History of Neurology

To say Jeffrey Masson's The Assault on Truth caused a sensation when it was first published in 1984 would be an understatement. Many viewed it at the time as an act of heresy, later contributing to Masson's banishment from the very psychoanalytic community that only a few years earlier embraced him as a rising star. The impact of his thesis, in which he accused Freud of lacking "courage" (Masson, 1984, p. 189) following the retraction of his "seduction theory" for the more palatable Oedipal Complex, was seismatic, the reverberations of which can be felt on each page of Contemporary Perspectives on Freud's Seduction Theory and Psychotherapy, edited by Warwick Middleton and Martin J. Dorahy. This collection of essays, written by some of the leading experts in the field of trauma studies (including a few psychoanalysts), seeks to shed light on the controversy surrounding Masson's scholarship, while also exploring the complicated dynamics around childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Those familiar with the history of Masson's book may be surprised how little they actually know about its author. Masson was at the time of its publication a recently tenured Sanskrit professor whose wideranging intellectual interests led him to pursue psychoanalytic training. His entrance into the field coincided with the waning of American psychiatry's dominance, making it possible for non-psychiatrists like 1

To say Jeffrey Masson's The Assault on Truth caused a sensation when it was first published in 1984 would be an understatement. Many viewed it at the time as an act of heresy, later contributing to Masson's banishment from the very psychoanalytic community that only a few years earlier embraced him as a rising star. The impact of his thesis, in which he accused Freud of lacking "courage" (Masson, 1984, p. 189) following the retraction of his "seduction theory" for the more palatable Oedipal Complex, was seismatic, the reverberations of which can be felt on each page of Contemporary Perspectives on Freud's Seduction Theory and Psychotherapy, edited by Warwick Middleton and Martin J. Dorahy. This collection of essays, written by some of the leading experts in the field of trauma studies (including a few psychoanalysts), seeks to shed light on the controversy surrounding Masson's scholarship, while also exploring the complicated dynamics around childhood sexual abuse (CSA). Those familiar with the history of Masson's book may be surprised how little they actually know about its author. Masson was at the time of its publication a recently tenured Sanskrit professor whose wideranging intellectual interests led him to pursue psychoanalytic training. His entrance into the field coincided with the waning of American psychiatry's dominance, making it possible for non-psychiatrists like 1

Quest'introduzione alla medicina antica riunisce, nella sua non comune ampiezza, testimonianze sia sulla storia delle idee, con le diverse tradizioni del pensiero medico, sia sulla vita quotidiana, attraverso quelle fonti che meglio consentono di ricostruire la prassi concreta di cura in un dato momento storico. L'arco cronologico considerato si estende volutamente ben oltre i confini del mondo classico, dalle civiltà dell'Egitto e del Vicino Oriente antico a Bisanzio; la narrazione storico-critica è sostanziata da frequenti estratti in lingua originale. Affianca le fonti testuali l'apparato di illustrazioni, a sottolineare il non marginale apporto della cultura iconografica e materiale per uno studio storicamente informato della medicina antica. L'edizione italiana a cura di Vincenzo Damiani, che ha collaborato con Florian Steger anche alla stesura dell'opera originale, offre una traduzione ex novo delle fonti antiche.

L'articolo racconta la costruzione del Policlinico di Modena, la sua inaugurazione e i suoi successivi sviluppi, mettendoli in relazione con la storia dell'assistenza sanitaria cittadina e in particolare con quella del Grande Spedale, edificato dal Duca Francesco III d'Este tra il 1758 e il 1761 su un precedente edificio medievale, già sede della Casa di Dio, una delle antiche istituzioni religiose che amministravano l'ospedale di Modena. La storia dei due edifici è strettamente legata allo sviluppo della scienza medico-chirurgica e alle sue esigenze costruttive e tecnologiche, nonché, ovviamente, all'evoluzione della società nel suo complesso.

Officially dismissed between 1987 and 1993, hysteria has been the cornerstone for the birth of neurology, psychoanalysis and dynamic psychology along the 19 th and 20 th centuries. The nosological category is here endorsed as the result of the social construction of scientific facts. Starting from Ian Hacking's reflections on Transient Mental Illnesses, we intend to bring his conclusions towards contextualist epistemology, questioning knowledge as Justified True Belief and further reconsidering the status of DSM categories as scientific kinds. The idea that justificationism may guarantee reliability of knowledge attributions is rejected on a historical base, and knowing is rather considered in the terms of an understanding whose logical and psychological features significantly overlap with the act of believing. Following the work of the later Kuhn, we separate the ideas of scientific revolution and mere taxonomic reformulation. Unlike Hacking, we do not consider DSM rewritings as scientific revolutions. We finally argue that the ontological and methodological premises adopted by DSM and ICD do not yet guarantee on their scientific reliability. Novel revisions are not suitable for better understanding dysfunctional behaviours, as they still fail to account for the phenomenological reality of diagnostic constructs beyond mere social ontology.

Le Maroc connait une mauvaise répartition du peu de neu-rologues qu'il possède, en effet, la plupart de ceux-ci sont concentrés dans l'axe Casablanca-Rabat, ce qui laisse des régions, comme le sud du pays dépourvues de la moindre structure neurologique, de part cette réalité nous avons dé-cidé de mener des consultations itinérantes dans cette ré-gion afin de palier à ce problème. Depuis 2006 notre service de neurologie en collaboration avec les autorités locales d'Ouarzazate et de Kelaa des Seraghna, ont organisé des consultations itinérantes au profit de la population de ces deux localités. L'objectif était d'assurer de consultations spécialisées en pathologie neurologique, incluant l'épilep-sie. Nous avons démarré par des visites dans les mines de Ouarzazate et sa région depuis 2006 pour le suivi des cas de parkinson toxique, qui nous a montré les grandes carences en terme de prise en charge des malades neurologiques sur place. Cette initiative a eu un grand succès, grâce au dynamisme de l'équipe universitaire de neurologie de Mar-rakech et à la volonté des autorités locales de faire profiter leur région de ce genre de service. Notre objectif premier étant de montrer l'intérêt médical et social de telles initia-tives pour les populations de ces régions souffrant de ces carences sanitaires, ainsi que d'encourager des initiatives similaires dans les zones pauvres en spécialistes, notam-ment neurologues, comme c'est le cas au sud et à l'est du pays et aussi dans les pays en voie de développement qui connaissent aussi des carences similaires, ou plus pronon-cées.

Introduction: Our study aims to estimate the characteristics & causes of TSCI at King Fahad Medical City (KFMC) in Riyadh city in order to hypothesize strategy for primary prevention of traumatic spinal cord injury. Method: Cross-sectional, Retrospective study was conducted on all TSCI patients who aged 14 and above and who were admitted in rehabilitation center of King Fahad Medical City from January 2012 to December 2015. Furthermore, a descriptive analysis was conducted while considering factors including age, gender, marital status, educational level and causes of injury and characteristics of injury. Results: Total of 216 patients were admitted during this period, mean age was 28.94, majority of patients were male (86.5%), 71.7% of total patients were high school level of education or less, 68% were single, RTA was the main cause with 90.7% and the main result of TSCI was complete paraplegia 37%. Furthermore, statistically we found that male are at a low risk of having incomplete paraplegia compared to female (p = 0.035, RRR=0.35). Conclusion: The rate of TSCI related to RTA has increased in Saudi Arabia in previous years. Despite the government's efforts to decrease RTA. It's clear that we need TSCI registry data developed on the basis of international data standards to have a clear idea about the exact etiology of TSCI in Saudi Arabia. These will assist in planning for primary prevention.

It is flabbergasting to me, that with all the statistics that
are being shared regarding the prevalence of the disease,
individuals still do not know what it is. I am unsure on
why this is still happening in 2016. Personally, I did not
know what Alzheimer’s disease was until my mother was
diagnosed in 2000 and had to do research on my own on
what the disease actually was and there was very little
how you live with the disease. I had to find out both on my
own. To reiterate the statistics, the prevalence of
Alzheimer’s disease is rising at a fast rate. In 2016 [1], 5.4
million Americans of various ages have Alzheimer’s
disease out that statistic, 5.2 million individuals are 65
and older. There are 200,000 individuals out of the 5.4
million Americans that have early onset Alzheimer’s,
which means they are under the age of 65 years of age

Universally, falls are a major communal health problem. An estimated 4,24, 000 fatal falls occur each year, making it the second leading cause of accidental or unintentional injury deaths worldwide, after road traffic injuries. Over 80% of fall-related fatalities occur in low- and middle-income countries, with regions of the Western Pacific and South East Asia accounting for more than two thirds of these deaths [1]. A fall is defined as an event which results in a person coming to rest inadvertently on the ground or floor or other lower level. As a result it is usually avoided

Physical activity is suggested to be beneficial for most children with cerebral palsy, whereas studies based on scientific results from reproducibility remain poorly known in such children. This study then asses the reproducibility of skeletal muscle function in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy, with a control able-bodied children. 16 children with cerebral palsy (Gross Motor Function Classification System Levels I and II), 10 males and six females, between 10 and 16 years of age) undertook two trial of assessment of skeletal muscle function with one week inter-test interval. 14 ablebodies aged-and sex-matched (10 boys and four girls) served as controls, undertaking only one test at the first trial. Quadriceps maximal voluntary isometric force (MVIF) and isometric endurance time (IET; contraction time to exhaustion at 50% of MVIF) were measured twice one week follow another week. Muscle strength (test1: 115±18.5 vs. Test2: 115±20.9 Nm-1, p=0.458), (and control: 171.1±23.8m-1, p<0.01, respectively) endurance (test1: 94.80±20.48 vs. Test2: 94.80±20.47 sec., p=0.479), (and control: 106±35.63, p=0.85 and p=0.81 respectively), were reproducible during isometric contraction in children with hemiplegic CP. In conclusion, quadriceps maximal voluntary isometric force (MVIF) and isometric endurance time can help physician to measure strength in rehability service in children with hemiplegic CP.

This study investigates the function of 5-HT type 3 (5-HT3) receptors using a computational approach. Antagonists of the 5-HT3 receptor are currently one of the most effective therapeutic agents in treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea, vomiting, and irritable bowel syndrome. Several experimental studies have shown the effect of pharmacological agents such as 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive component of Cannabis, Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive ingredient of Cannabis plant, Menthol, Propofol, and etc. on the functional human 5-HT3 receptors expressed in Xenopus oocyte as well as rat nodose ganglion neurons. 5-HT evoked currents recorded by a two-electrode clamp technique were inhibited by ligands in a concentration dependent manner. Simulations of allosteric inhibition were modeled using Vina docking techniques with the 5-HT3 structure. The 5-HT3 structure was found using homology sequence similarity techniques with the neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nACH) and inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor for GABA (A). Results of studies with other members of the super family of ligand gated ion channels signified key residues involved in ligand binding sites within the transmembrane region of 5-HT3. Flexible and rigid docking simulations around key residues resulted in a number of low-energy (high affinity) configurations of ligand binding. The predicted residues TYR and THR may constitute a naturally occurring binding site for 5-HT3.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a group of syndromes of diverse etiology with a common set of core symptoms that include three core symptoms: communication difficulties, social challenges and repetitive behavior. Drugs for treating these symptoms represent a huge area of unmet need, especially in pediatric population. Side effects affecting lipids and glucose metabolism and neurological status are among main concernes. Newer Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) have improved side effect profiles and have shown some efficacy in subiects for treating aggressive symptoms in children with ASDs. In this review we examine and illustrate the mechanisms of action of AEDs; we speculate on the possible effect of new AEDs on pathophysiological mechanisms and on their clinical efficacy in cognitive and behavioral disorders of ASDs patients.

В статье на основе впервые вводимых в научный оборот архивных материалов и данных литературы анализируется деятельность доктора медицинских наук профессора В.Г. Будылина и возглавляемой им кафедры патофизиологии Дагестанского государственного медицинского института в годы Великой Отечественной войны. Рассмотрена организация учебного процесса в вузе. Показана многогранная деятельность сотрудников кафедры в военный период по организации помощи эвакогоспиталям Дагестана. Отдельное внимание уделено научным исследованиям ученых, нашедшим отражение в ряде статей и диссертационных исследований. Делается вывод о том, что, несмотря на отдаленность от основных научных центров, целый ряд предложений был внедрен в практику.

The article examines specific features of the medical service in Dagestan during the Great Patriotic War based on a wide range of published
and newly introduced documents. The health care system in Dagestan suffered from serious changes during the significant events in the Soviet
history, which had an essential impact on the state of the medical service in the region. The authors examine the specifics of the transformations
in the field of managing care to the military and civilian population. Dagestan was a deep rear area at the beginning of the war, so evacuation
hospitals were established here, its workload increased as the front line approached, and as a result, the work of hospitals consisted of serving
the seriously wounded combatants moving from sanitary trains from the front and from other hospitals which were in the frontline or in
enemy-occupied territory. According to mobilization in this period, Dagestan suffered from an acute shortage of qualified medical personnel,
diagnostic equipment, care products, instruments and medications. For this reason, the medical service extra suffered in rural areas, and the
system of emergency and urgent care to the civilian population was almost destroyed throughout the region. The article pays specific attention
to the scientific work conducted by medical workers during the war. The authors conclude that Dagestan was characterized by trends in the
transformation of the health care system of the entire country, and the imbalance in providing medical care exclusively to wounded combatants
led to a deterioration in the quality of medical care for the civilian population.

There have been wide and fundamental changes in the field of speech and language neuropsychology since the publication of Paul Broca’s (1824–1880) epoch-making work on “aphasie” (siège du langage articulé) in 1863 (Broca, 1863). This Research Topic surveys the efforts to understand the relationship between human behavior and brain function with respect to language, cognition, and memory with a focus on activities from the 1860s to 1960s in Europe and North America. The reviewed period begins with the groundbreaking work of Broca in France, John Hughlings Jackson (1835–1911) in Great Britain, and Carl Wernicke (1848–1905) in Germany to identify the neuropathological sources of selective impairments in language (Figure 1) (Levelt, 2013).
    Efforts continued throughout the second half of the 19th century, leading to increased activity in the wake of the two World Wars. One hundred years later, interest resurged in the earlier ideas when new approaches were initiated by individuals such as Wilder Penfield (1891–1976) in Canada (Penfield, 1949) and Norman Geschwind (1926–1984) in the United States (Geschwind, 1970). Historiographical approaches to the understanding
of these efforts have considered the applied models and metaphors of speech and language neuropsychology, methodological approaches in the clinic and laboratory, as well as on the status of evidence, the flow of ideas and people, along with interdisciplinary exchanges with anthropology, education, linguistics, medicine, and sociocultural contexts (Eling, 1994).
The scholarly collaboration showcased in this Research Topic has generated novel insights and stimulating perspectives on the emergence of speech and language neuropsychology. For instance, the twenty contributing authors have investigated phases and events of the long-standing debate between localizationists and holists in the field of neuropsychology. They have analyzed how and why new concepts and theories have emerged, including for clinical and rehabilitation purposes (Stahnisch and Hoffmann, 2010). Furthermore, the limits imposed by certain models on basic and clinical research since Broca’s and Wernicke’s times were investigated (Tremblay and Dick, 2016).

Stade le plus sévère de l’agression cérébrale aigüe, le coma est caractérisé par une disparition globale de toutes les dimensions de la conscience et s’exprime par une perte de l’ouverture des yeux et de toute réactivité aux stimulations. Les relations entre cette absence de conscience pathologique – de causes hétérogènes – et la perte de conscience physiologique du sommeil – homogène dans ses mécanismes régulateurs – ont été abordées dans la littérature sous l’angle de l’architecture du sommeil. Mais cette analogie ne semble fructueuse que dans les formes chroniques présentant une récupération de la vigilance comportementale (le coma chronique sans ouverture des yeux étant exceptionnel) ou neurophysiologique (les éveils non-répondants sans aucun cycle veille-sommeil étant minoritaires). Au cours de la sidération aigüe du système oscillatoire veille-sommeil, la fonctionnalité résiduelle du Flip-Flop model ne permettrait pas une attribution d’état à chaque période – trop variable ent...

В статье на основе впервые вводимых архивных материалов, воспоминаний современников и данных литературы рассматривается жизненный путь, научная и организационная деятельность доктора медицинских наук, профессора Владимира Александровича Глазова. Авторы анализируют скудные биографические данные о начале медицинской деятельности в годы Гражданской войны, когда он работал лекпомом в XI Красной армии. Реконструируют этапы становления ученого в Северокавказском медицинском институте. Большое внимание уделяется исследованиям ученого 1930-х годов, выполненных в Ленинграде в психиатрической больнице им. Скворцова-Степанова. Анализу подвергаются научные взгляды В.А. Глазова, нашедшие отражение в его кандидатской и докторской диссертациях, посвященных кататонии. Авторы обращаются к неопубликованным данным кандидатской диссертации ученого, получившим высокую оценку современной ему научной общественности. С помощью архивных материалов реконструируется история создания кафедры психиатрии Дагестанского государственного медицинского института в 1930-е годы. Отмечены недочеты в работе и те трудности, с которыми пришлось столкнуться первым его сотрудникам. Отдельное место занимают вопросы работы профессора В.А. Глазова в годы Великой Отечественной войны, когда помимо научных исследований, он фактически руководил оказанием психиатрической помощи комбатантам в Дагестане. Дана краткая характеристика проведенных в этот период исследований. Немало внимания уделено послевоенной, как научной, так и учебной работе кафедры психиатрии, возглавляемой В.А. Глазовым. Подвергнуты анализу взгляды ученого на клинику и патогенез шизофрении, нашедшие отражение в его монографии.

Habiendo podido tratar exitosamente durante el año 1988 un caso de "síndrome del puño apretado" (o, en inglés, "Clenched feast síndrome") en la paciente MªD.R.A. de Elche y contando con la ayuda de una beca de la Generalitat valenciana; junto con las pertinentes recomendaciones profesionales de los Drs. J.L. Montoya y del psicoanalista C. Paniagua, y-finalmente-gracias sobre todo a la generosa invitación del Dr. F.W. Putnam, en los años 1989-90 estuve investigando durante un año sobre trastornos de conversión en la llamada Unit on dissociative disorders situada en el edificio 15K que albergaba el laboratorio de psicología del desarrollo de los National Institutes of Mental Health (programa intramural) en Bethesda, MD, EE. UU.

Having successfully treated 1988 a case of a professional cramp called in the literature "clenched feast syndrome" in the patient MªD.R.A. from Elche, Spain and with the help of a grant from the Valencian Government; along with the pertinent professional recommendations of Drs. J.L. Montoya and the psychoanalyst C. Paniagua, and-finally-thanks above all to the generous invitation of Dr. F.W. Putnam, in the years 1989-90, I spent a year researching conversion disorders in the so-called Unit on Dissociative Disorders located in Building 15K, which housed the Developmental Psychology Laboratory of the National Institutes of Mental Health (intramural program) in Bethesda, MD, USA.

En 1861 se produjo en París lo que se ha considerado un hallazgo fundamental para comprender la anatomía y el funcionamiento del cerebro humano: se trató de la localización cerebral del área responsable de la producción del lenguaje articulado. Tuvo lugar en el ámbito de los trabajos de la Sociedad de Antropología de París, con tres actores fundamentales: Louis-Pierre Gratiolet, Ernest Auburtin y Paul Pierre Broca. La historiografía ha enfatizado el desarrollo teórico y práctico de la medicina en la identificación del “área de Broca” e, incluso, la han considerado precursora de estudios neurofisiológicos y psicológicos. En este artículo se propone observar ese evento como esencialmente antropológico, en el cual tuvo tanta importancia el cerebro de Victor Leborgne (sobre el que se hizo el hallazgo), como un cráneo totonaco. Ambos objetos se convirtieron en un binomio que incentivó y permitió fijar criterios anatómicos y fisiológicos válidos para estudiar la diversidad humana en términos de un marco racial y jerárquico.

Felix Vicq-d’Azyr (1748-1794) was a distinguished eighteenth-century scientist, personal physician to Queen Marie Antoinette and secretary of the Royal Society of Medicine, who made significant contributions to theoretical and practical medicine, most notably to neuroanatomy. His descriptions of the brain were among the most accurate of the time, and his «Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie» is one of the best neuroanatomical works. Vicq-d’Azyr was the first to use lithography in neuroanatomy, as well as the founder of the technique for dissecting fixed brain matter. The scientist first described a number of neuroanatomical structures, including the central sulcus (almost 50 years before Rolando), the insula, the red nucleus and the substantia nigra. The mammillothalamic fasciculus («bundle of Vicq-d’Azyr») are named after him; it was he who called the relief elements of the cerebral cortex «gyri». He carefully studied and described the internal structures of the brain, in particular, the corpus callosum, the fornix, which connects the hippocampus with the hypothalamus and the right hemisphere with the left, the anterior perforated substance, the gray matter inside the hemispheres (striatum), and communication pathways between the ventricles of the brain. Despite the fact that Vicq-d’Azyr lived a short life and did not have time to publish his anatomical works in the intended volume, he left a rich scientific heritage, and his discoveries were a significant impetus for the development of neuroanatomy.

Surgery on the spine, the resection of fractured ribs, the operative excision of superfluous callus, and the surgical correction of malunions represent some of the principal achievements of a revolution in surgery during the Byzantine period. While fractures in the ancient world were seldom treated surgically and there was little knowledge of their pathological anatomy, an increased confidence in the capabilities of surgery accompanied by a proliferation in the study of anatomy enabled Byzantine physicians to transform the field of orthopedics. Skeletons for anatomical study, once confined to Alexandria, became widespread, and those fabled dissections practiced in this same city were resurrected across the empire alongside novel clinical autopsies. Paul of Aegina, a witness to this revolution, recorded these developments in his magnum opus, the Pragmateia, providing tantalizing summaries of these operations—many of which would only return to the surgical repertoire in modern times.

RESUMEN Tradicionalmente se considera que los primeros artículos neurológicos aparecidos en revistas médicas mexicanas datan de 1837. No obstante, un año antes, Manuel Carpio había publicado un par de casos clínicos, traducidos del francés, en los que abordaba el tema de la terapéutica de la enfermedad vascular cerebral.

L'électroencéphalographie (EEG) est une technique de choix d'exploration de la dynamique des activités cérébrales, fondée sur le recueil de champs électriques produits par l'activité synaptique des neurones corticaux. Aisée à mettre en oeuvre, elle apparaît pertinente dans l'évaluation neurologique et la prise en charge de patients en milieu réanimatoire, en évaluant l'activité cérébrale chez le patient inconscient ou non communicant. L'EEG participe au diagnostic des comas, à l'évaluation de leur profondeur, de leur pronostic et parfois au diagnostic étiologique. Elle joue un rôle fondamental dans la prise en charge des états de mal épileptiques, diagnostiquant les états de mal non convulsifs, généralisés aux focaux, contribuant aux diagnostics différentiels et guidant la thérapeutique. L'EEG est un outil pronostique dans les encéphalopathies postanoxiques et permet de porter le diagnostic de mort cérébrale. Elle reste un dispositif de monitoring fonctionnel fondamental dans la détection d'encéphalopathies métaboliques ou toxiques, d'encéphalites virales ou encore dysimmunitaires. Mots clés EEG • Réanimation • Coma • État de mal épileptique • Encéphalopathie Abstract Electroencephalography (EEG) is a technique of choice for the exploration of brain activity dynamics, based on the recording of electrical fields produced by the synaptic activity of cortical neurons. Easy to implement, it appears to be relevant to the neurological assessment and management of patients in an intensive care environment, and evaluating cerebral activities in nonconscious or noncommunicating patients. EEG participates in coma diagnosis, evaluation of their depth and prognosis, and sometimes etiological diagnosis. It plays a fundamental role in the management of status epilepticus, allowing diagnosis of nonconvulsive status, whether focal or generalized, contributing to the differential diagnosis and guiding the therapy. EEG is a prognostic tool in anoxic encephalopathies and allows the diagnosis of brain death. This functional monitoring device is fundamental in detecting metabolic or toxic encephalopathy, and viral or dysimmune encephalitis.

In the history of the neurological relationship between human behavior and brain function in Europe and North America, various perspectives on brain localization and holistic functioning have been addressed. One of the founding figures of modern neuropsychology, Professor Hans-Lukas Teuber (1916–1977) of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, reminded the scholarly community of its negligence of preceding traditions in day-to-day research endeavors. Teuber particularly emphasized that during the development of the aphasiology field (1950s–1960s) even major figures, such as the German-American neurologist Kurt Goldstein (1878–1965), had been neglected in the scientific community’s collective memory. This happened despite Goldstein’s contributions to cortical blindness, vicarious brain functioning, and neurorehabilitation. The outcome of the debates regarding the neurology of language had to be incompletely relearned in later decades. Neuropsychological concerns regarding the relationship between cortical localizationism and functional holism have made recourse to Goldstein’s work necessary for reviving historical answers for current conundrums. It is therefore opportune to review Goldstein’s work in the light of the history of aphasiology. Contemporary scholarship has once more drawn research attention to the works of Goldstein along with Norman Geschwind (1926–1984) and his pupils. It has also resurrected the underlying research of Carl Wernicke (1848–1905). This review article explores deep and lasting questions regarding the positioning of Goldstein’s holism among the contemporary holistic perspectives. It does so by firstly discussing Wernicke’s traditional model of distributed localizationism. Secondly, it describes Goldstein’s previous work in the German brain sciences. Thirdly, it examines his aphasiological contributions on both sides of the Atlantic. Fourthly, it addresses the advancement of a dynamic localizational perspective by Geschwind and his pupils. This article intends to render a historical analysis fruitful for those exploring modern-day problems in the neurology of aphasia and clinical speech neuropsychology.

This short essay offers a challenge to present-day philosophers: with the exception of historians of philosophical thought, philosophers need to embrace the empirically tested knowledge which the word philosophy suggests they claim to love. By story telling about the history of anatomical microscopy and briefly reviewing the tenets and assertions of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, I challenge "philosophy" to join with advances in knowledge to save its own demise.

The aim of the article is to analyze Gaston Bachelard's psychoanalysis of the scientific mind in its practical dimension. Inspired by Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, Bachelard deployed his own method to analyze the scientific unconscious, populated by epistemological obstacles inhibiting scientific cognition. As this article seeks to demonstrate, Bachelard's psychoanalysis aims to purify, and thereby streamline the cognitive mind on two levels: individual and historical. Bachelard's methodological experiment, transferring psychoanalysis into the spheres of the theory of knowledge and philosophy of science, turns out to be, at the same time, an instance of the architecture of a scientific mind, a polemic with cognitive realism and empiricism, and a postulate of analytical therapy in the field of cognition.

Specialists’ Training in Neurology in Europe. European neurology is practiced in various ways in Europe. This is due to the national historic structures, the local health system and the variability of the profile of neurologists. This explains also the strong variation of manpower of neurology in different countries. Although the core content of neurology is identical, the coopera tion and common fields of interests with other medical specialist fields vary. The European Medical Specialists (UEMS) website (www.uems.eu) lists a European core curriculum. In addition to the core curriculum, also the European Board examination and other activities of the neurology section of the UEMS aim to create joint European structures. The previous EFNS and also the ENS have contributed to developments, which will be followed by the EAN. J Neurol Neurochir Psychiatr 2016; 17 (4): 127–30.

Visiting scholar NSOE (Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University); RMS Outreach and Education Committee. How is it one comes to know of life? For over 350 years, the microscope has been a companion on this journey. The microscope’s origin at various times and places meant it was used widely, and once perfected, it helped overcome our ignorance of disease. It opened previously unseen worlds in a drop of water. It laid the foundation for cell biology. More recently, it has shown value in studies of biodiversity. However, the microscope’s centrality in biology is not in keeping with its diminishing role in education, where images from the microscope are predominantly seen through on-screen applications rather than through a lens.

Introduction: More than 6000 years ago, the cradle of civilization, Mesopotamia, grew-up in what is known today as Iraq. The history of cerebrovascular diseases in Mesopotamia is insufficient to supply scholar needs. Therefore, the goal of this review is to highlight some remarkable points in the history of what we may coin as "stroke medicine" during the ancient Mesopotamian eras and to explore the knowledge and expertise of ancient healers. The neo-Sumerian period (2112-2004 BCE) documented, through clay tablets, many medical records about two kinds of medical specialists; the āšipu (exorcists) and the ašu (physician-priests). Methods and findings: The information herein was gathered through literature review using online resources, such as NCBI, Google Scholar, PubMed, UCLA, and HİNARİ. Initially, most of the knowledge we have got was acquired mainly from two well-known transliterated cuneiform texts. Both tablets had clearly addressed stroke. One tablet, part of the "diagnostic" series is currently in the Louvre Museum in Paris, while the other one is in the British Museum in London and is part of the "therapeutic" series. The Mesopotamians had noticed and documented vascular disorders of the brain and some pertinent diseases. The ašu and the āšipu demonstrated an observational knowledge of anatomy and but no knowledge of the nervous system, the concept of pathology, or physiology as we call them today. Not all paralysis cases were viewed as a curse or an impact incurred by a supernatural deity. Physical treatment was mentioned to the patients. The familial occurrence of stroke was a well-known trait in that ancient period. Conclusion: This descriptive review tells us that the history of stroke in the medical practice was well-encountered in the first half of the second millennium BCE and that physicians were keen observers to describe stroke presentation and prognosis.

Her topic is not really "science and poetry" but the failure of neurobiological reductionism to understand the human mind. That poets understand the mind better than scientists is the subtext of this collection of essays, but the poetic theories Midgley quotes are too general to make much headway against science's prejudices about the arts' naive handling of the serious matters of consciousness, the operation of the brain, and connections between mind and body.

Introduction L'EEG est un acte coûteux qui mobilise un technicien et demande un investissement matériel. Son absence de revalorisation tarifaire a fait abandonner sa pratique par de nombreux neurologues libéraux. Nous avons étudié l'évolution du nombre de demandes et de leur provenance, dans le cadre de l'épilepsie, dans notre unité de neurophysiologie du CHRU de Tours, en nous intéressant particulièrement aux demandes des neurologues libéraux. Méthodes Nous avons recueilli rétrospectivement entre le 1 er janvier 2004 et le 31 décembre 2014, par année, le nombre d'EEG totaux, le nombre d'EEG pour épilepsie et le nombre de demandes émanant des neurologues libéraux en utilisant notre base de données Deltamed ®. Puis, nous avons regardé la provenance des EEG, entre le 1 er janvier 2010 et le 31 décembre 2014. Nous avons réalisé un Chi 2 pour comparer les pourcentages de demandes dans le cadre de l'épilepsie, et de demandes émanant des neurologues libéraux entre l'année 2004 et l'année 2014. Résultats Le nombre d'EEG réalisés a progressé de 2382 examens en 2004 contre 3098 en 2014 avec respectivement 529 et 879 examens réalisés pour l'épilepsie (p = 7,35 × 10 −5). Le nombre d'EEG émanant des neurologues libéraux est passé de 12 à 101 demandes soit respectivement 2,3 % et 11,5 % des EEG réalisés dans cette indication. (p = 1,55 × 10 −8). Entre 2010 et 2014, en moyenne 36 % des EEG étaient prescrits par les services de neurologie, 18 % par les services de médecine/chirurgie, 15,8 % par les services de réanimation/USC, 11 % par les neurologues libéraux, 10 % par les urgences médicales ou psychiatriques et 9,2 % par les cliniques, hôpitaux périphériques ou consultations externes. Conclusion Depuis dix ans, les demandes d'EEG pour l'épilepsie augmentent au CHRU de Tours, en particulier celles des neurologues de ville, attestant de l'utilité et du besoin de cet examen dans nos pratiques. Mots clés Activité ; EEG ; Épilepsie Déclaration de liens d'intérêts Les auteurs déclarent ne pas avoir de liens d'intérêts.

In June 2017 we celebrate the 90th anniversary of the pioneer discovery of cerebral angiography, the seminal imaging technique used for visualizing cerebral blood vessels and vascular alterations as well as other intracranial disorders. Egas Moniz (1874-1955) was the first to describe the use of this revolutionary technique which, until 1975 (when computed tomography, CT, scan was introduced in the clinical practice), was the sole diagnostic tool to provide an imaging of cerebral vessels and therefore alterations due to intracranial pathology. Moniz introduced in the clinical practice this fundamental and important diagnostic tool. The present contribution wishes to pay a tribute to the Portuguese neurosurgeon, who was also a distinguished neurologist and statesman. Despite his tremendous contribution in modern brain imaging, Egas Moniz was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for prefrontal leucotomy, the neurosurgical intervention nowadays unacceptable, but should rather be remembered for his key contribution to modern brain imaging.

In the first part of a book dedicated to dissociation (including hysterical dissociation) as initial stage of a psychotic process, the Ukrainian-American psychologist and psychiatrist Boris Sidis starts with epistemological reflections about the methods of inquiry. His main claim is that, psychic phenomena being not of an objective, but of a subjective nature, they must be studied by using a subjective method of investigation. Accordingly, Sidis conceives introspection (both the clinician's own introspection and the patients' account of their own introspection) as the microscope, the scalpel and microtome of the psychologist and psychopathologist. In his view, it is the most important instrument of psychological research. He admits that the possibility of lying can be a problem for the use of the patient's subjective accounts, nevertheless he stresses that it is the same method used with great success by neurologists in the study of aphasias. It is not the subjective nature of the psychic fact to be studied, but the trustfulness of the reports that is in question. To reduce possible biases, Sidis suggests some practical rules: the investigator must always be aware that the psychic facts occurring in others can be grasped only in an indirect way and that the nature of evidence in psychological research is essentially of a circumstantial character. He/she must be well acquainted with the patient, and the statements of the patient should be carefully examined and tested.

The Cotard syndrome is characterized by the delusion where an individual insists that he has died or part of his body has decayed. Although described classically in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, physical disorders including migraine, tumour and trauma have also been associated with the syndrome. Two new cases are described here, the one associated with arteriovenous malformations and the other with probable multiple sclerosis. The delusion has been embarrassing to each patient. Study of such cases may have wider implications for the understanding of the psychotic interpretation of body image, for example that occurring in anorexia nervosa.

Le travail de thèse est un travail solitaire, mais il n'est jamais le produit d'une seule personne. Je remercie ainsi les membres de mon laboratoire, le Lise, et le collectif solide et solidaire qu'il constitue. En plus de la formation intellectuelle que ses membres m'ont apportée, ce laboratoire m'a aussi permis d'effectuer mon travail dans de bonnes conditions matérielles. Je remercie en particulier les directeurs et directrices de ce laboratoire, qui ont toujours soutenus mon travail, et les personnes qui ont bien voulu le discuter. Ces remerciements s'adressent

L'electroencéphalogramme (EEG) de sommeil est déterminant dans l'exploration de certaines épilepsies en pédiatrie, en raison de la mauvaise qualité du tracé de l'EEG de veille ou de l'effet spécifique du sommeil sur les anomalies de l'EEG. Cependant, l'endormissement et le maintien de l'état endormi lors de la sieste peuvent être difficiles à obtenir malgré la mise en place de recommandations de principe ; il est possible alors de recourir à une prise médicamenteuse. Comme les benzodiazépines, l'hydroxyzine ou l'hydrate de chloral peuvent influencer la macrostructure du sommeil et donc affecter l'interprétation de l'examen ou nécessiter une surveillance particulière, certaines unités de neurophysiologie clinique recourent à la mélatonine en libération immédiate. Cette neurohormone physiologique permet d'induire le sommeil et a été expérimentée avec succès en prémédication de différentes explorations complémentaires nécessitant une immobilité prolongée. Cet article passe en revue les arguments, tirés de la littérature et basés sur notre expérience, démontrant que les données d'efficacité et de tolérance de l'utilisation de la mélatonine dans l'obtention du sommeil au cours de l'EEG de l'enfant semblent confirmer l'intérêt de cette utilisation. Toutefois, aucune étude randomisée versus placebo n'est actuellement disponible.

From an examnation of recently rediscovered examples of the simple microscope with spherical lens and specimen revolver, originally developed by Christiaan Huygens, the paper seeks to ¡Ilústrate how the combined study of texts and objects is essential to establishing the evolution of an instrument. Some of the newly discovered Instruments are described and comment ¡s made on the commercial forces w^hich acted in parallel with scientific ones on the development of this particular form of microscope ' UVsage dv novveav microscope fait avec une seule et trhpetite houle de verre, n.p. [Paris], 1679. 'Les plus bcUes inventions sont tousiours imparfeites dans leur commencement, c'est pourquoy on a veu tout á coup plusieurs diíFerentes manieres de construiré ce nouveau genre de MICROSCOPE, auparavant qu'il ait esté mis dans la derniere perfection que les vend le sieur BVTTERFIELD, au Faux-bourg S. Germain'.

The article is dedicated to the 350th anniversary of the death of the Dutch anatomist, physiologist, yatrochemist and the grea test physician of the XVII century, Franciscus Sylvius (Franz de le Boe) (1614 —1672). His contribution to the study of the structure of the nervous system is characterized, as well as the main scientific discoveries and achievements in building a rational system of medical science and practice. It is stated that eponym «aquaeductus Sylvii» was coined by Lorenz Heister in 1717 in his paper «De admiranda cerebelli structura».

Article is about scientists, who died young: A. Giliani, M. della Torre, C. Varolio, R. de Graaf, J.G. Zinn, M.F.X. Bichat, A. Burns, O. Deiters, F.C. Boll, J. Paneth and H. Lissauer.
Their contribution into anatomy and allied sciences and brief biographical information are given. They were talented, and although the life flow brings to oblivion all that was ever known or done by human, yet the memory of them remains extending their century on the pages of the history of medicine.