History of statistics

Osmanlı son dönemine tarihlenen sekiz istatistik eseri özelinde büyük sayılar yasasını incelemeyi gaye edinen bu çalışma, Osmanlı istatistik eseri yazarlarının çağı yakalama gayretlerini değerlendirmek üzere hazırlanmıştır. İstatistiğin teorisine değinen, Mülkiye Mektebi, Hukuk Fakültesi ve Ticaret Mektebi gibi okullarda kullanılan eserlerin büyük sayılar yasası bağlamında Adolphe Quetelet’nin (1796-1874) fikirlerinin etkisinde kaleme alındıkları görülmüştür. İstatistiksel incelemelerde gözlem sayısının çok olması gerektiğini vurgulayan eserlerden yedisinde büyük sayılar kavramı yeterince açıklanmamış ve yasa hakkında sunulan örneklerin niteliği ve sayısı yetersiz bulunmuştur. Bunların dışındaki sekizinci kitabın yazarı olan Ahmed Emin (Yalman, 1888-1972) ise Amerika’da aldığı sosyoloji ve gazetecilik eğitimlerinin etkisi ile istatistik derslerine diğer yazarlardan farklı bir açı kazandırmıştır. Bu konuda Mülkiye Mektebi öğrencilerine yönelik yazdığı, İhsâʾiyyat (İstatistik)
adlı ders kitabı diğerlerinin düzeninden ayrılmış, istatistiği genel olarak büyük sayılar yasası açısından analiz etmiş, neden sonuç ilişkilerini daha iyi sunabilmek için yasayı geniş bir şekilde kullanmıştır. Eser, normal dağılım kavramına ve grafiklerine hatırı sayılır bir bölüm ayırmış, özgünlük konusunda kayda değer bulunmuştur.

The curry beef vermicelli soup is a product of Shanghai’s modern culinary revolution. Its “invention” resulted from a combination of such as demographic shift, industrialization, production of condiments and seasonings, changes in government policies, emergence of the working class, and the local climate of Shanghai. Curry powder, the core ingredient of
the curry beef vermicelli soup, was introduced to Shanghai by the British as a standardized seasoning, which, due to its ease of storage and use, quickly gained acceptance among the city’s new immigrants and the predominantly working-class residents, fitting seamlessly into the culinary regime of an urban and industrialized Shanghai. Having been “localized,” curry becomes part of the collective gustatory memory of Shanghai, making Shanghai the most curry-enthusiastic city in China. The social mixture of Shanghai (Chinese and Western, Han and Muslims, etc.) also helped break the taboo of beef-eating among the common folk. The rapid expansion of the new urban immigrant and working-class population gave rise to a fast-food consciousness and demand, leading to the convenient addition of vermicelli
to the dish, thus finalizing its form. The history of the “invention” of curry beef vermicelli soup presents a rich tapestry of history, reflecting the distinctive cultural inclusiveness and openness of modern Shanghai.

This study aims to share the data of the Ottoman provinces of Mosul,
Baghdad and Basra under 19 headings in a previously unseen Ottoman
document, which is considered to have been prepared to inform Sultan
Abdulhamid about the international political environment and conjuncture of the time in which the Ottoman State was located in the 19th century, and to provide a wide range of comprehensive information about the Ottoman country and society using modern statistical methods of the time. In addition to assessing this data, it is also aimed to review the status of statistical science in the Ottoman State in the 19th century based on our examinations of the document and its author. It is evaluated that the document in question is valuable and important in terms of showing the functioning of the state organization of the period in the Ottoman Empire, seeing the reflections of the changes that occurred in the state order after the Tanzimat, providing clues about the state's efforts to cope with issues it saw as threats, and taking a picture of the current situation in all Ottoman lands in 1894-1895 through the information provided. The content of the article is limited to the review of the status of statistical science in the world and in the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, the bureaucratic life of Mehmet Behiç Bey, the clerk of the General
Registry Office of the period who prepared the document, and the evaluation of the data in the document showing the status of the provinces of Mosul, Baghdad and Basra in the period following the introduction of the document, and is interpreted in relation to conjuncture dynamics.

Chap1 Généralités Chap2 Instruments topo métriques Chap3 Méthodes de levé Chap4 Calculs topographiques Chap5 Le système de positionnement global (GPS) La topométrie est une division importante de lagéomatique. La géomatique, aussi appelée sciences géodésiques, est la discipline qui englobe toutes les méthodes d'acquisition et de traitement des dimensions physiques de la Terre. Si l'on veut satisfaire aux exigences de la vie moderne, on ne peut se dispenser de la géomatique. On y a recours pour: a) cartographier la Terre, au-dessus et au-dessous du sel ainsi qu'au fond des mers; b) dresser des cartes de navigation aérienne, terrestre et maritime; c) établir les limites de propriétés tant publiques que privées; d) créer des banques de données relatives aux ressources naturelles et à l'utilisation des terres; e) déterminer la forme et les dimensions de la Terre de même que pour étudier la gravité et le champ magnétique; f) dresser des cartes de notre satellite naturel et, éventuellement, des autres planètes. La géomatique joue un rôle extrêmement important dans plusieurs branches du génie. Par exemple, elle est requise avant, pendant et après la planification et la construction d'autoroutes, de chemins de fer, de tunnels, de canaux, de ponts, de bâtisses, de systèmes d'aqueducs et d'égouts, de galeries de mines, d'oléoducs, de sites de lancement de fusées ainsi que de stations de repérage et de poursuite de satellites. La topométrie (du grec topos= lieu et metron= mesure) est l'ensemble des techniques de mesurage géométrique grâce auxquelles on détermine la forme et les dimensions d'objets et de lieux, sans tenir compte de la courbure" de la Terre. Les principales branches de la topométrie sont les suivantes: -Topométrie de construction. La topométrie de construction consiste à donner des alignements et des altitudes qui servent à la construction de bâtisses, de réseaux d'égouts et d'aqueducs, de rues, etc. -Topométrie routière. La topométrie routière est intimement liée aux autoroutes, aux chemins de fer, aux oléoducs et aux travaux qui s'étendent, de façon générale, sur de grandes distances www.4geniecivil.com Depuis quelques années, on a mis au point de nouvelles techniques de mesurage telles que le système Doppler (satellites), la technologie inertielle. Toutes les opérations en topométrie se ramènent, de façon générale, à deux types de mesures: a) mesures de distances; b) mesures d'angles. Les mesures de distances peuvent s'effectuer horizontalement, c'est-à-dire en fonction de la pente, ou verticalement (nivellement). Par convention et aussi parce que c'est plus commode, on donne toujours les mesures horizontalement, à l'exception du nivellement. Quant aux angles, on les mesure soit dans le plan horizontal, soit dans le plan vertical.

Consacré à l'évolution des rapports entre religion et société au Royaume-Uni du début du XIX e siècle à nos jours, ce livre est une contribution supplémentaire à la vive controverse qui sévit depuis plusieurs décennies outre-Manche concernant la sécularisation. Refusant de rejoindre les tenants d'une approche «révisionniste» qui ont mis en avant le caractère non linéaire du processus de «sortie de la religion», l'historien Callum G. Brown se distingue également des défenseurs de la théorie classique qui fait de la sécularisation une conséquence évidente de l'industrialisation, de l'urbanisation et de la modernité. Comme dans son ouvrage précédent (The Death of Christian Britain, 2001), C.Brown montre que c'est à partir des années soixante que se situe en Grande-Bretagne la véritable rupture entre une société imprégnée de culture chrétienne et une société sécularisée.

The purpose of these Bylaws is to provide procedures to be used in conducting the business of the Associated Graduate Students of the University of California, Irvine (AGS). 2 Authority These Bylaws are formed under and are subject to the terms and limitations of the AGS Constitution. Any Bylaw which is in conflict with the AGS Constitution is null and void.

In 1887, the newly formed Fabian Society, a British reformist society, published Facts for Socialists. Consisting mainly of economic statistics detailing the economic organisation of Great Britain, this brochure aimed to demonstrate the unequal distribution of wealth. Two years later the Society published Facts for Londoners. This brochure, for its part, used economic and social statistics on London to support its proposals for reforming the city. Using these two booklets as case studies, this article examines why and how non-state political organisations use figures in their struggles to improve the living and working conditions of sections of the population. Based on the method of the socio-history of quantification, it analyses who produces statistics, how they are produced and why. This approach makes it possible, among other things, to distinguish different forms of militant use of statistics and to observe their transformation in changing contexts.

En este trabajo presentamos una aproximación al problema
de la producción de información estadística sobre la lepra
durante las primeras décadas del siglo XX en Argentina,
cuando aún se la consideraba una enfermedad incurable y el
aislamiento obligatorio era una de las principales medidas de
salud pública en discusión. En este sentido, la perspectiva
histórica sobre la elaboración de estadísticas de salud
adquiere relevancia en el contexto del brote de la pandemia
de COVID-19, que llevó a la población a prestar atención a una
intensa circulación de tablas y gráficos destinados a visualizar
datos sobre tasas de infección y mortalidad, relacionados
también con el aislamiento (de individuos, regiones e incluso
países) como una de las principales medidas de salud pública.

Стаття присвячена некрологам, які публікувалися у статистико-інформаційному виданні «Харківський календар» і його додатку – «Харківському збірнику». Всього у цих виданнях було виявлено 11 некрологів як відомим у наш час особистостям (О. К. Сіверс, Л. С. Ценковський та ін.), так і маловідомим (В. І. Баршевський, П. П. Полікарпов та ін.). Звертається увага на ці тексти як на інструмент конструювання біографій, оскільки на той час у Харківській губернії не існувало окремих довідників чи енциклопедій, присвячених місцевим діячам. Внаслідок цього, багато імен з часом могли бути забутими. Робиться висновок про те, що тексти даних некрологів здебільшого розкривали не лише інформацію про їхнє життя та діяльність, а й вказували на конкретні особисті якості, що є цінним для розуміння особистості в цілому і подальшої роботи над аналізом життєписів. / The article is devoted to obituaries published in the statistical and informational publication Kharkiv Calendar and its supplement Kharkiv Miscellany. In total, 11 obituaries were found in these publications, both for wellknown personalities (O. Sivers, L. Tsenkovsky, etc.) and little-known ones (V. Barshevsky, P. Polikarpov, etc.). Attention is drawn to these texts as a tool for constructing biographies, since at that time there were no separate reference books or encyclopaedias dedicated to local figures in Kharkiv province. As a result, many names could have been forgotten over time. It is concluded that the texts of these obituaries mostly revealed not only information about their lives and activities, but also pointed to specific personal qualities, which is valuable for understanding the personality as a whole and further work on the analysis of biographies.

The article analyses and contextualizes a case of mass suicide of the Spasovites in the village of Kopeny, Saratov Province in 1827. The work is based on unpublished archival documents: records of court cases, officials’, ethnographical and clerical researches. To get a complete picture of the tragedy, the author draws on materials presenting a background of the event. The paper attempts to clarify the motives behind the suicide, religious practices related to it, and seeks to expand our knowledge of the Spasovite movement and of the government discourse
regarding religious dissidents in the early reign of Nicholas I. The causes of the suicide are identified as multi-faceted. Underlying eschatological views and soteriological ideas according to which death was thought of as a way to expiate sins were influential. This was layered with anxiety and traumatic experiences connected with the local social context: the expectation of future persecution against the Spasovites’ beliefs, as well as fear and indignation caused by the crimes of the village authorities. The sources present diverse suicide practices used by Spasovites in the early 19th century, unusual details of these practices, and discourse of tolerance and leniency towards sectarians in the official rhetoric. The investigation into the suicide had wide-ranging consequences, acting as a motivation for the local authorities to develop and implement severe measures against all Old Believers, including Popovtsy.
Статья посвящена анализу и контекстуализации массового суицида, совершенного крестьянами-спасовцами села Копены Саратовской губернии в 1827 г. Источниками послужили неопубликованные архивные документы — судебно-следственные дела, а также исследования саратовского старообрядчества, проведенные чиновниками, этнографами и представителями духовенства. Для воссоздания максимально полной картины трагедии были привлечены материалы, в которых изображена предыстория
копенского самоубийства. В статье предпринята попытка выявить мотивы коллективного самозаклания, некоторые религиозные практики, связанные с ним, расширить
представления о течении Спасова согласия и о правительственном дискурсе в отношении религиозных диссидентов в начале эпохи Николая I. Причины суицида представляются многослойной конструкцией. В качестве субстрата выступали эсхатологические настроения, а также примыкающие к ним сотериологические представления старообрядцев, в соответствии с которыми смерть воспринималась как способ скорого искупления грехов. На них наслаивались тревожные опасения и травматические переживания, связанные с локальным социальным контекстом: ожидание приближающихся гонений на веру, а также страхи и негодование, вызванные преступлениями вотчинных властей. Источники демонстрируют разнообразие практик самоумерщвления, применявшихся спасовцами в начале XIX в., необычные нюансы этих практик, а также наличие в официальной риторике дискурса терпимости и снисхождения к сектантам — наряду с репрессивным. Расследование копенского дела имело масштабные последствия, послужив для местных властей стимулом и поводом для разработки проекта жестких мер в отношении всех старообрядцев, включая поповцев, которые были в конечном счете реализованы.

The size of India’s food deficit became a pressing question for the Indian state in the early years of independence. As different organizations, government bodies, and individuals debated over the ways, means, and expertise needed to tide over the food crisis, policymakers realized that the primary requirement was to have a numerical understanding of the problem. Data became crucial to accurately assess production trends and compare them with requirements. This article looks into the use of statistical methods, particularly, random sampling and production estimation through a crop-cutting technique. Exploring the statistical survey work done by P.C. Mahalanobis in Bengal from the late years of colonial rule to the surveys conducted by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research under the supervision of P.V. Sukhatme and V.G. Panse, the article analyzes how different factors, such as varying revenue systems of different regions and administrative structures, power struggles amongst statisticians, and leverage gained by Indian statisticians from support they received from better known British counterparts, all played a role in determining the nature of statistical tools adopted in India to measure its food production. Inaccurate data continued to be a challenge for the Indian state until well into the late 1950s, and that can now be explained in terms of this discord between Mahalanobis-led Kolkata-ISI and the ICAR of Sukhatme’s time. India continued to follow different methods of statistical survey of foodcrops, thus, the scientific/political establishment always struggled with the apprehension that they did not have the ‘right’ data to come up with the correct assessment of the scene.

En el primer número de la revista Population (1946), en un artículo titulado "Sociologie et démographie", Jean Stoeztel lamentaba la indiferencia con que se desarrollaban ambos estudios en Francia. Pese a que eran varias las disciplinas concurrentes en el estudio de la población, la demografía avanzaba firme bajo el impulso y la orientación de los estadísticos y politécnicos de la Statistique général de France (SGF). Con el despliegue de formulaciones cada vez más complejas, daba la impresión de que el universo de las variables demográficas parecía bastarse a sí mismo. Ante el riesgo de perder de vista la dimensión social de los fenómenos demográficos y con la finalidad de colmar tal vacío, Stoeztel reclamaba el valor analítico de la morfología social construida por Maurice Halbwachs, que apenas un año antes había fallecido en el campo de concentración de Buchenwald: "Entre los sociólogos contemporáneosdecía-el que con más claridad ha establecido el tipo de contribución que los datos demográficos básicos pueden aportar a las investigaciones sociológicas es probablemente el malogrado M. Halbwachs. Formado en la escuela durkheimiana, que pretendía estudiar las realidades sociales como si fueran 'cosas', para lo cual se 'debía atribuir una importancia particular a lo que en las sociedades humanas se asemeja al universo de las cosas físicas: extensión, número, densidad, movimiento, aspectos cuantitativos, todo lo que puede ser medido y contado' (…) Halbwachs ha hecho más que ningún otro para acercar y coordinar la sociología y la demografía." (Stoeztel 1946: 81) Un ánimo similar se manifestó años después en el escrito que

The formation of the French colonial empire in the nineteenth century and the beginning of the French occupation of Indochina (1862) prior to the installation of a central public statistics in France. In 1833, Adolphe Thiers, Minister of Commerce, established a specialized office that gradually fill this function is responsible for population censuses, and the coordination and production of administrative statistics. This office became the General Statistics of France (SGF) remaining until 1941. However, given the weakness of its budget, the office remains craftsmanship. SGF does not coordinate more than it centralizes statistical territories. These statistics come colonial administrations which have neither the skills nor the fiscal and moral credits needed to clarify the situation of the Empire. Awareness of the need to improve the data leads to some initiatives in the central administration of the Colonies and the SGF in the early twentieth century. They are the beginnings of what would later be the statistical overseas territories.

Este artículo trata sobre el proceso de elaboración de la estadística médica de la Casa de Orates desde su fundación en 1852 hasta 1895, fecha en la cual se comenzaron a publi-car  de  forma  regular  los  Movimientos  y  Memorias  del  asilo.  Para  ello,  se  establece  un  análisis de las principales prácticas de colecta de datos establecidas por los administra-dores y médicos, junto con los mecanismos ideados para su subsecuente estandarización. La  estadística  médica  se  estudia  principalmente  a  partir  de  las  categorías  relativas  a  la  circulación, causas y clasificación de la enajenación, para lo cual se considera la litera-tura  médica  extranjera  utilizada  para  la  implementación  de  criterios  estandarizados  de  orden y clasificación de información. De este modo, se constata que la producción de cifras estadísticas fue una práctica fundamental no solo para la administración del asilo, sino también para la acreditación y promoción del conocimiento científico sobre la alienación mental en Chile

La remise en cause du caractère exemplaire de la peine de mort trouve ses racines au XVIIIe siècle : c’est un des arguments majeurs des abolitionnistes. Pourtant, dans les années 1970, un article d'Isaac Ehrlich, économiste de l'école néolibérale, soutient et quantifie la valeur dissuasive de la peine capitale. Il s'agit ici de retracer une généalogie des raisonnements et travaux visant à évaluer cette valeur dissuasive, et leur impact tant sur l'application de la peine capitale que sur le débat lié à l'abolition.

Coordinate graphs of time-series data have been significant in the history of statistical graphing and in recent school mathematics curricula. A survey task to construct a graph to represent data about temperature change over time was administered to 133 students in Grades 3, 5, 7, and 9. Four response levels described the degree to which students transformed a table of data into a coordinate graph. Nonstatistical responses did not display the data, showing either the context or a graph form only. Single Aspect responses showed data along a single dimension, either in a table of corresponding values, or a graph of a single variable. Inadequate Coordinate responses showed bivariate data in two-dimensional space but inadequately showed either spatial variation or correspondence of values. Appropriate Coordinate graphs displayed both correspondence and variation of values along ordered axes, either as a bar graph of discrete values or as a line graph of continuous variation. These levels of coordinate graph production were then related to levels of response obtained by the same students on two other survey tasks: one involving speculative data generation from a verbal statement of covariation, and the other involving verbal and numerical graph interpretation from a coordinate scattergraph. Features of graphical representations that may prompt student development at different levels are discussed.

En este ensayo se llevará a cabo un análisis gnoseológico pormenorizado del conductismo en general y de la Teoría de la Conducta (TC) de Emilio Ribes en particular, ya que se considerará a ésta última como uno de los ejemplares más sobresalientes entre todos los conductismos. Se mostrará una visión panorámica y de conjunto de la forma en que se configuró el conductismo como corriente psicológica, tanto en sus determinaciones histórico-contextuales como en sus itinerarios y disputas teórico-metodológicas internas. El análisis gnoseológico sugerido busca desesencializar los contenidos, métodos y usos del conductismo, pues los reconocerá simplemente como productos de una configuración histórica diseñada para modular una determinada praxis antropológica según las exigencias de un contexto en específico. También en este ensayo se ofrecerá, desde las coordenadas del materialismo filosófico (MF), una metodología de análisis con la potencia suficiente para reconocer aquellos elementos que resultaron necesarios para que una determinada corriente psicológica, en este caso la TC, pudiera alcanzar cierto nivel de diferenciación y autenticidad respecto de posiciones semejantes. En la parte final del ensayo se revisará la TC de Ribes desde la aparatología propuesta por la Teoría del Cierre Categorial (TCC) de Gustavo Bueno, al mismo tiempo que se juzgarán las posiciones lisológicas y teoreticistas en las que está soportada esta novedosa forma de conductismo. Palabras clave: conductismo, teoría de la conducta, teoría del cierre categorial, materialismo filosófico, domesticación animal, Estados Unidos de América.

The history of prisons is "a history of constant reform." 1 Since at least the beginning of the eighteenth century, these repeated transformations (desired or achieved) (Morris, Rothman, 1995, vii) have been accompanied by the production of knowledge about architecture, physical constraints on the body, gender segregation, violence, sexual practices, proximity or, conversely, "punitive" or "redemptive" isolation. Examples include the well-known surveys carried out by social reformers or parliaments, the charity society surveys and the ordinary knowledge about prisons developed and circulated by prisoners themselves. The many studies on the history of prisons all mention this very strong link between incarceration and the production of knowledge. Michel Foucault, for example, briefly analyses the investigations into prisons and prisoners carried out in France from 1801 onwards as one of the "prison's

Abstract: In the past, scholars studying the transition between dynasties have mostly analyzed it from a traditional land-based perspective, rarely exploring it from a maritime perspective. The history of northern ocean of China during the transition from the Yuan to the Ming dynasty is a complex process with multiple dimensions, including changes in maritime policies and trade, the gradual evolution of Japanese piracy (wokou) and coastal defense, as well as the continuation of official maritime transportation. It is not a simple binary opposition between inheritance and revolution. A detailed and layered study of the history of northern ocean of China during the Yuan-Ming transition can help break overcome the limitations of a singular interpretation of the traditional land-based perspective, providing a new perspective and new annotations for the academic community to further enrich and perfect the theory of the Yuan-Ming transition. Keywords: history of northern ocean of China, Yuan-Ming transition, maritime transportation, wokou, coastal defense
内容提要：以往学者研究朝代鼎革，多从传统的陆地视角分析，鲜从海洋视角探讨。元明鼎革之际的北方海洋史，既有海洋政策和海洋贸易的嬗变，也有倭寇和海防的渐变，又有官方海运的因袭，是一个错综复杂的多线索并存过程，而非简单的继承或革命的二元对立。对元明之际北方海洋史的分层细化研究，有助于突破传统陆地视角的单一解读，为学界进一步丰富和完善元明鼎革理论提供新视角和新注解。
关键词：北方海洋史 元明鼎革 海运 倭寇 海防

No presente artigo, investigamos os enquadramentos incidentes so-bre os corpos adoecidos durante três crises sanitárias: o surto de febre amarela (1849-1906),  a  gripe  espanhola  (1918-1919)  e  a  COVID-19  (2020-). A  pesquisa  é conduzida a partir da operação da montagem, conforme os postulados de Ge-orges Didi-Huberman. Defendemos que este método, ao permitir aproximações entre cenas heterogêneas, nos ajuda a enquadrar o enquadramento, a pensar suas operacionalidades e suas fraturas. Articulamos e relacionamos fotografias do acervo iconográfico do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz e imagens do documentário Estamos te esperando em casa  (2021),  de  Cecília  da  Fonte  e  Marcelo  Pedroso. Ao longo da investigação, percebemos que, apesar da predominância dos en-quadramentos biopolíticos nas imagens, foi possível perceber uma potência de figuração, sobretudo quando a equipe médica aciona táticas para recriar con-dições de contato, seja entre os médicos e pacientes, seja entre os pacientes e seus familiares. Há uma agência que se acende em certas imagens que produz brechas e intervalos nas semânticas consensuais, trazendo outros mecanismos de legibilidade da história, do comum e da experiência, que diferem dos quadros de representação explicativos que somam violências simbólicas a sujeitos que já são alvos cotidianos de opressões

В статье проанализированы особенности расселения и прослежена динамика численности старообрядческого населения в Витебской губернии во второй половине XIX – начале XX в. В рассматриваемый период регион являлся лидером по количеству староверов среди западных губерний Российской империи. Витебская губерния охватывала восточную территорию современной Витебской области Беларуси, юго-восточные земли Латвии, районы Псковской и Смоленской областей России. В работе впервые данный регион рассматривается целиком, а не частями в соответствие с современными государственными границами. На основе анализа статистических материалов выделены основные регионы проживания старообрядцев на территории губернии (Режицкий, Двинский (Динабургский), Люцинский, Себежский, Невельский, Полоцкий, Витебский, Городокский уезды). В работе прослежена динамика численности старообрядцев (как в общем по губернии, так и по отдельным уездам и населенным пунктам), проанализировано соотношение городского и сельского населения, выделены городские центры староверия на территории губернии. Результаты исследования будут полезными как для изучения этнической и конфессиональной структуры населения белорусско-русско-латвийского пограничья, так и для решения проблем этнической истории региона.

Plus de quatre-vingts universitaires ont recemment publie ä propos de Condorcet. Ce chiffre seul devrait suggerer un tournant dans l'historiographie du philosophe revolutionnaire. Il y eut d'abord un regain aux Etats-Unis, concretise par le volume Condorcet Studies I (prepare en 1979, nous le commenterons plus loin), l'ouvrage de Keith M. Baker, Condorcet. From Natural Philosophy to Social Mathematics (1974) en marque retrospectivement l'origine. C'etait la premiere tentative de synthese portant sur 1'essentiel de 1'activite de Condorcet, la clef que constitue sa conception des probabilites etait mise en evidence, Baker y voyait 1'empreinte de la philosophie de Hume. D'autres motifs, en France, ont conduit aux memes moments des chercheurs vers des domaines connexes. Deux ouvrages aident ä en cemer quelques-uns : Condorcet, Mathematique et societe de Roshdi Rashed (1974) et le numero 5 des Cahiers de Fontenay (1976). L'etude des sciences ä la fin du xvItte siècle devait etre renouvelee, c'est ce que sentit R. Rashed qui sut mobiliser sur ce projet mathematiciens et historiens. La coherence theorique des textes de Condorcet, le caractere central qu'y prend une theorie de !'instruction publique, furent [es approches qui attirerent des chercheurs de formation philosophique. Plusieurs publications ou reunions ont recemment donne corps ä cet effort collectif engage depuis plus d'une douzaine d'annees. Il s'agira ici, puisque nous disposons maintenant d'un corpus (auquel s'ajoutent des partitions d'actualite), de lui adjoindre quelques elements d'orientation :

Alors que la défiance vis-à-vis des vaccins fait régulièrement les gros titres, l’observation des comportements montre une tout autre réalité avec des taux de vaccination très élevés dans la population française. Comment expliquer cet apparent paradoxe et que dit-il du rapport entre individus et autorité médicale ?
Retraçant l’histoire de la vaccination en France depuis la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, au moment où se mettent en place les structures qui définissent aujourd’hui encore la santé publique, Gaëtan Thomas enquête sur le travail scientifique, les mutations du pouvoir sanitaire et l’influence des organisations internationales. Au cours de cette période, la vaccination change d’échelle, aussi bien en termes de nombre de personnes vaccinées que de pathologies couvertes. Le consentement des individus, désormais en première ligne dans la défense d’une santé collective, pose un défi de taille aux médecins et politiques qui mettent en œuvre une série de stratégies pour le garantir.
À partir des années 1980, le retour de la menace infectieuse – du VIH Sida au Covid 19 –, les scandales et affaires, ainsi que l’explosion du prix des produits pharmaceutiques nourrissent fantasmes, angoisses et spéculations. Mais, si les polémiques donnent de l’ampleur au phénomène de l’« hésitation » vaccinale, de nouvelles injections n’en continuent pas moins à entrer en usage.

Objective/Context: This article follows some of the debates around the creation of the minimum wage mandate in Mexico during the 1930s. I focus on how different actors used science to justify their demands, especially the need to use physiological and nutritional information to know the population’s requirements. As a result, the heterogeneous way to fix the wages at the local (municipal) level changed with the proclamation of a federal mandate in the 1930s, using the most recent cost of living surveys, which included the nutritional requirements for the workers. Methodology: Following the methods used by the history
of science, this article gives a panoramic view of the problems that existed before the federal minimum wage mandate and concerning the use of science as a legitimizing tool of the post-revolutionary state. Originality:
This article makes a brief historical reconstruction of the minimum wage in the 1930s, and its federalization, which is absent from historiography, and proposes to articulate the history of science and its influence on
economic and social accounts. Conclusions: This article shows how political and social projects—like the definition of a minimum wage—depended on science to obtain authority and, in turn, how these social projects provided inputs for the construction of specialized scientific lines of research.

How Uneven Was the Income Distribution in Interwar Hungary? A Critical Guide

According to Hungarian historiography, the distribution of income in the Horthy era was extremely unequal. For a long time, this conviction was not substantiated at all by the historians. However, during the last decades a contemporary study on income distribution in interwar Hungary by an economist and far-right politician, Mátyás Matolcsy, has become known. Since then, the results of Matolcsy's survey are used by historians to support the claim that in the Horthy era many people had little money and few had a lot. This paper investigates the validity of Matolcsy's study and concludes that in the 1930s Matolcsy did not observe but merely imagined the extent of income inequality: he made a series of errors in his calculation, but more importantly, it was impossible to measure what he was curious about. Historians have not realised this so far because they have only been concerned with the end results of Matolcsy's research, not with the way how he reached them. So the current state of the art is that we have no valid knowledge on the extent of income inequality in Hungary between the two world wars.

A magyar történettudomány úgy tudja, hogy a Horthy-korszakban a jövedelemeloszlás szélsőségesen egyenlőtlen volt. A történészek ezt a meggyőződésüket sokáig semmivel sem támasztották alá. Az utóbbi évtizedekben azonban bekerült a köztudatba egy korabeli kutatás a magyarországi jövedelemeloszlásról, amit Matolcsy Mátyás, közgazdász és szélsőjobboldali politikus készített. Azóta ennek a felmérésnek az eredményeivel igazolják a történészek azt az állítást, hogy a Horthy-korban sokaknak jutott kevés, keveseknek sok. Ez az írás annak jár utána, érvényesek-e Matolcsy tanulmányának eredményei, és arra jut, hogy Matolcsy az 1930-as években nem megfigyelte, hanem csupán elképzelte a jövedelmi egyenlőtlenség mértékét: hibák sorát követte el a számítás során, de ennél is fontosabb, hogy amit meg szeretett volna mérni, azt lehetetlen volt megmérni. A történészek erre eddig azért nem jöttek rá, mert csak Matolcsy kutatásának végeredményével foglalkoztak, azzal nem, hogyan jutott el a szerző odáig. Jelen állás szerint tehát nincs érvényes ismeretünk arról, mekkora volt a jövedelmi egyenlőtlenség a két világháború közötti Magyarországon.