing safe forming zone.

Fig. 3. (a) diffuse neck followed by localised neck formation during a uniaxial tensile test, (b) major (€,) and minor (€2) strain alteration with time. (Paul et al., 2018). Diffuse necking takes place in a bigger axial length, which is larger than the specimen thickness. The detection of a localised necking start point is painful and difficult. Generally, localised necking happens within the diffuse necking zone, and the axial length of localised necking is comparable to the sheet thickness. Within the localised necking zone, approximately plane strain deformation happens (i.e., transverse (width) strain maintains constant although axial strain and bulk strain rise). Commencement of localised necking can be directly detected from the local axial and transverse strain data, and it is explained with a scatch in Fig. 3(b).

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the uniaxial tensile test (a) engineering and true stress-strain curve, (b) forming limit diagram (FLD). quantify the anisotropy in the sheet. The r-values are measured from the width and true longitudinal strains as per Eq. (3).

Fig. 5. FLC for different strain hardening exponents (n) derived from: (a) Swift diffusive necking theory, (b) Hill-Swift necking theory, and (c) schematic rep- resentation of Hill and Swift necking theory.

Fig. 7. Prediction of experimental FLC by models (model 1 & 2) for (a) EDD steel with a thickness of 1.25 mm, (b) EDD steel with a thickness of 2 mm, (c) DP980 steel with a thickness of 1.2 mm, and (d) DP780 steel with a thickness of 1.2 mm. Experimental FLCs are collected from the literature (Kumar, 2002; Chung et al., 2014; Panich, 2013).

Fig. 8. Prediction of experimental FLC by models (model 1 & model 2) for (a) TWIP940 steel with a thickness of 1.47 mm, and (b) TRIP780 steel with a thickness of 1.2 mm. Experimental FLCs are collected from the literature (Chung et al., 2011; Panich, 2013).

Fig. 10. Key mechanical factors can result in superior forming limit. The localised necking limit can be determined from a typical inter- national standards organization (ISO) method (2008). Fig. 11(a) shows the major strain versus distance along with the gauge length plot. The major local strain corresponds to just before the failure of the specimen. The succeeding steps can be followed using the ISO technique (2008) to calculate the localised necking limit. (i) Just before the failure, local strain data points i.e. local major strain is fitted with parabolic equation f(x) = ax? + bx +c. The vertex of the parabola denotes the crack initi- ation location. From the fitted parabolic curve, the constants a, b, and c can be calculated. (ii) On both sides of the crack position, the inner boundary (IB) is calculated from the second derivative of f(x) with respect to the position i.e. f’(Q0 = 2a. (iii) According to ISO standard

Fig. 9. Material factors that can affect the forming limit of sheet metals.

Fig. 12. Difference between true and engineering strain space plot of FLC. Experimental FLC in engineering strain space is collected from Kumar (2002). Finite element software is successfully used today in die design, sheet product geometry optimisation, and selecting the appropriate material

Fig. 13. Test setup for the Nakazima (left) and the Marciniak tests (right). All dimensions are in mm.

Fig. 14. FLCs for the DP980 steel in the Nakazima and Marciniak tests. Adopting the ISO-Method to measure the limiting strains. Experimental data are collected from Noder and Butcher (2019). stretching superimposed with bending according to the concave-side rule (CSR). As per CSR, the neck will form on the outer radius (i.e., convex surface) when the strain on the inner radius (i.e., concave surface) touches the plane-strain limiting strain (FLCo) for in-plane deformation. Kitting et al. (2009) were conducted angular stretch bend (ASB) tests on H340LAD micro-alloyed steel and reported that CSR is applicable for mild superimposed bending. Neuhauser et al. (2016) were conducted ASB tests on DP steels and noticed that the CSR is valid for severe superimposed bending. Noder and Butcher (2019) have suggested that the FLC determination from Marciniak tests should be preferred as strain paths remain almost linear, and the contact pressure rectifications can be avoided. Neuhauser et al. (2019) reported that FLC increases with a rise in t/R ratio (where t is the sheet thickness, and R is the punch radius). During bending, the top surface deformation is constrained by the lower surface deformation. Consequently, the forming limit strain increases i.e., instability of the top surface gets delayed with bending. Bending is superimposed with in-plane deformation in the Nakazima test case and pure in-plane deformation in Marciniak test. Consequently, a slight

Fig. 15. Strain paths and limiting strains for the DP980 acquired from the (a) Nakazima and (b) Marciniak tests. Experimental data are collected from Noder and Butcher (2019).

Fig. 16. Effect of pre-straining on FLC. Experimental data are collected from Basak and Panda (2019).

Fig. 17. Schematic representation of the procedure to calculate path independent limiting criteria. Paul (2016)

Fig. 19. Effect of strain rate on FLC. Experimental data are collected from Chu et al. (2014). Equivalent strain (€eq), stress ratio (a), and triaxiality (n) can be determined from a suitable yield criterion (Fig. 17). While, equivalent stress (eq), major (o,) and minor (02) strains and hydrostatic/mean stress (6m) can be calculated by the use of yield criterion and strain- hardening law of the material at the same time (Fig. 17). The selection of yield criteria will affect the result i.e. error for all path independent

Fig. 18. For EDD steel at different pre-straining conditions, using Hill yield theory the analytical mapping of (a) FLSD, (b) XFLSD, (c) SFLD, and (d) PEPSD

Fig. 20. Effect of temperature on FLC. Experimental data are collected from Chu et al. (2014). One assumption, “the cumulative equivalent strain is not changing with various pre-straining paths” is made in all strain path independent strain-based limiting criteria (TFD, XFLD, ESRFLD, and PEPSD). Simi- larly, the assumption “the cumulative equivalent stress remains unal- tered in various pre-straining paths” is made for all the strain path independent stress-based limiting criteria (TFSD, FLSD, SRFLSD, XFLSD, and PESSD). The cumulative equivalent stress is calculated from the cumulative equivalent strain with an appropriate introduction of yield criteria. Therefore, all the strain path independent limiting criteria are assumed that the cumulative equivalent strain is not altering with different pre-straining paths. Paul (2016) concluded in his study that all the stated limiting criteria are roughly straining path independent when

Fig. 21. Correlation among FLCo and uniaxial tensile properties: (a) ultimate tensile stress (oyrs), (b) total elongation (e;), (c) coefficient of normal anisotropy, (r), (d strain hardening exponent (n), and (e) thickness (t) (Paul, 2015).

Variation of FLCo, €4, and € for various types of steel-grades. 3.4. Present model (Model 2) Table 1

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Identification des lois de comportement des tôles à partir des essais de gonflement Hydraulique

by Dr. Ali KHALFALLAH

The paper describes a new method for the identification of the flow stress curves of anisotropic sheet metals using a hydraulic bulge tests through circular and elliptical dies. This method is based on analytical model using the membrane... more

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An overall review of the tube hydroforming (THF) technology

by Muammer Koç

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Determination of optimal loading profiles in hydromechanical deep drawing process using integrated adaptive finite element analysis and fuzzy control approach

by Ekrem Öztürk and

In this paper, an improved approach is proposed to determine the optimal profiles of two controllable process parameters (hydraulic pressure and blank holder force), which improve the forming condition and/or make better use of forming... more

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Mechanical and Structural Changes of Austenitic Sheet Metal Alloy during Biaxial Tensile Straining by Hydraulic Bulging

by Emil Yankov

Austenitic stainless steel sheets are important technological materials due to their diverse applications ranging from chemical transportation, shipbuilding, automotive and aircraft industry. During deformation at room temperature or at... more

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An Application of Fuzzy Logic Control Algorithm in Hydro mechanical Deep Drawing Process

by Mevlüt Türköz and

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Optimization Technique to Study the Tube’s Hydroforming

by mohammed Nassraoui

The shaping by hydroforming process involves several complex phenomena and presents several types of nonlinearities (geometric, material, etc.). The development of a hydroforming operation requires a lot of testing to determine with... more

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Experimental study of forming limit diagram and mechanical properties of aluminum foils processed by the accumulative roll bonding

by Ramin Hashemi

2020, Materials Research Express

In this article, for the first time, the forming limit diagram (FLD) and mechanical properties of aluminum foil samples processed by the accumulative roll bonding (ARB) process have been studied experimentally. For this purpose, thin... more

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Probabilistic approach to study the hydroformed sheet

by mohammed Nassraoui

Under the leadership of the Kyoto agreements on reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, the automotive sector was forced to review its methods and production technologies in order to meet the new environmental standards. In fuel... more

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on suppression of plastic buckling in hydroforming processes

by Eytan Kochavi

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Hydroforming of sheet metal

Key research themes

1. How can adaptive and optimized pressure path control improve formability and reduce defects in sheet metal hydroforming?

2. What modeling strategies effectively predict formability limits and strain localization in sheet metal hydroforming?

3. How do advanced high-speed forming and assisted forming techniques influence hydroforming effectiveness and material formability?

Related Topics

All papers in Hydroforming of sheet metal