Golden Horde

Қабылдинов Зиябек Ермұханұлы -тарих ғылымдарының докторы, профессор, ҚР ҰҒА академигі, Ш.Ш. Уәлиханов атындағы Тарих және этнология институтының бас директоры (Қазақстан Республикасы, Алматы қ.) Әбіл Еркін Аманжолұлы -тарих ғылымдарының докторы, профессор (Қазақстан Республикасы, Астана қ.) Толобек Әбілұлы -тарих ғылымдарының докторы, профессор, Қырғыз Республикасы Ұлттық ғылым академиясының корреспондент-мүшесі (Қырғыз Республикасы, Бішкек) Апендиев Тимур Әкімханұлы -PhD докторы, доцент, жетекші ғылыми қызметкер, Ш.Ш. Уәлиханов атындағы Тарих және этнология институты (Қазақстан Республикасы, Алматы қ.) Горшенина Светлана Михайловна -PhD, тарих ғылымдарының кандидаты; CNRS Eur'Orbem, UMR 8224, CNRS/ Sorbonne университетінің зерттеу бөлімінің директоры (Франция, Париж) Исмағұлов Оразақ Исмағұлұлы -тарих ғылымдарының докторы, профессор, ҚР Қазақстан Республикасы Ұлттық музейінің физикалық антропология зертханасының меңгерушісі (Қазақстан Республикасы, Астана қ.) Шинджи Като -PhD (археология бойынша), Нарадағы мәдени құндылықтардың ұлттық ғылыми-зерттеу институты (Жапония, Нара) Бирсель Каракоч -Уппсала университетінің түркі тілдерінің профессоры (Швеция, Уппсала қ.) Мионг Сун-ок -антропология ғылымдарының докторы, қауымдастырылған профессор (Корея, Сеул) Қозыбаева Махаббат Маликовна -PhD доктор; Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы Еуразия ұлттық университетінің «Алаш» мәдениет және рухани даму институтының жетекші ғылыми қызметкері (Қазақстан Республикасы, Астана қаласы) Моррисон Александр -PhD, NewCollege профессоры, Оксфорд (Ұлыбритания, Оксфорд) Мотузаите-Матузевичюте Гидре -археология ғылымдарының докторы, профессор, Вильнюс университетінің «Биоархеология» ғылыми орталығының жетекшісі (Литва, Вильнюс) Муминов Әшірбек Құрбанұлы -тарих ғылымдарының докторы, арабтанушы, профессор; ИКҰ (Орталық Азия) ұйымдастыру қызметінің бас директорының кеңесшісі (Түркия, Стамбул) Нұрсан Әлімбай -тарих ғылымдарының кандидаты, профессор, Ш.Ш.Уәлиханов атындағы Тарих және этнология институтының бас ғылыми қызметкері (Қазақстан Республикасы, Алматы қ.) Отепова Гүлфира Елубайқызы -тарих ғылымдарының докторы, Ә. Марғұлан атындағы Павлодар педагогикалық университетінің профессоры (Қазақстан Республикасы, Павлодар қ.) Оутрам Алан -археология ғылымдарының докторы, Эксетер университетінің археология және тарих кафедрасының профессоры (Ұлыбритания, Эксетер) Романова Екатерина Назаровна -Солтүстіктің байырғы халықтарының мәселелері және гуманитарлық зерттеулер институтының этнологиялық зерттеулер орталығының жетекшісі (АН СР(Ы) ХР) (Ресей Федерациясы, Якутск қ.) Рюосуке Оно -Васеда университетінің тереңдетілген гуманитарлық зерттеулер орталығының доценті (Жапония, Токио) Сәбитов Жақсылық Мұратұлы -Жошы Ұлысын зерттеу ғылыми институтының директоры, PhD доктор (Қазақстан Республикасы, Астана қаласы) Томохико Уяма -PhD докторы, Хоккайдо университетінің славян және еуразиялық зерттеулер орталығының профессоры (Жапония, Саппоро) Финке Питер -PhD докторы, Цюрих университетінің Макс Планк институтының профессоры (Швейцария, Цюрих) Шотанова Ғалия Айтжанқызы -тарих ғылымдарының кандидаты, Ш.Ш. Уәлиханов атындағы Тарих және этнология институтының жетекші ғылыми қызметкері (Қазақстан Республикасы, Алматы қ.

The relevance of this topic for our present is based on the need of every conscientious citizen of Ukraine to be acquainted with his ancient history, the sources and origins of certain socio-political processes that took place in our country during the last Millennium, and state-legal relations that accompanied them. The understanding of this peculiarity of science which is called ''History of the state and law'' gives us the perfect opportunity to use its teaching for the history exploration from the perspective of jurisprudence. Prior to carry out a comparative analysis of civil regulations in Kievan Rus' and the Halych-Volhyn' Principality, it should be noted that considering time aspect the civil law of these states was highly developed due to intensive development of crafts and trade there. While comparing the civil law of Kievan Rus' and the Halych-Volhyn' Principality it should emphasized that both law of both states have been highly developed, humanistic and progressive, still possessing common as well as distinctive features. Right of property. The sources of law of Kievan Rus' and the Halych-Volhyn' Principality did not contain general term to determine the ownership title, taking into account that the content of that title depended on who was the subject of relationships and what was the ownership object. In particular, there have been differentiated "ownership title" and "possession title" to movable and immovable things. According to the provisions of "Rus'ka Pravda" in the said countries the subjects of ownership were princes, princely and county boyars, warriors, clergy, artisans, merchants, smerds, zakups. Servants and slaves were not entitled to be the ownership subject. The law of both Kievan Rus' and the Halych-Volhyn' Principality regulated the legal status of the owner authorised to dispose of property, enter into agreements, etc. Analysis of the law of Kievan Rus' and the Halych-Volhyn' Principality shows that the object of civil law was movable and immovable property, such as land, livestock, clothing, weapons, tools, etc. After emergence of legal regulation of property relations the land became the main ownership object. Both in Kievan Rus' and the Halych-Volhyn' Principality main ways to acquire the ownership title to the land were: granting of the land for service and for the sake of service, development of vacant lands, direct seizure of communal lands, purchase, gift, exchange and inheritance. The main forms of land ownership in the above countries were: princely domain boyar patrimony, monastic patrimony, personal patrimony of the church

Composition of 147 vessel glass samples from a cemetery of late 1st — late 4th / early 5th centuries, completely excavated on the outskirts of Sevastopol, has been studied with LA-ICP-MS technique. This data
allows evaluating glass recycling practices in the workshops producing vessels for regional population. The data on vessel forms, their spread in the cemetery and the chemical composition of glass could yield the
circumstantial evidence on the local glass working (most probably, in Chersonessos), time of its emergence and peculiarities. Glass vessels become widespread here from the 2nd century, and serial types, made of the “mixed” Sb-Mn glass occur at the same period. It could be related to the emergence of local glass working, based on the raw glass imported from Eastern Mediterranean, and the extensive glass recycling. Large-scale recycling is also typical for the late series of glass (and vessel types) especially widespread here (Foy-3.2, 3.2/2.1). Local glass working was therefore based on extensive use of cullet; this peculiarity is usually
typical for the periphery of the Roman Empire, lacking the imported raw glass. Glass of the Egyptian origin form Frontovoe has much more pronounced evidence for recycling than of the Levantine one.

This study examines the textile assemblage from Burial 6 at Nogoon Gozgor-1 (Northern
Khövsgul), comprising complete and fragmentary elements of elite Mongol women’s costume: undergarments
(shirt and pants), detachable embroidered cuffs, and two robes (one with four-clawed dragons, the other with
phoenixes and peonies featuring distinctive coupon stripes along the shoulders). The boqtaq headdress complex
includes: silk coverings for the birch-bark frame, a textile base for the frame, three caps (a basic winged type plus
two over-caps, one with fur lining), and three rear lappet —the first archaeological specimens of this element.
The combination of four-clawed dragon motifs and the boqtaq’s height confirms her highest-ranking status.
This complete ensemble provides insight into the attire of a married noblewoman, whose age was 16-18 years.
A radiocarbon date was obtained from the woman’s tooth. It corresponds to the 14th century

The chemical composition of 27 glass samples used in jewelry (beads and pendants) from the Scythian burial grounds
of Glinoe/Vodovod and Glinoe/Sad, excavated on the left bank of the Lower Dniester region, has been studied using SEMEDS and LA-ICP-MS methods. All the beads originated from the securely dated contexts of the mid-4th to the turn of the
3rd century BC. The majority of ornaments are made of natron glass, likely of Levantine origin. They are made of blue,
turquoise, yellow, red, colorless, and naturally colored blue-green glass. A small series of beads is made of glass with a low
content of aluminum, strontium, and barium, along with an elevated concentration of zirconium, likely of Egyptian origin.
The blue glass is colored with cobalt colorant of a heterogeneous composition; the composition of the colorless glass is
also heterogeneous. Beads made of natron glass could have been imported to the region from Central European or North
Pontic glassworking workshops. A bead, made of plant ash glass and presumably of Mesopotamian origin, appears to be an
occasional import here.

КУШАНСКИЙ ГОРОД БАКТРИИ (По результатам работ Советско-Афганской археологической экспедиции) В статье представлена попытка обобщить материалы, полученные при раскопках Советско-Афганской археологической экспедицией нескольких городов Бактрии (Емши-тепе, Джагат-тепе, Дильберджин) на территории Афганистана. Авторы не сколько модифицируют традиционную схему развития центральноазиатского горо да. Признавая урбанистический характер кушанской цивилизации, они указывают на тот факт, что при Кушанах, видимо, не создавались новые города. При них процесс ранней урбанизации достиг своего пика, после которого начался резкий упадок.

We are glad to draw your attention to the 9th volume of the research series “Rus', Lithuania, Horde”, specially dedicated to the XVI International Numismatic Congress, which is going to be held in Warsaw (Poland) in September 2022. For the first time, our journal is published in English to make the works of numismatists and sigillographers of Eastern Europe widely available to the international research community.

Резюме. В работе представлено исследование стеклянных подвесок и крупных бусин Увекского городища, отождествляемого с одним из городов Золотой Орды – Укеком. Выборка включает 21 экз. украшений, рассмотренных как типологически, так и с точки зрения технологии изготовления. Исследование бусин и подвесок Увекского городища позволило определить преобладающие типы и технологию производства, типичные для мастерских Золотой Орды, а также выявить в коллекции экземпляры, аналогии которым известны в памятниках Средней Азии, позднекочевнических курганах Поволжья и мордовских могильниках.

Abstract. The paper describes the study of glass pendants and large beads from the Uvek fortided settlement, which was one of the large Golden Horde cities. The analysis of the glass pendants helps reconstruct some events of the Golden Horde past related to the development of intercultural relationships. The study sample included 21 items. Such attributes as production technology, ornamentation, form and color were used for typology. All ornamented items have a form typical for beads. The color and the ornamentation are characteristic of Golden Horde items. The form of the beads and the pendants was determined based on their longitudinal-to-lateral cross-section ratio. The classification of the Uvek pendants made it possible to single out prevailing types of beads and pendants that have analogies in the Golden Horde workshops of the Volga region. Besides, the assemblage in question includes specimens that have parallels in the sites of Central Asia, late nomadic kurgans of the Volga region and Mordovian cemeteries.

The article examines the results of the work on the excavation area XLV located in the coastal part of Derbent, where remains of a utility room have been uncovered. Household ceramics presented in a layer associated with functioning of the room, especially Russian factory faience products, acting as a clear chronological marker, date this complex to the end of the XIX – beginning of the ХХ centuries. In turn, they reliably date numerous samples of local handicraft pottery products - glazed and unglazed jugs, pots, bowls, which are of undoubted interest for the study of pottery handicraft production in Daghestan in the XIX – early ХХ centuries. Factory earthenware (plates, bowls) is largely quantitatively inferior to the handicraft glazed pottery, which, judging by the materials of the excavations, occupied a significant place in the daily life of the citizens in the context of penetration and distribution of factory products. The study allows us to conclude that this handicraft pottery was mostly made by potters from the village of Sulevkent, located in the Kaytag-Tabasaran district near Derbent, which was an important center of ceramics in the Northeast Caucasus.

Как верно заметил К. Данияров в книге «Альтернативная история Казахстана»,  версия о том, что Чингисхан был монголом, является одним из мифов мировой истории. По мнению автора книги, научный поиск и анализ полностью и неопровержимо отметают эту версию: «Так, например, ни одно из современных монгольских племен, составляющих монгольскую нацию, как-то: халха-монголы, ойраты, чорасы, торгауты, хошимиуты, дюрбеты и др., - не принимали участие в походах Чингисхана. Кроме того, у монголов глава государства никогда не носил титул хана. Даже в более поздней истории, когда западные монгольские племена ойратов, чорасов, торгаутов, хошимиутов, дюрбетов образовали Джунгарское государство (1635 г.), глава государства носил титул контайшы, а не хан. Титул хана на протяжении всей истории носили только правители тюркских государств».

В статье рассмотрены проблемы интерпретации имен сыновей хана Ахмата Саид-Ахмата и  Саид-Махмуда в  письменных источниках и  датировки литовско-ордынских посольских документов 80-х гг. XV в. Уточнена хронология правления наследников Ахмата. Период с начала 1481 по середину 1484 г. следует считать «междуцарствием», когда в  Большой Орде не было даже номинального хана. К лету 1484 г. в  Орде сложился институт соправительства, и престол Ахмата заняли два его старших сына, Муртаза и Саид-Ахмат. Ближе к концу того же года Муртаза был смещен двоюродным братом Абд ал-Керимом, не принявшим участия в войне с Крымом первой половины 1485 г. По итогам конфликта на ордынском престоле вновь утвердились Муртаза и Саид-Ахмат, совместно правившие до 1490 г., когда место Муртазы занял Шейх-Ахмат. Новое вторжение в  Крым осенью 1490 г. привело к  очередной смене соправителей. Саид-Ахмат умер в  начале 1491  г., на престол по-прежнему претендовали Муртаза и Абд ал-Керим, но соправителем Шейх Ахмата стал «царь» Саид-Махмуд, до этого не участвовавший в борьбе своих братьев.

This paper discusses the problems of interpretation of the names of Said Ahmat and Said-Mahmud, sons of Ahmat Khan in the written sources and dating of the Lithuanian and horde ambassadorial documents of the 1480s. The Ahmat’s heirs ruling chronology is made more specific. The period from the beginning of 1481 to the middle of 1484, when the Great
Horde did not even have a nominee khan, should be considered “interregnum”. By the summer of 1484 the institute of coregency had arisen in the Horde and Ahmat’s throne had been occupied by his two elder sons, Murtaza and Said-Ahmat. Towards the end of the same year Murtaza was removed by his cousin Abd al-Kerim who had not taken part in the war with Crimea in the first half of 1485. As a result of the conflict, Murtaza and Said-Ahmat asserted themselves on the horde throne again and ruled together until 1490 when Murtaza’s place was taken by Sheikh-Ahmat. Another invasion of Crimea in the autumn of 1490 resulted in another change of corulers. Said-Ahmat died at the beginning of 1491, Murtaza
and Abd al-Kerim were still pretending to the throne, but it was “tzar” Said-Mahmud, who had not participated in his brothers’ struggle, who became the coruler.

Цель данной работы заключается в том, чтобы определить роль столичного койне Бахчисарая и его окрестностей XVII-XVIII вв. в становлении наддиалектного койне и литературного крымскотатарского языка. Рассматриваемый нами период XVII-XVIII вв. достаточно показателен с точки зрения развития крымскотатарского литературного языка и его устной формы -наддиалектного койне. Это последний этап полноценного функционирования крымского языка перед окончательной утратой Крымским ханством своей независимости (1783 г.). В языке указанной эпохи уже выкристаллизовались те фонологические, лексические и грамматические нормы, которые определили вектор дальнейшего развития литературного языка крымских татар преимущественно на основе бахчисарайского городского койне. Материалом исследования послужили юридические документы. Именно они наилучшим образом отражают процессы становления на базе столичного койне норм наддиалектного общекрымского койне и литературного языка. Особую ценность представляют записи судов Шариата крымских кадиев, с одной стороны, и ханские ярлыки и письма, с другой. Оба типа документов демонстрируют два литературных стиля, которые формировались разными тюркскими лингвокультурными традициями: Золотордынской и собственно крымской, региональной, испытавшей на себе значительное влияние османского языка. Факты языковой архаики и смешения фонетических, лексических и грамматических традиций разных тюркских языков в текстах памятников официально-деловой письменности XVII-XVIII вв. свидетельствуют о смешанном характере норм как бахчисарайского и наддиалектного койне, так и норм литературного языка на основе взаимодействия гомогенных тюркских идиомов (преимущественно куманского и сельджукского) с небольшой долей гетерогенных заимствований, преимущественно лексических.

The 18th-century translations of the Shajara-yi Turkī played an important role in shaping Enlightenment-era Europeans' perceptions of Islamicate Central Asia, and had a significant impact on the wider European intellectual landscape of the time; yet, as of today the complex history of these translations is still largely unstudied. In seeking to go some way towards filling this gap, the present contribution attempts a reconstruction of this history insofar as the current state of the documentary record allows it; moreover, it seeks to address a number of misconceptions which still persist in the secondary literature on the subject.

Аннотация. Введение. Работа посвящена рассмотрению эволюции восприятия Улуса Джучи (Золотой Орды) в китайской историографии, где он традиционно связывается с историей династии Юань. Цель исследования. Определить основные направления, этапы и особенности изучения истории Золотой Орды китайскими учеными. Материалы и методы. В исследовании использованы труды китайских историков XX-XXI вв., переводы советской и российской литературы, археологические находки и письменные источники. Методология основана на сравнительно-историческом и междисциплинарном подходах. Результаты. Китайская историография трактует Улус Джучи как часть монгольского имперского мира, уделяя внимание дипломатическим отношениям с Юань, исламизации при Узбек-хане и торговым связям. Современные исследования отличаются многоаспектностью и международной интеграцией. В Китае сформировалась самостоятельная школа изучения Золотой Орды. Благодарность. Статья подготовлена в рамках реализации проекта грантового финансирования Министерства науки и высшего образования Республики Казахстан «Перевод китайских источников и китайской историографии по средневековой истории Казахстана XIII-XV веков.» (регистрационный номер: AP 26103675).

The article reads on the settlement on and the economic use of the south Trans-Urals territories by Turkic communities. Research materials: Published and unpublished sources: books of official in the Russian state, chronicles, acts, diplomatic documents, archaeological data, etc. Results and novelty of the research: Traditionally, administrative divisions of Ural and Trans-Urals are considered to be a sort of a naturally emerged structure. Having analyzed the sources, we may conclude: the system of counties' (uyezd) division, as introduced by the Russian state, did not consider the allocation of the communities and their economic management mode. Cattle breeding practices of the local Turks determined the specifity of their economic activities. Many Turks' volosts (ancestral territories) were compound and consisted of two parts: the winter part and the summer one. These two parts could be quite long-distance, divided by the Urals and upon being included into the Russian state they were designated to different uyezds. For instance, one part of Tersyak volost was assigned to Verkhoturskiy uyezd and the second -to Tyumensky uyezd; the western part of the Myakotinskaya (Bakatin) volost was located in Ufimsky uyezd and the eastern -in Tyumensky uyezd, which was in the lower reach of the Iset and Pyshma rivers. Consequently, by the moment of being merged into the Russian state, the territories indicated below were economically managed by the local Turks: South Trans-Urals and a part of Cis-Urals, including the territories in the upperstreams of the Ufa and Chusovaya rivers, along the Pyshma and Iset rivers, partially the Tura river, and Tobol between the outflows of the Miass and Tura. The given practice arose in the late Middle Ages and was intimately connected with Shibanids' claims who ruled in Tyumen and Siberian Khanates. They claimed not only to the territories in the south of West Siberia, Aral Sea region and Syrdarya region, but also to the Cisuralian area. This was reflected as in their ambition to take the Kazan throne or to collect yasak from the Cisuralian area including Bulgar, so in introduction of their direct rule on the Bashkir Cis-Urals. The political space unity and nomadism similar to common local Turkic groups' living could become a significant factor for that, as well as the territories united by trading routes. The same factors facilitated the migration of sizable groups from Trans-Urals and the south of West Siberia to Cis-Urals, as it happened to Tabyn tribe.

С 1989 г. Франко-узбекская археологическая миссия в Самарканде проводит плано мерные исследования на городище Афрасиаб. За. шесть лет было заложено семь рас копов на разных участках, в основном в пределах главного ядра города -«акрополя», который включал в себя двухчастную цитадель и находящуюся к западу от нее «сакральную» площадку, где, возможно, еще с древнейшего периода существования. города находилось культовое здание. Каждый из раскопанных участков дал много новой информации, осмысление которой существенныIM образом дополнило наше представление о развитии столицы Согда во все исторические эпохи, начиная с УI в. до н.э. вплоть до ХIII в., когда город был уничтожен монголами. Новым открытым материалом, составляющим базу для продолжения •исследования, явились прежде всего остатки древней архитектурыот мощных фортификационных стен ахеме нидского и эллинистического времени до стены вероятного зороастрийского храма. Неоценимую роль в хронологическом анализе обнаруженных построек играют новые монетные данные и керамический материал l . Вместе с тем можно отметить общую для всех раскопов относительную бедность находок произведений изобразительного и декоративного искусства. Раскоп 7, заложенный на нижней площадке цитадели, не представлял в этом плане исключения•, по крайней мере до 1994 г. Основным объектом археологического изучения на этом участке стало монументальное прямоугольное (65 х 55 м) здание с массивными октогональными колоннами, построенное в серединеУIII в. Наиболее вероятным заказчиком постройки дома правления в Самарканде в это время был Абу Муслим, лидер проаббассидского движения в Хорасане, главный виновник свержения династии ОмеЙадов. Дворец наместника в Самарканде перестает функционировать в IX-X ВВ., забутовывается, после чего на сделанной таким образом площадке возво дится новое здание, предназначение которого также было связано с администра тивными функциями. Вряд ли можно сомневаться в том, что в предыдущие периоды существования цитадели ее нижняя площадка служила местонахождением зданий дворцового типа, по крайней мере в согдийскую эпоху2. Очевидно, такая же пла нировочная ситуация была и в Самарканде, что отчасти подтверждается наличием остатков стен монументального здания УН в., снивелированного в середине УIII в. под раннеаббассидский дворец наместника. Таким образом, у нас есть основания предпо лагать, что обнаруженная в августе 1994 г. в заполнении Х в. з бронзовая статуэтка бодхисаттвы Y-YI вв. происходит, возможно, из переотложенных слоев снивелиро ванного дворца ихшида Согда. . В момент обнаружения статуэтка представляла собой металлический, сильно KOPPO~ зированный предмет продолговатой заостренной. формы. После очистки в лаборатории I В настоящее время готовится общая публикация результатов работ археологической миссии в Са марканде в 1989-1997 гг. 2 Расположение дворца правителя на площадке у подножья кешка известно для этого периода по не скольким согдийским городам, например, в Пенджикенте и на Варахше. 3 Статуэтка была найдена на границе между верхней размытой поверхностью массивной восточной стены (ее обозначение Локус 9 по 1994 г.) здания Х в., построенного над <,."тарым раннеаббассидским дворцом, и громадной ямой (Локус 39 по 1995 г.), которая была сделана к востоку от этого здания. Воз можно, что предмет попал сюда при засыпке ямы. Кроме статуэтки в этом пограничном слое (Операция 22 по 1994 г.) были найдены четыре медных фельса конца 'Х в., чеканенные Саманидом Исмаилом б. Ахмадом (все монеты были определены соруководителем раскопа А.Х. Атаходжаевым).

В статье рассматриваются жилые постройки Остолоповского селища в Алексеевском районе Татарстана. Это было одно из торгово-ремесленных поселений волжских булгар, возникших во второй половине-конце Х в. Особенностью данного селища было то, что оно имело естественные границы: пойма реки Шенталка и ее старое русло. Поэтому селище застраивалось в очень короткий промежуток времени-в конце Х века-второй половине XI столетия. К этому промежутку времени относятся и изученные в ходе раскопок, жилища. Лучше всего сохранилось 6 жилищ. Это были деревянные постройки, вероятно, из бревен, диаметром около 20-25 см. При этом, у всех этих построек имелся котлован, вырытый в земле на глубину от 0,7 до 1,7 м. Войти в дом можно было по земляным ступенькам. Их было две-три. Слева от входа была печь, сложенная из камней. Как правило, использовался известняк, хотя встречается песчаник и гораздо реже, ракушечник. Крупные камни имели следы обработки. Печь была кубической формы или же в виде параллелепипеда. Размер ее-ширина 1метр, длина 1-1,2 м, высота 0,6 м. Топочная часть, в среднем, была шириной 0,5 м., высотой 0,4 см. Устье печи шириной 0,35-0,5 метра, всегда обрамлялось двумя крупными камнями, поставленными вертикально. Верх печи был открытым и формовался он из глины. Глиной была обмазана и внешняя сторона печи, обращенная внутрь помещения. У почти всех изученных печей были трубы. Они делались на каркасе из жердей диаметром 0,07 м. устанавливавшихся в верхней части печи, которая делалась из глины. Жерди вставлялись в ямки соответствующего диаметра, глубиной до 10 см, сделанные в виде полукруга. Жерди, вероятно, переплетались прутьями и обмазывались глиной. Наличие труб у печей такого типа зафиксировано у волжских булгар впервые. Описанная в статье конструкция печи и способ ее сооружения, благодаря уникальной сохранности их на Остолоповском I селище, также делается впервые.

Türk-Moğol tarihinin önemli sacayaklarından biri olan Altın Orda Devleti, kurulduğu ilk andan itibaren bölgesel çapta siyasi ve ekonomik parametreleri etkilemeyi başarmıştır. Bu başarısında izlediği politikaların yanı sıra devletin başkenti Saray için seçtiği konum büyük bir öneme sahip olmuştur. Saray şehri Altın Orda Devleti'nin siyasi faaliyetlerine ev sahipliği yapmanın yanı sıra bölgesel ticari faaliyetlerin önemli duraklarından biri haline gelmeyi de başardı. Saray, vassal devletlerin itaatini bildirdiği, diplomatik faaliyetler çerçevesinde elçilik heyetlerinin sık sık ziyaret ettiği, âlimler, din adamları ve zanaatkârların kendileri için verimli bir ortam bulabildiği, seyyahların, misyonerlerin ve tüccarların gönül rahatlığıyla ziyaret edebildiği, ticaret kervanları için önemli güzergâhlardan biri haline gelen bir şehir olmuştur. Ne var ki bu şehrin siyasi, sosyal, kültürel, dini ve ekonomik dokusu, kaynakların yetersizliği dolayısıyla günümüze kadar yeterince ortaya konulamamıştır. Bu çalışma, Saray şehrinin Orta Çağ dünyasındaki konumunu ve önemini çeşitli yönleriyle ortaya koymaya çalışmaktadır.

The article publishes a new version of the Crimean Tatar resettlement song of the late 1850s -early 1860s, preserved in the St. Petersburg branch of the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the collection of Khusain Faizkhanov. We only knew earlier about the recording of a close text from the so-called "jonk of the Mansursky family" published in 1941 by Victor Filonenko.

Purpose and significance of the research. The aim of this article is to analyze and compare modern historiographical approaches to the images of Edige and Tokhtamysh, prominent figures of the Golden Horde during the late 14th to early 15th centuries. The research highlights how these figures are interpreted in current academic discourse and why those interpretations differ across scholarly traditions. The significance lies in understanding the role of historical narratives in shaping collective memory and national identity. Novelty, directions, and research ideas. This study focuses not on primary source analysis but on evaluating interpretations in contemporary historiography. It highlights how Eastern (mostly Turkic and Central Asian) and Western (primarily Russian and European) scholars construct divergent narratives about Edige and Tokhtamysh. The novelty is in revealing the influence of national historiographical traditions on academic interpretation. Scientific objectives and practical value. The objectives are to: identify dominant historiographical approaches to both figures; compare interpretive tendencies across regions; assess how these interpretations reflect broader ideological and cultural contexts. The findings are relevant for historians studying Eurasian identity, political symbolism, and historical memory. Methodological characteristics. The article employs historiographical and comparative methods. It is based on qualitative analysis of academic literature, focusing on interpretation strategies, argumentation patterns, and the national context of scholarly production. Main findings and conclusion. Eastern historiography often portrays Edige and Tokhtamysh as stabilizing forces and legitimate heirs to the Jochid tradition. In contrast, Western scholarship emphasizes their roles in political conflict and military aggression. These contrasting narratives are rooted in differing historical experiences and academic traditions. The study concludes that further research should expand the comparative scope and include memory studies, cultural representations, and interdisciplinary analysis.

Аннотация. В данной статье исследуется сложное взаимодействие между золотоордынским ханом Токтамышем и правителем Тимуридской империи Тимуром (Тамерланом), сыгравшее ключевую роль в трансформации политической карты Евразии в конце XIV века. Рассматриваются предпосылки и причины конфликта, включая территориальные притязания, династическую конкуренцию и идеологическое противостояние. Анализируются основные военные кампании 1385–1391 и 1395–1396 годов, кульминацией которых стало поражение Токтамыша в битве на реке Терек. Особое внимание уделяется стратегическим и тактическим решениям сторон, влиянию внутренних конфликтов в Золотой Орде и дипломатическим контактам Токтамыша с Литвой и Мамлюкским султанатом. Исследуется разрушительное воздействие войны на экономику и политическую стабильность Золотой Орды, а также её долгосрочные последствия для евразийского региона. В статье используется комплексный подход, включающий источниковедческий анализ арабо-персидских хроник, сравнительно-исторический и военно-стратегический методы. Сделан вывод, что поражение Токтамыша ускорило распад Золотой Орды, подорвало её экономические основы и изменило геополитический баланс региона. В то же время победа Тимура укрепила его империю, но не обеспечила её долгосрочной стабильности, что в дальнейшем привело к дезинтеграции его владений и изменению структуры власти в Средней Азии.

Статья посвящена одному эпизоду, случившемуся во время военного похода среднеазиатского завоевателя Тамерлана на Северный Кавказ в 1395 г., когда один из отрядов, преследуя золотоордынского эмира Удурку, вторгся в местность Абаса. Локализация данной местности является открытой для дискуссий среди исследователей средневековой истории Северного Кавказа. В науке предлагались разные варианты расположения местности Абаса: в Приэльбрусье, в районе Дарьяльского ущелья и Горного Дагестана. Автор статьи предлагает вариант локализации местности Абаса, которую связывает с племенем абазин, располагая ее в районе левобережья Малой Лабы, на северном склоне Главного Кавказского хребта, в междуречье Губса и Уруштена. Также в работе предлагаются возможные варианты локализации других местностей, областей и владений, таких как владение некоего феодала по имени Пулад и крепости Кабчигай. Перечисленные выше владения располагались в непосредственной близости от местности Абаса, которые могли находиться между реками Уруп и Малая Лаба на Северо-Западном Кавказе. Вероятно, крепость Кабчигай контролировала один из транскавказских караванных путей из Северного Кавказа через перевал Псеашхо в Закавказье.

В МБУ БГП БР «Музей города Белореченска» хранятся христианские древности, которые
представляют интерес для истории христианства на Северном Кавказе в средние века и требуют введения в научный оборот. Это два фрагмента каменной стелы, фрагмент архитектурной детали и кованый железный крест.
Камни найдены в окрестностях г. Белореченска, а железный крест происходит из хут. Степного. На двух фрагментах надмогильной стелы имеются остатки греческой надписи. Артефакты, поступившие в фонды музея, с учетом
имеющихся аналогий из этого региона, датируются последней третью XV в.

The author of this article wants to show how the clash of two different civilizations, until then practically unaware of the other's existence, the Tatars and the Christian West, undermined the superior and self-confident position of the latter. In the author's view, Western Christian Society in the first part of the thirteenth century regarded itself as superior to other civilizations. This article is not focused on either civilization, but tries to unveil motives, background and perspectives from both sides' attempts to try to be the strongest power and the most important civilization at that time. In the Christian West there was a constant struggle for power between the Pope and the Emperor, going back to the Investiture Controversy of the eleventh and twelfth centuries and culminating in the conflict between Emperor Frederick II and the papacy in the thirteenth century. At the height of that struggle, in 1241, the Tatars (Mongols) invaded Hungary and Poland. Western Civilization was threatened, although at first almost nobody realized the danger and underestimated the consequences. It was due to the superior tactics of the Tatars that they surprised the Christian West. The Tatars were far better in their communication, strategy and information than the divided society in the West. The Tatar invasion, through their use of a kind of Tsunami Strategy, had all the necessary ingredients to destroy Western, Christian society. Research materials: By using contemporary sources and books that illuminate the Tatars as well as the Christian West, the character of the conflict that took place becomes clear. Results and novelty of the research: The end result was a clash of civilizations, an explosive mixture of a political-cultural conflict, a time-bomb which ultimately, narrowly, failed to explode, thanks to a sudden and somewhat mysterious retreat of the Tatars, but leaving Western Civilization faced with an existential crisis that undermined Western * I have chosen in this article to use the spelling Tatars instead of Tartars. This choice has been made on the basis of the dictionary (Dutch: Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal, English: Oxford English Dictionary) which lists Tatars as the name of a Turkic tribe; since the Middle Ages, however, and extra -r has been added, probably because of popular etymology with the Latin Tartarus, which means 'Hell', or 'a place of punishment in the Underworld'. Furthermore, the term Tatars is used to describe the thirteenth century specifically, as is overwhelmingly the case in this article. When describing a more general range, one can also employ the term Mongols. Huub Kurstjens. The Invasion of the Christian West by the Tatars (Mongols)... 259 superiority. Although in the West the fact of the coming and going of the Tatars is wellknown, the background of both sides in this conflict and the narrow escape of the Christian West is often underestimated and barely appreciated in the modern West.

As part of a new research project titled "Memorial Geography of Multi-Ethnic Re-
gions," the Institute of Slavic Studies at the Russian Academy of Sciences is creating a database
40
of information about cemeteries in Slavic-speaking areas of Central and Southeastern Europe, as well
as South America and areas where Greeks reside in Russia and other post-Soviet countries. This
database will include fieldwork conducted between 2013 and 2025, as well as written materials. The
aim of this project is to explore cemeteries as a way to understand linguistic and socio-cultural dy-
namics within multicultural societies. By studying cemeteries, we hope to gain a better understanding
of the history and culture of these regions, as well as contribute to our knowledge of complex inter-
actions between different cultures within multicultural settings. Documentation is carried out to ana-
lyze the features of writing, dialects, and contact languages, as well as their role in the linguistic and
historical landscape. This research helps us better understand the dynamics of language and culture
in different regions. By comparing Slavic and non-Slavic linguistic traditions, we can identify typo-
logical similarities that reveal common processes in complex, multicultural, and multilingual socie-
ties. These similarities include code-switching, phonetic, lexical, and morphological transformations,
as well as syntactic changes and their graphic representation in epitaphs. Additionally, we can observe
naming patterns in mixed communities and elements of linguistic and cultural influence

В рамках нового научного проекта «Мемориальная география полиэтнических
регионов», реализуемого в Институте славяноведения РАН, создается электронная база данных,
содержащая материалы о кладбищах в славяноязычных ареалах Центральной и Юго-Восточной
Европы, стран Южной Америки, а также в регионах проживания греков на территории РФ и пост-
советского пространства. База включает результаты полевых исследований с 2013 по 2025 гг. и
материалы из письменных источников. Документирование выполняется с целью анализа особен-
ностей письма, диалектных и контактных языковых явлений, а также их роли в лингвистическом
и мемориальном ландшафтах. Проект направлен на изучение кладбищ как важнейшего источника
информации о языковых и социокультурных процессах в полиэтнических сообществах. Сопо-
ставление разных славяно-неславянских языковых традиций позволит выявить типологические
сходства, демонстрирующие общие процессы в сложных полиэтнических многоязычных обще-
ствах: переключение языковых кодов, фонетические, лексические, морфологические, синтакси-
ческие трансформации и их графическое отображение на эпитафиях, особенности ономастики в
смешанных сообществах, элементы языковой и культурной интерференции и пр.

и прикладных социально-экономических исследований при Правительстве Республики Тыва; 2 Алтайский государственный университет» В публикации подробно излагаются результаты разведочных исследований 2024 г. на Могойском городище древнемонгольского времени, расположенном на правом берегу р. Элегест в Тандинском кожууне Республики Тыва. Памятник впервые был исследован Л. Р. Кызласовым в 1960-е гг. Работы 2024 г. имели цель обновить сведения о данном археологическом объекте. Повторные исследования показали, что имеющиеся на памятнике обвалованные всхолмления и неглубокие западины являются остатками семи зданий. При проведении локальных земляных работ (шесть шурфов и одна зачистка) было зафиксировано, что культурный слой поселения в основном концентрируется в пределах выявленных зданий. Авторами было установлено, что значительное количество подъёмного археологического материала на поверхности памятника обусловлено не только природными процессами, но и деятельностью современных грабителей. Полученные материалы в целом показывают, что памятник может датироваться первой половиной XIII в. и связываться с древнемонгольским периодом Тувы. Кроме того, авторами пересмотрено утверждение первооткрывателя относительно того, что памятник является остатками города. Полевые исследования показали, что Могойское городище было небольшим поселением, площадь которого не превышала 9 га.

Articles of the cast iron from the territory of Yelets principality (situated on the right bank of the Upper Don) have not been the object of study hitherto. During the time of many years' excavations and prospecting, mostly by Yelets state university, the imposing collection of these articles, containing 49 fragments and descending from eight monuments, has been formed. These monuments are situated on the left bank of the Fast Sosna lower stream, where Yelets principality was formed in the late XIV century. The finds are systemically introduced into the scientific circulation for the first time. The main tasks are connected with clearing up the spreading of the main types of cauldrons and the period of their existing. In the analysis we use the classification by K.A. Rudenko, which takes into account the shape of the vessels. According to it the articles are divided into three groups. The vessels of groups 2 and 3, which have a profiled form, prevail in number. There are some observations of the cast–iron cauldrons making technology. The cast–iron vessel was not spread in the basin
of the Fast Sosna before the middle of the XIV century. The period of its existence comes in the second half of the XIV century. And its peak spread is the last quarter of the XIV century, but this does not mean it was not used in housekeeping later on.

The article offers a critical review of the book of Serbian historian Aleksandar Uzelac, dedicated to the analysis of the relations between the Golden Horde and the Medieval Balkan Slavic states -Bulgaria and Serbia in the second half of the thirteenth century. The book is based on the wide corpus of Slavic, Latin, Byzantine and Oriental sources, archeological and numismatic findings, toponymy, as well as folklore tradition. The author offered a very insightful overview of the political relations between the Golden Horde and the Balkans, migratory movements of the populations from the Pontic Steppes to the Balkan region, and in addition he also dealt with the image of the Tatars in the eyes of its Christian contemporaries. The pivotal figure of the book is Nogai, whose career, status within the Golden Horde and achievements are analysed in detail. Moreover, armed with impressive erudition, the author challenged and revised many established misconceptions in Serbian and Bulgarian historiography. Another asset of the book is vivid and dynamic presentation of its contents, aimed not only at the specialists, but also the general audience. The shortcomings of this monograph are relatively few, with respect to omission of some archeological materials, but they do not diminish the general value of the monograph in question.

With focusing on the travel notes of American Orientalist Owen Lattimore on the Mongolian-Xinjiang Camel Road from 1926 to 1927, this paper explores the practical skills and knowledge system on this branch of the Silk Road in early modern times. Through a detailed study of camel caravans' choices of transportation, organization and division of labor in caravans, travel equipment and security maintaining, seasonality and route selection, supply and medical care, logistics management, market transactions, currency adaptation, and the collection and transmission of business travel information, this paper reveals the various daily skills that supported the operation of the Silk Road, and shows how camel caravans used these skills to overcome environmental and social uncertainties and promote trade and cultural exchanges. The research concludes that it was these long-term accumulated and constantly practiced skills that made the Silk Road a trade and cultural network across Eurasia. O. Lattimore's travel notes are of great historical and practical significance for understanding this process.

The article reveals the importance of the Bograd district as an area of intensive archaeological studies, which has a 300-year history of study, starting from the XVIII century, when the first academic excavations were conducted, with the peak of study in the XX century in connection with the construction of the Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric power station, and to the present moment, when objects of archaeological heritage are identified, during the economic development of land. The Bograd district is distinguished by the localization within the area of a number of archaeological cultures, such as Afanasyevskaya, Okunevskaya, Karasukskaya, Tagarskaya, Tashtykskaya. In addition, on the territory of the Bograd district there is a variety of types of archaeological sites, such as settlements, campsites, barrows, rock art images, etc. Also, to date, the question of further studies, conducting rescue archaeological works in the region in connection with the functioning of the Krasnoyarsk reservoir remains. Monuments in the coastal area may be lost.

The article presents and characterizes items made of bone, undeterminate materials and other sources from the Golden Horde Uvek site based on preserved archival materials. All the finds received by the museum of the Saratov Research Archival Commission, but were subsequently decommissioned and lost for research studies. However, the Book of record of items of the Saratov Research Archival Commission museum, the Commission’s archives (their main part is now kept in the collections of the State Archive of the Saratov region) and some published works have preserved small data on the finds discovered. This information was systematized; the description of the wares was supplemented with indications to the places and dates of the finds, the persons who provided the artefacts, as well as the sources where they were recorded. The objects indicated in the provided archival data were discovered in 1891-1915 at the Uvek site.

The author focuses on the edged weapons with a straight or slightly curved blade. Two thirds of the blades of such weapons have a single-edged upper part and a double-edged lower part. The handle and blade are developed on the same line. The guard of these weapons is characterized by an elliptical sleeve at the top and a horizontal hole at the bottom, while the shoulder ends are rounded and flat. This type of weapon was common in the steppes of Eastern and Central Europe and in its characteristics was close to a saber, and several centuries later it received the name “palas = backsword”. Besides, weapons with such characteristics can be associated with one of the most discussed terms in the written sources of the early Middle Ages – παραμήριον. Undoubtedly, these weapons were used by mounted warriors in the steppes, but finds from territories in the Balkans – a zone of military conflicts and technological exchange between the First Bulgarian Kingdom and the Byzantine Empire – further confirm the contribution of steppe horsemen to this technological innovation of Eurasia in 8th – 10th centuries.

The Altynshoky complex (Ulytau region, Kazakhstan) is a hill with a barrow on its top. At the foot of the barrow there was a slab with an inscription in two languages: Arabic and Chagatai. In 1936, on the initiative of Soviet geologist K. I. Satpayev, the slab was delivered to the State Hermitage Museum. From this moment the history of the study of the Altynshoky complex began. The first translation of the inscription by orientalist N. Poppe in 1940 proved the link of the epigraphic property with the events of Amir Timur's campaign against Tokhtamysh Khan in 1391. Subsequent translations of the inscription by linguists and historians confirmed the connection of the complex with the Kipchak campaign of Tamerlane and the erection of the barrow by his warriors in the form of a “high sign”. The first cartographic mention of Tamerlane's sign in the Ulytau dates back to the 18th century. In 2018-2020, an interdisciplinary study of the complex by scientists from Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Lithuania and the United States found that the barrow was a heating engineering structure. It was designed to ignite a strong fire. Slags and holes of blower channels have been preserved in its mound. The results of radiocarbon dating of the slag coincide with the date of Amir Timur's campaign against Toktamysh Khan through Desht-i-Kipchak in 1391. The barrow was erected in the context of the cult of worship of the World Mountain and ancestral spirits. The complex preserved the general appearance in the landscape of Ulytau. A copy of the “Timur’s stone” with an inscription is installed on the barrow. “Ulytau Alley” in the urban space of Astana is decorated with a copy of the epigraphic monument from the Altynshoky hill.

The paper considers the finds of riveted iron cauldrons on the northwestern periphery of the Sayan-Altai from the burials of nomads of the second half of the IX–XIII centuries. Descriptions of the finds are published and information on the dating and ethnic and cultural affiliation of the burials where artifacts were found are provided. The place of cauldrons in the burial rite of the nomads of the Eastern Desht-i Kipchak is noted as emphasizing the high social status of the buried. The similarity in production technology, the shape of iron riveted cauldrons and their places in the burials of the eastern Kipchaks and bronze riveted cauldrons of the Polovtsians in Eastern Europe is recorded. A hypothesis has been proposed about the appearance of riveted bronze cauldrons among the Polovtsians, similar to the iron originals of the eastern Kipchaks, in connection with the migration of the latter to the steppes of Eastern Europe.

All of the jew’s harps of the Golden Horde Volga region that we have accounted for have a body of the shape, that G. Kollthwaite, the leading expert on European jew’s harps, described as «hairpin-shaped». The finds in the Volga region probably belong to the Kuusisto type, identified by G. Kollthwaite, although we do not always have their complete characteristics for confident typologization. They are dated by the limits of the 2nd half of the XIII – XIV century (in one case, the XIV–XV centuries), and in two cases there is a narrow date – the second third of the XIV century. By now it is already clear that all the earliest finds of jew’s harps originate from Asia, where they date back to the last centuries of the I millennium AD, and that it is «hairpin-shaped» instruments, that are the oldest form of jew’s harps there, continues to exist in the II millennium AD.

The article deals with the metal mirrors, found in the Volga Bolgaria and the Bolgar region of the Golden Horde. They are kept in the funds of Tatarstan museums and personal collections. 778 pieces of metal mirrors have been studied. Some of them have been preserved fully, some of the artifacts are in the form of fragments. All of them are made of non-ferrous metal alloy. The author in his study relied on the classification of medieval metal mirrors, developed by G.A. Fedorov-Davydov, with additions based on the subjects of the images on the mirrors. The groups into which mirrors are combined according to this principle are indicated by letters of the Russian alphabet. The systematization of these artifacts showed that mirrors with images of two fishes, tulips, and the so-called “wise men” were used most often by the population of the region under consideration. All of these products have different cultural origins: China, the Far East, Iran. Nevertheless, these plots were organically included in the Bolgar mental space. The author claims that their widespread during the Golden Horde period is not associated with the Muslim tradition. They were based on the traditional use of metal mirrors by nomads who were on the territory of Volga Bolgaria in pre-Mongol times and made up a significant part of the population of the Bolgar region during the Golden Horde period. Also, there is a very unlikely that metal mirrors, except for the replication of a small number of popular types, were made in Bulgar. Most of them were imported, including fragments of mirrors.

The application of neural networks to analyze urban planning technologies in the Golden Horde city of Ukek, focusing on building materials such as bricks and ceramic water pipes, is explored. This study presents the main approaches, algorithms, and data processing methods, including geoinformation systems (GIS), clustering, optimization algorithms, and various types of neural networks such as convolutional, recurrent, and deep networks. The research is based on the analysis of historical and archaeological materials from the Uvek settlement. Complex patterns and associations between archaeological, historical, and geological data from different years were identified. The software tools included convolutional neural networks for image analysis, recurrent neural networks for time sequence analysis, and deep neural networks for complex classification, modeling, and verification tasks. Key aspects of the construction and infrastructure of the city of Ukek were identified through this analysis. These include the localization of raw material extraction sites, the number of construction sites, number of bricks produced, water lines, and the territorial delimitation of the urban area based on a digital elevation model (DEM). The chronology of landslides and their impact on the city's development was also examined. The research results confirm the effectiveness of mixed and multi-level neural networks for analyzing archaeological data related to the characteristics of medieval technologies, the process of concentrating productive forces, and means of production.

The article is devoted to the latest research of monuments of the Ulus of Jochi period in the territory of Western Kazakhstan. The study of monuments of the developed and late Middle Ages was carried out in three main directions – processing and analysis of available materials, obtained as a result of research on the territory of the region from the second half of the XIX century to the present time, conducting exploration activities to identify the most promising areas of the location of Golden Horde monuments and reconnaissance excavations. The survey of the Uil-Kobda local microdistrict was associated with the study of a large necropolis and settlement of Koptam, neighbourhood of the Abat Baytak cult mausoleum. Kyzyltam mausoleum, located on the Kargaly reservoir shore, was also a marker of the center of a large nomadic group in the Late Middle Ages. The stages of gradual adoption of Islam by the population are clearly visible on the monuments of the Ulus of Jochi, when the burial rites undergo "standardization", and the sets of inventory show the spread of a common fashion, the so-called "imperial" style. The forced migration policy of the Mongolian khans is visible on the burial monuments, and there are objects associated with the Southern Siberia population.

We will talk about one rare type of finds at the Golden Horde settlements in this work. These are amulets with a «magic square» on one side and an Arabic inscription on the other. The «magic square» on such amulets is a square of the third order. It reflects Sufi magical ideas and a spirit communication by numeric and alphabetic ciphering. The second side of the amulets contains inscriptions associated with the «square» on the back. Amulets bear two inscriptions. Variants of translation are offered for each of them. As for their content they were protective prayers-dua. These finds at the settlements are connected with spread of Sufism in the cities of Golden Horde.

The subject of this article is a gold coin, unique for the Bulgarian lands, unearthed during the excavations of the Kokalyane Urvich Fortress near Sofia. It was minted by order of the Indian Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, who reigned in Delhi between 1325 and 1351. On one of the sides inscribed are panegyrics to the Abbasid Caliph Al-Hakim II in Cairo, the nominal leader of all Muslims in the world at the time. The coin has a very high carat and is unusually heavy for our latitudes - 11.05 g. The gold coins of this ruler are called dinars, tanka or muhra and are valued as the main means of payment. The Urvich coin appears to be the westernmost find of an Indian gold coin known to date. These monuments spread largely through the Golden Horde state with which Bulgaria had ties for decades. It is interesting to try and work out the value of the gold Indian dinar of the Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq on the Bulgarian market of the time. According to its gold content, it could have been exchanged for more than 6 contemporary Byzantine hyperpyra, which makes about 120-130 silver aspers of the first two coinages of Tsar Ivan Alexander Assen. It is obvious that the find from Urvich demonstrates the economic relationships of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom with the countries of Asia.

The research aims to reconstruct caravan routes through the steppes of Central Eurasia. These caravan routes connect Central Asia with the forest and forest-steppe regions of the Trans-Urals and Western Siberia. Reconstruction of the main caravan routes is based on synthesis of archaeological, written, cartographic sources and toponymic and geographic data. In this case, it is necessary to consider two constant factors: “natural corridors” through large natural barriers and the characteristics of the pack animals that were used to transport goods. The initial basis for these reconstructions can be cartographic materials from the XVIII – early XX centuries. The result of the work was the reconstruction of the main caravan routes through the steppes of Central Eurasia, which could have been used in ancient times and the Middle Ages.

to identify the time and features of the formation of the Tyumen Shibanid possessions in the Syr Darya
and the Aral Sea region. Materials: the work is based on the analysis of published written (Central Asian chronicles and
chronicles, including Abu l-Ghazi, Kara Tavarikh Utemish Haji) and cartographic sources. Results and scientific novel-
ty. The available sources suggest that for most of the 15th–16th centuries, the steppe territories between Western Siberia
and the Prisyrdarya cities were also under the control of various representatives of this dynasty. The Tyumen leaders'
focus on Siberian and Volga issues eventually led to the loss of their influence in the south of the steppe zone, which
did not prevent them from maintaining separate possessions there. It is for this reason that in the second half of the
1530s – 1540s, the descendants of Ibrahim, possibly with the support of the Nogai clan of Sheikhmamaevich (Altyuls),
took part there in the struggle for possessions in the Bukhara Khanate and in the wars with the Kazakhs. The memory of
this was preserved among the Tyumen Tatars as early as the 18th century and was reflected in the legends collected by
G.F. Miller.