History of Roads

The reports presented by French travellers and consuls are of obvious interest in the reconstruction of urban life in the Principalities. Coming from the environment of the highly developed urban civilization in France, French travellers and consuls often arrived with a preexisting image of the Romanian Principalities The narrow and muddy streets, the urban scarcity, the contrasts within society that generated both luxury and poverty, and civil architecture as an indicator of the social hierarchy and living standards are recurrent motifs in the writings of French voyagers in the period under investigation. Towards the end of the period, French travellers often expressed surprise at the beneficial changes that had occurred in the urban way of life and the physical features of the Principalities' cities and fairs.

The purpose of the article is to clarify the formation of road infrastructure in Ukrainian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Slobozhanshchyna in the 17 th c., and their role in the socio-political, economic, and military aspects of the regionʼs life. Methodologically, the work is based on a comparative analysis of written, archaeological, and pictorial sources related to the routes of communication and their engineering structures. The scientific novelty of the work lies in highlighting peculiarities of the formation of road infrastructure in the region, which was developed gradually, from places of crafts to the emergence of Slobozhanshchyna. Conclusions. The road infrastructure of the Zadniprianshchyna region, and later Slobozhanshchyna, had several stages of formation. At the first stage, there were significant transit routes that ran through uninhabited areas from the Dnipro crossing to the north and northeast. They had no engineering structures. The second stage saw the emergence of routes used by industrialists and the population of border villages and towns. These routes had primitive dams and bridges, and the first defensive structures began to appear near them. On the territory of Zadniprianshchyna, roads were in a fairly good condition. At the third stage, the road network was significantly changed by the emergence of new settlements and received engineering structures that greatly facilitated transportation and were focused on safety and security.

Volkskunde stond sedert de recuperatiepogingen door de nazi’s vóór en tijdens Tweede Wereldoorlog in een kwaad daglicht. Clemens Trefois overleefde net als andere ideologisch-politieke collaborateurs de repressie en de epuratie niet helemaal ongeschonden, maar werd ook al vlug in heemkundige kringen heropgevist.
Interessant is natuurlijk hoe de ideologie en de tijdsgeest de inhoud van de volkskundige theorieën bepalen en hoe Clemens Trefois zijn opvattingen aanpaste aan die veranderingen.

Pentru nimeni nu constituie o noutate că Arhivele Naționale ale Ungariei cuprind o sumedenie de documente istorice și cartografice privitoare la țara noastră, și mai cu seamă, asupra Transilvaniei și zonelor de contact cu celelalte provincii românești. Descoperirea întâmplătoare a unei schițe de proiect rutier, care viza modernizarea drumurilor transcarpatice de pe Valea Prahovei și cea a Teleajenului, ne-a oferit un bun prilej să facem noi observații pe marginea subiectului (...)

The purpose of the research. The article analyzes the passage of one of the regional communication routes that connected the territory of Hetman's Ukraine with Sloboda Ukraine. The Hadiach Way is a watershed road with a minimum number of crossings. It is almost never mentioned in written sources, but is well depicted on maps of the first half of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The purpose of the article is to obtain data on the route of this road, to find out the reasons that influenced the change of its route and to identify the stages of its development. The methodology of the study is to apply a comprehensive approach to the tasks at hand. We have scattered data contained in documents of the seventeenth to eighteenth centuries, maps of the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries, and general data on the development of the region on the border of the Hetman's Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine. Comparing these data on the basis of modern maps allows us to create a holistic picture of the functioning of the Hadiach Way. This is facilitated by the involvement of archaeological data, which gives us a basis for the data on mounds mentioned in documents from the seventeenth century. As a result, we get several layers of information that complement the data on the relief of the territory using remote scanning. Thus, we get markers that allow us to operate with both historical and natural data. The scientific novelty of the work lies in determining the main route of the Hadiach Way in different chronological segments. These routes are the result of the economic development of the region under study. The Hadiach Way is a reflection of the economic ties between Hetman's Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine, and its mapping allows us to clarify one of the important aspects of the economy of the Cossack era, namely the development of transport links. Conclusions. During its existence, the route of this road has changed several times. It depended on the emergence of new settlements in the region. At the first stage, the Hadiach Way connected Hadiach with the Azak fortress. This route was used for interstate border traffic between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Moskovia. The second route went through the villages of Kapustyntsi and Vasylivka to Mykhailivka and Lebedyn. At that time, the Hadiach Way was a significant economic road that connected the city of Hadiach with large villages and yeoman estates. During this period, the road was most in demand and had an important impact on the economic development of the region. The third route ran from Hadiach to Mykhailivka and Lebedyn and was intended to connect two major roads leading to Romny and Sumy.

Between 1843 and 1845 NSW Surveyor General, Sir Thomas Mitchell, organised the clearing of ‘Mitchells New Line of Road to the Illawarra’.  The road started at the Cooks River Bridge, Tempe and travelled through the Sutherland Shire crossing the Georges and Woronora Rivers. The road was cleared by a convict road gang under the supervision of Assistant Surveyors Roderick Mitchell (son of Sir Thomas) and then under William Dark. While the start of the road at the Cooks River Dam is well known where the road terminated is a bit of a mystery.

Cet article analyse l’influence des frontières sur la formation des routes et des zones de passage en Ukraine Sloboda pendant l’ère moderne. L’Ukraine Sloboda était une région frontalière au carrefour de trois frontières et de trois peuples : une population sédentaire composée de deux ethnies – les Ruthènes (Ukrainiens) et les Russes – ainsi que des nomades. L’Ukraine Sloboda couvrait ce qui correspond aujourd’hui à une zone située au nord-est de l’Ukraine et au sud-ouest de la Russie. S’appuyant sur des cartes du xviiie siècle et sur des sources primaires françaises, russes et ukrainiennes, cet article montre comment les mouvements et les transformations de ces frontières ont eu un impact sur le modelage de la région. Cet article a également pour objet d’expliquer comment les changements administratifs et le développement des frontières ont affecté la construction et la modification des routes et des chemins dans cette zone frontalière. L’Ukraine Sloboda passa d’un statut d’autonomie au début du xviiie siècle à celui de partie intégrante de l’empire russe à la fin du siècle, phénomène qui entraîna de nombreux changements dans le réseau des routes et communications.

Sak 1. Godkjenning av innkalling og dagsorden innkalling har vaert bekjentgjort i Maal og Minne, og styremedlemmene har fått ekstra påminnelse på e-post. Dagsorden er i samsvar med Bymålslagets statutter. innkalling og dagsorden ble godkjent uten merknader. Sak 2. Årsrapport for 2011 formannen la fram en kort, skriftlig rapport, som ble godkjent med en mindre endring i orienteringen om Knud Knudsen-arrangementet. Sak 3. Regnskap for 2011 Kasserer Boye Wangensteen la fram revidert regnskap, som ble godkjent uten merknader. Den samlede beholdning er nå kr 104 744, som er en nedgang på kr 121 i forhold til i fjor. Jon gunnar Jørgensen la fram den årlige rapporten fra redaktørene. Stofftilgangen er fortsatt god, og det ble publisert i alt 17 bidrag i løpet av året. Redaksjonen har innført en vurdering av tidsskriftet fra redaksjonsrådet annethvert år som rutine. Vurderingen var ikke komplett før årsmøtet, men hovedinntrykket hittil er en overordnet positiv vurdering. Det var også kommet inn konstruktiv kritikk, og den ble gått gjennom

Chapter 4: “Chinese roads in the Russian imagination and in reality: The 1870s as a decade of discovery.” In Russia in Asia: Imaginations, Interactions, and Realities, edited by Jane F. Hacking, Jeffrey S. Hardy, and Matthew P. Romaniello (New York: Routledge, 2020). Pp. 65-76.

Es de sobra conocido que los orígenes de la villa de Puente la Reina se en-cuentran estrechamente ligados al puente románico junto al que se asienta, siendo uno de los mejores ejemplos de estratificación histórica: mientras que la erección del puente se ...

Bihar, 1 an important region in the eastern India has a special socioeconomic and political significance in the context to regional history of medieval period. It was under Akbar (1556-1605) that the administrative reorganisation led to creation of Bihar as one of his twelve suba (province) in 1580 2 and it continued to enjoy this independent status throughout the seventeenth century. In fact the political stability was accompanied by territorial expansion, development of cities, growth of trade, opening of new trade routes, etc. which not only led to diversification of economy but at the

In 1971 ging de fusie door van de stad Brugge met de randgemeenten Assebroek, Koolkerke, Sint-Andries, Sint-Kruis, Sint-Michiels en met de twee poldergemeenten Lissewege en Dudzele. Dit samengaan stelde heel wat problemen voor gelijkschakeling op administratief, organisatorisch of fiscaal gebied en op nog tal van andere domeinen. Maar ook voor wat betreft de straatnamen.

The salt trade in early colonial Orissa was shaped by its unique landscape with intersecting river valleys, forested plateaus, and a long coastline where salt was produced. In the late eighteenth century, the East India Company (EIC) followed a policy of escalating political interventions in the Orissa-Bengal salt trade. In this region, salt was not merely a commodity, but signified power and patronage with local elites actively participating in the trade. The EIC's ignorance of geographical, social and political realities resulted in destabilising salt production and trade in the region. This article explores the conflicts and collusions among local elites, EIC officials, salt traders and producers to trace a history of salt trade in early colonial Orissa.

From the early 16th century, Europeans gradually established their trading bases in India. The
Portuguese, British, Dutch, Danish, and French came to India to expand trade, but gradually
they involved themselves in the internal politics of India. The primary objective of the British
East India Company was to expand trade in South and Southeast Asia. Within a few centuries,
the company took advantage of the political unrest and tried to dominate our country and
unfortunately, its efforts ultimately succeeded. By defeating Siraj-ud-Daula at the Battle of
Plassey in 1757, the English Company gained the role of electing the rulers of Bengal.
Mohanlal-Meermadan’s valiant struggle was interrupted by some traitor. Their desperate
struggle failed. The Clive-Mirjafar secret plot created a quagmire in which the British emerged
victorious. It is heard that Mohanlal was a brave son of Medinipur. But the hero’s blood could
not save India’s glory that day. Depravity, hypocrisy, cruelty, and treachery won. The Mughal
glory was extinct then, so the power of Delhi was also debilitated that day. English merchants
gradually became the kingmakers. English had to use very short effort, strategy, and diplomacy
to do so. Then the brutal rule and exploitation of the East India Company continued throughout
the country with various strategies. From the beginning, mass movements and resistance were
formed to create obstacles to imperial expansion. Midnipur district played a leading role in this
regard. Medinipur never silently accepted this tyranny. Protested from the beginning, and
organized various revolts. The common people of Medinipur gave their lives in the struggle
but did not give up their freedom. Chuar, Naik, Malāṅgi Mutiny, Zamindar Strike, and many
other anti-British stories have written a bright chapter in the history of the district.

La tesis aborda el estudio del proceso histórico que llevó a la articulación y construcción de la red de caminos e infraestructura carretera en el Sur de California y Baja California de 1906 a 1956, la cual propició la conformación de un espacio comercial transfronterizo. La contribución del gobierno federal de Estados Unidos en la configuración de un sistema de carreteras tuvo como finalidad interconectar todo el territorio de la Unión Americana y las zonas fronterizas con Canadá y México. El interés por impulsar el tendido de la infraestructura carretera por parte del gobierno estadounidense en un inicio se basó para fines comerciales y después se alternó a propósitos militares de seguridad nacional. Por otro lado, la vinculación de los poblados fronterizos mexicanos con la economía de California ayudó a la creación de empresas mercantiles que buscaron el acceso a materias primas y mercancías, esto le proporcionó una salida a la producción agrícola del Valle de Mexicali, a causa de la bonanza económica del cultivo de algodón. Asimismo, los empresarios y comerciantes mexicanos de la cámara nacional de comercio de Tijuana, Mexicali y Ensenada buscaron aprovechar la red de caminos que existía en el Sur de California para la conformación de un espacio comercial transfronterizo para la atracción de capital. De este modo, la puesta en marcha de los proyectos carreteros fomentó las conexiones económicas, la circulación de mercancías, personas, inversión y automóviles a través de la región y posibilitó la transformación del espacio fronterizo. Además, las carreteras se convirtieron en un instrumento de negociación política, comercial y militar.

To colonise is to impose a different socio-poiitical order, to implant a totalising power structure, and, ultimately, to inhabit the colonised space with 'new' ideas. Colonial law has been the most insidious, as well as the most identifiable, willingly understandable, and often, the most readily acceptable of such new ideas. The colonial implant (i.e., new law) not only shaped the reordering of the colonised space but also dictated the parameters to be deployed in understanding this new phenomenon. This paper attempts to step beyond the parameters imposed by the colonial law to analyse, scrutinise, and fathom the law. As Ranajit Guha has observed: If the discourse of the broadsheet helps to open a path for crime to enter history, it is the function of judicial discourse as a genre to cut otT that path by trapping crime in its specificity, by reducing its tange of significance to a set of narrorvly defined legalities, and by assirnilating it to the existing order as one of its negative determinations.l

The opium monopoly in colonial India was a crucial component of British economic strategy, profoundly affecting both local agriculture and global trade. This paper delves into the contract system of opium production introduced by Warren Hastings in 1773, examining its profound implementation on the Bengal presidency. The intricate mechanisms of colonial administration through a detailed examination of the contract system's functioning, the key contractors, and an evaluation of regulations designed to maximize the East India Company's profits. The paper highlights the economic and administrative strategies employed by the British prioritizing the maximum profits and transforming the production and trade practices in colonial India.

One of the most important reasons behind the success of the Mughal military campaigns and expeditions was the regular supply of the rasad (ration), fodder and forage to the location of military encampment. It has been observed that due to lack of proper supply and transport of the food material, the armies often had even starved. 1 Indeed, this scarcity was caused due to the non-arrival of the banjaras on time with various supplies. 2 Consequently, the Mughal rulers and military commanders always tried their best to utilise the services of the banjaras, especially during their engagement in military campaigns. In the absence of any specific department regarding the supply of food, grain, and fodder to the far distant locality during the military campaigns, the Mughal state mainly depended upon the services provided by the Banjaras as the transporters of essential commodities required for the Mughal military expeditions. The logistics associated to procurement of foodstuff and fodder was crucial related to the Mughal military expeditions. Consequently, in this context, the usefulness of banjaras as transporter was undoubtedly of great importance.

۩ KOGAYONUL ۩
Prima formă statală de
organizare a românilor ۩
Există un loc unde timpul a refuzat să își desfășoare trecerea. Unde locuitorii, puțini câți au mai rămas, își continuă nestingheriți obiceiurile milenare cu fața spre semenii lor de piatră, momârlele, eroi ce și-au găsit nemurirea în stâncă. Leonardo TONITZA

This article focuses on an essential and little-known aspect of the urban history of Craiova. Specifically, it is one of the important landmarks of its historical topography, whose evolution has known three stages: one represented by the Gănescu church, the other by the Palace of Justice, and the third by the University of Craiova (the last two stages being related to the same building which has changed its destination). Our text is dedicated to the analysis of the first stage that helps us understand the importance of the place, its connection with local urban history, the history of its local elites of the eighteenth century, but also with the history of other important institutions essential for the nineteenth century (the Bishopric of Râmnic). We were interested in the different historical brands that characterized the evolution of this place, important not only for the history of Ulița Episcopiei/Alexandru Ioan Cuza street. We have considered the various significant historical elements, including the local community, whose urban development has inevitably left its mark on place changes. Although its centrality has remained unchanged, its historical form has changed following a temporality that forced the abandonment of the church of an old boyar family, an episcopal residence, in favour of a modern institution, according to an urban plan that gave a modern face to Craiova of the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century. As in other cases in Romanian urban history, after the physical disappearance of the building, the old toponyms of the eighteenth century, "Biserica Gănescu", "Mânăstirea Episcopiei" hardly or not at all survived in the collective memory, the first being recovered and publicly remembered today by a commemorative plaque on the wall of the current university.

In the context of the COVADEO Project, this document aims to show the progress made in understanding the historical evolution of the territorial patterns of the Burgundy-Franche-Comté region, located in eastern France. This is done through the collaborative vectorization of historical maps, which allows us extracting the geometries of each of the roads that can be observed on those maps. In turn, this information is stored in a geo-historical database by which we can track the evolution of the regional road system over time. In this regard, the present study shows that road networks are one of the systems that structure the territory and directly influence its morphology. In addition, this study allows us understanding the importance of identifying the historical causes of territorial problems and challenges, in order to establish urban and regional planning strategies adapted to the environmental, social, and economic conditions of each territory.El presente documento tiene como ob...

В статті розглянуто питання будівництва шляхів місцевого значення на теренах сучасного Славутського району у другій половині ХІХ ст. Зосереджено увагу на складних взаєминах між адміністрацією князівського маєтку Сангушко та місцевою повітовою владою.

The article deals with the construction of local roads in the modern Slavuta district in the second half of the nineteenth century. The attention is focused on the complex relations between the administration of the princely estate of Sangushko and the local district authorities.

El presente estudio de viabilidad del puente sobre la bahía de Santander nace como consecuencia del interés por indagar, en términos económicos, en una posible construcción, probablemente, de las más polémicas que se han llevado a cabo en esta Comunidad Autónoma.

De militaire weg zal een aanmerkelijke verfraaiing vinden in het landschap dat hij doorkruist, op voorwaarde dat het goed is onderhouden, wel beplant, bezaaid met vele villa's en andere bouwsels, rijkelijk toegerust met geriefelijkheden en provisie; met uitzichten op de zee of de bergen, dan wel op een meer, een rivier of een bron, op schrale kliffen of vlaktes, op bossen of een dal. Het zal ook zijn sierlijkheid ten goede komen als hij niet grillig, steil of ordinair is, maar zich bij wijze van spreken drentelend voordoet, gelijkmatig en open. (…) Als de reiziger er bovendien vaak dingen aantreft die tot verheven gedachtewisselingen bezielen, dan kan dit worden beschouwd als een ornament van de grootste waardigheid. "Op weg is welbespraakt gezelschap evenzogoed als een voertuig" zei Laberius. Zeerzeker doet het gesprek er veel aan om de eentonigheid van de reis te lenigen.

In this paper, the author compares the novel Confessions of a Thug (1839), written by a colonial official named Philip Meadows Taylor, with Newgate novels in general and the novel Jack Sheppard (1839) by William Harrison Ainsworth in particular. During the first half of the nineteenth century, two English colonial administrators named Philip Meadows Taylor and Colonel William Henry Sleeman published two works named Confessions of a Thug (1839) and Ramaseeana (1836). These two works popularised the notion that a religiously motivated murderous cult named 'thugs' operated on the roads of India, and they strangled and looted the unfortunate travelers. However, studies by Postcolonial scholars such as Kim A Wagner (2004), Aijaz Ahmed (1991), Maire Ni Fhlathuin (2001), and Amal Chatterjee (1998) questioned the veracity of the phenomenon of 'thuggee' and especially its supposed religious foundation. Ajay Dandekar (2014) notably considered thuggee and its religious associations to be a fictional creation of Sleeman and Taylor that led to the Inhuman Criminal Tribes Act of 1871. In this paper, the author analyzes the contradictions within the narrative of Confessions of a Thug and proves how the novel's similarity with Newgate novels effectively negates the colonial narrative that portrays criminality and lawlessness as something unique to Asian and African nations. This paper also clarifies that the different critical receptions of Confessions of a Thug and Jack Sheppard, despite similar themes, effectively illustrate the argument of Edward Said that no knowledge is non-political.

Tous droits réservés 210 COMPTES RENDUS moment de la suppression des Jésuites. Soutenu par le chancelier Lamoignon, le dauphin aurait davantage souhaité une épreuve de force avec les parlements, alors que le roi ne voulait pas les « heurter de front ». Comme le souligne l'auteur, le prince « visait d'abord à maintenir les prérogatives royales et son intérêt pour la compagnie de Jésus résultait principalement du fait qu'elle servit de cheval de bataille à l'opposition parlementaire » (p. 242). Concernant la politique internationale, le dauphin ne semble pas avoir eu de réelle influence. Il est ainsi tenu à l'écart des négociations secrètes qui ont abouti au renversement des alliances. Il doit subir les pressions d'un groupe formé, autour de la dauphine Marie-Josèphe de Saxe, pour la défense des intérêts de la Saxe et tout particulièrement les prétentions de son frère Xavier à la couronne polonaise. Si, apparemment, elle ne « semble avoir sollicité du prince une intervention directe » (p. 270), le dauphin n'a pas non plus souhaité se démarquer de la ligne politique définie par le roi et ses ministres.

La revue scientifique électronique pour les recherches sur Bruxelles / Het elektronisch wetenschappelijk tijdschrift voor onderzoek over Brussel / The e-journal for academic research on Brussels Collection générale | 2015 Een coherente cartografie voor een geïntegreerd waterbeleid in Brussel Coherent mapping for integrated water management in Brussels Une cartographie cohérente pour une gestion intégrée de l'eau à Bruxelles

In this study I look into the behavioural pattern of the “Greek” merchants who came to Moldavia and settled in its capital, the town of Iași. The merchants were attracted by its geographical position: at the crossroad connecting centres in Transylvania or the Danube, ports of the Black Sea and towns of Poland. Because they dealt with regional trade for various merchandise, the merchants chose to invest in land, houses, stores and cellars located in the most relevant streets within the two commercial cores of the town, where they shared the space with many craftsmen, boyars but also monasteries. Whereas they represented an economic force and had money, some merchants made efforts to become boyars by purchasing villages and obtaining offices. Others chose to stay loyal to the urban world, and kept their properties across several generations and maintained their line of business. It was, thus, a very dynamic and ever-changing society, which allowed an easier transition from the structures specific to the late medieval world to the ones of modernity.

The world of towns was a complex one in the late Middle Ages, as it housed people of very different backgrounds and interests. The bulk of the urban society consisted of townspeople, free people with predominantly commercial occupations, but also craftsmen, in addition to which we find representatives of other categories of late medievalearly modern society, from boyars to members of the clergy (including monastic) or slaves (robi). The larger the town, the more diverse its population. In this paper we turn our attention to a special category of townspeople from the towns of the Romanian Principalities, the craftsmen. There was no special official category of craftsmen in urban society. Often, they cannot even be differentiated from merchants, given that many of those who produced something and sold the results of their work in shops. However, we notice a concentration of craftsmen depending on the profession, with traces in the local toponymy. This is a feature of the big towns, Iași and Bucharest, together with the former princely residence towns of Suceava and Târgoviște. In other important urban centers (Craiova, Ploiești, Galați, Focșani, Bârlad, Roman, Botoșani) such specializations are observed later, especially after 1700. The reunion of several craftsmen with the same trade is noticeable in Târgul Vechi (the oldest part of the town), while in the valleys of the nearby rivers we find the craftsmen with "impure" trades, butchers, soap makers or tanners. The rest of the towns show much less evidence of this aspect, and where it appears they are a specific found rather after 1800. This is explained by the gradual penetration of the elements of modernization of towns in the late 18 th and early 19 th centuries. In addition to the new rules of urbanism that were introduced at this time, we are witnessing the first forms of industrial organization which, although still modest, have allowed the transition from collective organization and guild to individual business based on capital and factory.

The present study will deal with an important part of urban topography: the street. As elsewhere in the world, the function of streets in the Romanian Principalities was to allow communication between different parts of the town: between the residence of the prince and the rest of the city, between the central market and the outskirts, between districts, churches, bridges, etc. The first testimonies concerning these streets date back to the fifteenth century, but substantial data comes from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. A classification of urban streets would identify several such public ways: large and small streets, main and secondary streets. The former group carries an Old Slavonic name, uliță, whereas secondary roads have a diminutive name, ulicioară or, in Moldavia, hudiță. The streets in the towns of the Romanian Principalities were most often paved with wooden beams, hence the name of poduri (literally "bridges"). The introduction of the stone pavement is a modern achievement, specific to the first half of the nineteenth century. People have named streets without any specific rule in mind, based on age, local people or important monuments in the vicinity; some names lasted, while others were short-lived. No matter the name, the street is one of the most resilient elements in the urban landscape.

This report is an interim evaluation of the locally initiated project "Dokkajuvet" – a journey through nature, culture, and history. The project commenced in 2019 and completed its first phase in September 2021, carried out with voluntary participation. The evaluation has been commissioned by Innlandet County Municipality and the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage. An important concern for Innlandet County Municipality is the potential of cultural heritage for social value creation, and its ability to foster unity, mobilize, and potentially even break down old divides within local communities and among administrative stakeholders. The evaluation's mandate has been to illuminate how the project's experiences can contribute to broad value creation, particularly emphasizing social value creation, and how cultural environments can be activated as resources in local and regional development efforts.
The evaluation is based on three analyses:

    A mapping/analysis of landscape development with an overarching description/summary of the landscape's evolution from the mid-19th century until today.
    Mapping of stakeholders and project processes, describing collaboration, coordination, and division of responsibilities among those involved, including how resources and involvement from external actors may have contributed to the project processes.
    An analysis of success factors and challenges in the project, as well as an analysis of the project's role as a contributing factor in a comprehensive local and regional development context.

The project was built on three goals:
1. Establishing an inclusive project where the local community was invited to engage in a collaborative interdisciplinary development of the natural and cultural area on the community's terms.
2. Rebuilding the old Skolmen bridge.
3. Developing knowledge about the area's natural and cultural values and conveying this knowledge further.
The evaluation shows that the Dokkajuvet Nature and Cultural Area Association, with a few exceptions, achieved all of its goals: In a short period, the association managed to gather funds, knowledge, enthusiasm, and efforts to construct a new bridge in place of the old ones and reconstruct a cultural heritage site using traditional craftsmanship techniques. Throughout the process, they were able to inspire engagement from the local community and the local business sector, as well as from key knowledge institutions such as the Dovre Crafts Center and the Dokka Delta National Wetland Center (DNV), not to mention from regional and national cultural heritage authorities. In this way, the project also accomplished its objective of establishing an inclusive project that contributed to local and social value creation: where the community was invited to participate in a collaborative interdisciplinary development of the area based on the community's terms. However, the project's third goal, which focused on developing knowledge about the area's natural and cultural values and conveying this knowledge, is the goal that still requires further attention.
There were several factors that contributed to the project achieving its goals. The evaluation shows that key success factors included the project's interdisciplinary vision and focus on historical reconstruction, traditional craftsmanship, and sustainable solutions. These aspects enabled the project to gain support from both nature and cultural management, which in turn facilitated its funding. Additionally, the project's goal of extensive local involvement, along with their access to local facilitators and knowledge networks in nature conservation and cultural heritage, played a crucial role in making the project feasible. Furthermore, the project's emphasis on knowledge development and dissemination was significant in attracting support and in shaping it into the experimental craft project that it became.

Notably, the project's timing was crucial to secure permission for construction in an area that was in the process of being protected, as well as to align the project with the recent emphasis on craftsmanship among private and public entities. The evaluation also highlights challenges that the project encountered. These challenges revolve around more concrete plans for how the vision of participation should unfold, how it should be facilitated, and how it should be organized. After the bridge was built and the project was reorganized from the Dokkajuvet Nature and Cultural Area to Skolmen Bridge, the vision of participation and collaboration seems to have weakened. This organizational change also led to the loss of the project's visionary and interdisciplinary perspectives. During the construction project, there was close collaboration with national knowledge networks in the field of nature and cultural heritage. From these networks, local participants gained crucial practical, professional, and financial support. However, after the bridge was completed, several of these networks withdrew their involvement. It is also uncertain whether they are interested in further engagement now that the interdisciplinary visions are no longer present in the project. This suggests that the project's interdisciplinary collaboration, which was central during bridge construction, now appears weakened. As of now, there is no platform where future collaboration can take place and develop. A significant challenge is that the project still lacks anchoring in municipal or regional plans, which leaves the area's cultural heritage status unclear.

The analysis related to the project's social value creation yields a positive result. Descriptions of the project's preparations and bridge construction have been based on broad local support, where the population, business sector, local knowledge networks in natural heritage and cultural heritage have backed and contributed to the realization of the project. Thus, the project has had a highly positive impact and has contributed to social value creation in the local community. There continues to be strong local engagement in the effort to restore the old schoolhouse at Skolmen, located in the same area, and the local community still participates in volunteer work. The review also demonstrates a strong local pride and engagement surrounding what the volunteer participants have achieved in the gorge area.

Copyright 2014 by Cristina M. Gámez-Fernández, Om Prakash Dwivedi and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying. recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

Violence had assumed sundry roles in a colonial setting; of them, the most severe, but also
perhaps the least noticed, was the foundational violence unleashed on the indigenous people
in the margins. The criminalisation of certain communities of autochthones was a common
colonial practice, as it facilitated the justification and codification of colonial violence on the
convicts. For example, the de-notified tribes of India were all declared criminal tribes under
the British Raj.

The present study hypothesises that the enigmatic lore of thuggee, or the nationwide confedeeracy of fearsome stranglers sworn to dethrone the Company Raj – that would fascinate and
at the same time terrify the Englishmen in the early eighteenth-century India – was largely a
colonial construct, which would justify imperialist expansive motifs, citing misrule and maladministration by the indigenous sovereigns as the reason. This can be illustrated by David
Spurr’s theorisation of the imperial rhetoric of Debasement, Negation, and Affirmation. The
present study seeks to explore in brief the accounts of William Henry Sleeman – the English
administrator who had almost singlehandedly suppressed the thuggee, and was later a resident
in the Indian kingdom of Oudh from 1849 to 1854, two years before its annexation to British
India – to justify the said hypothesis. It suggests that Sleeman and his men’s unleashing of
unforeseen political and judicial violence in the name of suppressing thuggee was part of the colonial schema, which would also make him rant incessantly about the misrules and massacres in
Oudh throughout his stay there as the Resident.

Toate drepturile de reproducere, integral sau parțial, prin orice mijloace, inclusiv stocarea neautorizată în sisteme de căutare sunt rezervate. Reproducerea se poate face doar cu acordul scris al editurii, cu excepția unor scurte pasaje care pot constitui obiectul recenziilor și prezentărilor.

Constantin Cantacuzino's map was printed at Padua in 1700 and still remains an outstanding cartographic achievement by the richness of the data included, and the precision with which they are marked on. The map provides physical (mountains, hills, rivers, lakes, marshes, forests), economic (mineral resources, bridges) and politico-administrative indices (outside the country, Turkish raya, counties, cities, villages, markets), the marked monasteries (differentiated by their dimensions and types), and some archaeological sites. The latter are the subject of this study. It's so interesting to see well marked the ruins of the famous bridge build by the emperor Traian (Drobeta), of a Roman city from Septimius Severus' reign or the ruins of the medieval town Turnu Roşu. In this map, a significant representation can be identified: the road built along the Olt river by the emperor Traian. From what we know about the map drawn by the great Wallachian boyard, this is also the firs...

As the ruling body of India, the East India Company had a profound impact on the subcontinent. The Company gradually transformed its character from a trading company to the government of India. Several constitutional and administrative changes were part of this transformation. British law and colonial history reflect the nature and purpose of these changes.

Compared to most historical Western cities, Romanian ones are often perceived as being chaotic and hard to understand because of their apparent lack of structure. There are two important historical reasons for this. For one, the premodern city overlapped, in its evolution, the pre-existing fabric and, at the same time, slowly expanded on large areas, without any physical barriers (such as fortifications), thus generating a gradually decreasing density and no clear structural typo-morphological limits. Modern development, on the other hand, started with some important 19th century local interventions, dealing with the historical fabric in an artificial way, and culminated with the important demolitions, undertook during the late communist regime of Ceaușescu, destroying urban fabric and erasing specific relations previously established between different historical and identitary forms, functions and land use. Despite all of the above, I uphold that there are certain identifiable and classifiable development patterns, which leave traces even today in the urban fabric. The topic of historical urban development was insufficiently studied until now, being tackled mainly in monographic studies (missing the general perspective) and generally written by historians (therefore with little spatial representation and interpretation). My research aims to unweave these specific patterns of development, integrating previous scholarship in a comprehensive interpretation. This paper is a first step, limiting itself by focusing on Wallachia and on some important premodern urban functions (administrative and commercial ones) and links (commercial and representative streets). I analyze the urban evolution patterns induced by them (as nuclei or axes of development) and in connection to rivers and commercial routes. Furthermore, I also investigate how much of these patterns are still visible today, looking for valuable relations between the specific premodern urban forms and holding a certain identitary quality in the historical Romanian cities of today. The paper will present a synthetic overview of the topic, emphasizing recurrent patterns rather than detailing distinctive instances or exceptional occurrences.

The last 250 years of this lengthy urban history have been
reflected in the land mapping documents, which represent an essential
tool for the proper understanding of the ancient urban land mapping
and an in-depth study of the urban infrastructure and development. In
comparison with other Romanian towns which are of a similar size or
importance, Roman boasts a diverse, consistent and extremely valuable
mapping legacy, which is also a primary source of historical
documentation.
The reason for choosing Roman as the focus of this new volume
resides in the historical significance of this town. Situated close to the
confluence of the rivers Moldova and Siret, this town developed in the
14th century, at a crossroads of several travel routes, in what used to be
considered, at that time, the border of the Moldavian territory, as
founded by Prince Dragoș.