General and Inorganic Chemistry

Group 15 elements include nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth. Nitrogen is the real constituent of the air and records for 78% of it by volume. It is the primary member of this group and happens in a free state as a diatomic gas, N 2. Phosphorus is a fundamental constituent of animal and plant matter. Phosphate groups are constituents of nucleic acids, that is, DNA and RNA. Around 60% of bones and teeth are made out of phosphates. Phosphoproteins are available in egg yolk, milk, and bone marrow. The rest of the elements of the group, that is, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, mostly happen as sulfides.

Helium, the element is traditionally placed in Group -18 of the periodic table aligning it with the inert gases. However it's electronic configuration (1s^2) shows a much better alignment with Group-2 elements. This is only one of the reasons and there are many other reasons that will be discussed in this paper as well.

Electrochemistry is an interdisciplinary field that investigates the intricate relationship between chemical reactions and electrical energy. It is fundamentally the study of chemical processes that involve the movement of electrons, a phenomenon directly linked to the generation or consumption of electricity. This scientific discipline bridges the principles of chemistry and electricity, powering a vast array of modern technologies and natural processes, from energy storage devices to biological functions and corrosion prevention. Understanding electrochemistry is crucial for advancing clean energy, developing precise chemical measurements, and innovating across numerous industrial and biomedical sectors.

Conductors and non-conductors Those substances that allow electricity to pass through them are called conductors while those that do not allow the passage of electricity through them are called non-conductors or insulators. Sugar, sodium chloride, plastic, cloth, sulphur, wood are some examples of non-conductors. All metals, whether in solid state or molten state, are good conductors of electricity because they have free and mobile electrons. Carbon in the form of graphite is the only non-metal that is a good conductor of electricity. In non-conductors, electrons are locked up in covalent bonds and are not free to move. Electrolysis Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte in aqueous solution or molten state by passing an electric current through it.

Electrolytic cell is a device in which electric energy produces chemical reaction. Electrolysis is carried in an electrolytic cell. In an electrolytic cell two electrodes are dipped in a common electrolyte and the electrodes are connected to the positive and negative terminals of a battery as shown in the Figure 1. Molten NaCl comprises of Na + and Cl ions. When the circuit is completed, the positive ions (Na + ) travel towards negative electrode and gets reduced to sodium atom. Since, reduction takes place on the surface of a negative electrode it functions as cathode. Similarly, the negative ions (Cl ) travel towards the positive electrode and gets oxidized by losing electrons to the electrode to from neutral chlorine atom. Two chlorine atoms then combine to form a chlorine molecule. Since, oxidation takes place on the surface of the positive electrode it is anode.

We are going to use simple acid and metal reaction to show the results. Reaction of acetic acid and aluminum which gives aluminum acetate, the rate of the reaction was increased by the help of process known as electrolysis. In normal conditions won't take place because the acetic acid was weak enough to not react with the aluminum, but by using electrolysis the reaction can take place the same acetic acid.

The electrochemistry is a science with great range and applications in most industries. These applications include sensors, controllers, systems analysis, corrosion and anti-corrosion protection, surface technology, power generation, metal electrolytic production, materials and chemicals, recycling and wastewater treatment. The present work consists in an attempt to link and integrate two sciences, the industrial electrochemical and education, to develop a new technical and scientific approach that come admire the ideas generated and the experience gained in teaching and research of the electrochemical industrial processes. The aim of the creation of a discipline, the Industrial Electrochemical, vector learning based on historical formation of electrochemical principles, in breadth and in the application of various products of electrochemical industry and in laboratory experiments. In addition, the process of construction of knowledge in industrial electrochemistry converges in the formation of the critical technical conscience in electrochemistry, in the development of clean technologies and consequently on environmental preservation. Finally, it is concluded that the electrochemistry is the technique of the next millennium in both the production of metals, inorganic and organic products as in the treatment of industrial effluents.

Low-temperature electrorefining (LTE) of uranium is a process used to purify uranium metal at relatively low temperatures compared to traditional methods. This technique involves dissolving impure uranium in an electrolyte and then depositing pure uranium onto a cathode using an electric current. It is a significant process in the nuclear industry for recycling and purifying uranium from spent nuclear fuel.What is Low-Temperature Electrorefining of Uranium?Process Overview:Dissolution: Impure uranium is dissolved in a molten salt electrolyte.Electrochemical Reaction: An electric current is applied, causing uranium ions to migrate towards the cathode.Deposition: Pure uranium is deposited onto the cathode, while impurities remain in the electrolyte or form separate compounds.Literature Review (Past 10 Years)Research Trends and Developments:Optimization of Electrolytes:Researchers have focused on identifying and optimizing suitable electrolytes for LTE. Molten salts like LiCl-KCl and NaCl-KCl are commonly studied.Studies have investigated the effects of different electrolyte compositions on the efficiency and purity of uranium deposition.Electrode Materials and Configurations:Advances have been made in electrode materials, aiming to improve the durability and efficiency of the electrorefining process.Various electrode configurations have been explored to enhance the deposition rates and quality of uranium.Temperature Effects:Research has delved into the effects of operating temperatures on the electrorefining process. Lower temperatures are preferred to reduce energy consumption and improve safety.Studies have examined the trade-offs between temperature, current density, and deposition rates.Impurity Removal:Significant work has been done on understanding and improving the removal of impurities from uranium during the electrorefining process.Techniques for separating specific impurities have been developed, leading to higher purity levels in the final product.Safety and Environmental Impact:Researchers have assessed the safety aspects of LTE, including the management of molten salts and handling of radioactive materials.Environmental impact studies have focused on reducing waste and improving the recyclability of the electrolyte materials.Simulation and Modeling:Computational models have been developed to simulate the LTE process, allowing for better prediction and optimization of operating parameters.These models help in understanding the complex electrochemical reactions and improving the design of electrorefining systems.Key Publications and Studies:Journal of Nuclear Materials:Numerous articles have been published on the advancements in LTE of uranium, particularly focusing on electrolyte optimization and impurity removal techniques.Electrochimica Acta:This journal has featured studies on the electrochemical mechanisms involved in LTE, providing insights into the fundamental processes.Nuclear Technology:Articles in this journal often discuss the practical applications of LTE in the nuclear industry, including case studies and pilot projects.Progress in Nuclear Energy:Reviews and research articles in this journal have covered the overall progress in nuclear fuel recycling technologies, with a focus on electrorefining methods.Conclusion:Low-temperature electrorefining of uranium has seen significant advancements over the past decade. Research has primarily focused on optimizing the process parameters, improving the purity of uranium, and ensuring safety and environmental sustainability. The ongoing development in this field promises to enhance the efficiency of uranium purification, contributing to more sustainable and secure nuclear fuel cycles. Why is Low-Temperature Electrorefining of Uranium Important?**1. Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing:Sustainability: The LTE process allows for the recycling and reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel, significantly reducing the need for fresh uranium mining. This contributes to the sustainability of nuclear energy by making better use of existing resources.Waste Reduction: By purifying and recovering uranium, the volume of high-level radioactive waste requiring long-term storage is decreased, addressing one of the major environmental concerns associated with nuclear energy.**2. Economic Efficiency:Cost Reduction: Traditional uranium purification methods, such as high-temperature pyrometallurgical processes, are energy-intensive and costly. LTE operates at lower temperatures, which reduces energy consumption and operational costs.Resource Utilization: Efficient recovery of uranium from spent fuel makes the overall nuclear fuel cycle more economical by maximizing the value extracted from mined uranium.**3. Safety and Environmental Impact:Lower Operating Temperatures: LTE processes are safer as they operate at significantly lower temperatures compared to traditional methods. This reduces the risks associated with high-temperature operations, such as equipment failure and accidental releases.Environmental Benefits: Reduced energy consumption and the potential for recycling electrolyte materials lead to a smaller environmental footprint. Additionally, by mitigating the volume of radioactive waste, LTE contributes to more environmentally friendly nuclear energy production.**4. Enhanced Uranium Purity:High Purity Levels: LTE is capable of producing high-purity uranium, which is essential for the efficient and safe operation of nuclear reactors. Impurities in uranium can affect reactor performance and fuel lifespan.Selective Separation: The process allows for the selective separation of uranium from various impurities, ensuring that the final product meets stringent nuclear industry standards.**5. Strategic and National Security:Resource Independence: Efficient recycling of uranium through LTE reduces dependence on uranium imports, enhancing energy security for countries with nuclear power programs.Non-Proliferation: Advanced purification processes like LTE can aid in non-proliferation efforts by ensuring that nuclear materials are securely managed and less accessible for diversion or misuse.Driving Factors for Research and Development:Technological Advancements:Continuous improvements in materials science and electrochemical engineering drive the development of more efficient and reliable LTE processes.Regulatory and Environmental Pressures:Stricter environmental regulations and the growing emphasis on sustainable energy sources motivate the nuclear industry to adopt cleaner and safer technologies like LTE.Economic Considerations:The pursuit of cost-effective methods for uranium purification incentivizes ongoing research into optimizing LTE processes to achieve greater economic viability.Global Energy Demand:With rising global energy demand and the push for low-carbon energy sources, nuclear power remains a key component of the energy mix. Efficient uranium purification processes like LTE support the expansion and sustainability of nuclear energy.

Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry, which deals with the chemical applications of electricity. Electrochemistry deals with the chemical reactions produced by passing electric current through an electrolyte or the production of electric current through chemical reactions. !! CH?4B >5 24;;B A cell is a device consisting two half cell. Each half Example: Daniel cell (Fig 2.3) Cell device (Construction) Daniel cell consists of a zinc electrode dipped in 1 M ZnSO 4 solution and a copper electrode dipped in 1 M CuSO 4 solution. Each electrode is known as a half cell. The two solutions are inter connected by a salt bridge and the two electrodes are connected by a wire through the voltmeter.

Hybrid vehicles, fuel cells, and, particularly, market demands for longer lasting batteries to power portable communication and entertainment devices have propelled electrochemistry to the forefront of news media and advertisement. Despite this welcome awakening, an understanding of the fundamental principles that govern this highly multidisciplinary field by the public at large appears to be lacking. This state of affairs can be traced, at least in part, to our K-12 educational system, which fails, in great measure, to introduce electrochemistry as part of the curriculum. Regrettably, a golden opportunity to capitalize on batteries and rust, terms familiar to children very early in life and precious sources of experiential learning, is irrevocably lost. It thus becomes of pressing interest to explore possible avenues to remedy this situation and bring awareness to the next generation of the importance of electrochemistry as a scientific and technical discipline and its impact on en...

Traces of magnetizability, traces of magnetic shielding at the hydrogen nuclei, and nucleus-independent chemical shift are not reliable aromaticity quantifiers for planar conjugated hydrocarbons. A measure of aromaticity is provided by the out-of-plane tensor components, whose magnitude is influenced by the π-ring currents. The failure of nucleus-independent chemical shift in this regard was proved for the molecule shown in the abstract graphic, sustaining a diatropic π-current. The validity of the ring-current model is reaffirmed.

The relationship between the potential of the cell reaction (E cell), the entropy change (ΔS), and the enthalpy change (ΔH) is well established. Yet, there is surprisingly a very narrow range of experimental aqueous galvanic cells that follow thermodynamic predictions. The redox and equilibrium reactions used within Pourbaix diagrams are presented a priori to establish the limitations and application range of thermodynamic relationships within complex electrochemical systems, the Zn-Cu (Daniell cell) and Pb-Cu cells. These are then tested to validate the theoretical discussion. Specifically, the electromotive force of both cells is measured as a function of the temperature in order to calculate the thermodynamic properties of the reaction: concomitantly to the voltage measurements, the temperature, the pH, and the surface state of the electrodes.

Schiff base ligand derived from benzaldehyde and ethylenediimine and its Fe(III),Cu(II) and Zn(II) complexes were synthesized. The ligand N,N’-Bis(2-hydroxyl-1,2-diphenylethanone)ethylenediamine(B2HDE)and its complexes were characterized by molar conductivity, melting point, solubility test and spectrometrically (IR and UV-Vis). The Kinetics of complex formation obtained from a plot lnkobs verses 1/T, thermodynamic parameters were obtained from plots of ln(kobs/T) verses 1/T and antimicrobial activities of the ligand and its complexes were tested. The solubility results showed that B2HDE and its complexes were soluble in dimethylsulphoxide, dimethylformanide and acetone while the melting point of ligand and complexes showed they are fairly stable. The complexes molar conductivity indicated that they are non-electrolytes. The IR spectra showed a bidented ligand which coordinated through azomethine nitrogen and hydroxyl oxygen atom. UV-Vis results confirmed the complexation of the met...

Kinetic parameters related to the anodic and cathodic processes in the electrolysis of fuming sulphuric acids on bright platinum and platinii platinum electrodes have been established, the electrolyte bemg kept at rest. Experiments cover temperatures from 25 to 70°C and oleums with a stdphur trioxtde concentration from about 5 to 28 per cent. The yields of the diierent anodic and cathodic products mentioned in a previous publication have been confirmed and results for others are given. The anodic reaction is characterized by current]voltage curves which fit Tafel plots at high volta es, with a slope close to 2*3(2RT/F). T i e cathodic current/voltage curves plotted according to the Tafel equation exhibit three different regions. (i) At voltages lower than 0.4 V, a Tafel line with a slope of 2*3(RT/F) is observed. (ii) At about 0.5 V a limiting current is shown. These regions are related to the reduction of sulphur trioxide. (iii) At voltages larger than 0.7 V, aclearTafe1 line region appears again, involving a23(2RT/F) slope. The latter is related to the evolution of hydrogen and the simultaneous presence of a blue tinge in the oleums, which is attributed to the formation of disulphur trioxide. R&smu&I_es parametres cinetiques des processus anodiques et cathodiques dans I'&ctrolyse des oleums sur des electrodes de platme poli et platine platinise ont Bte btablis, l'electrolyte &ant au repos. Les experiences ont Bte &alis&ss a des temperatures de 25 ii 70°C avec une concentration de trioxyde de soufre de 5 a 28 pour cent. I-es rapports des differems produits anodiques et cathodiques mentionnes dans une publication anterieure ont 6te con&m&; on prtsente aussi d'autres resultats. Les courbes courant/voltage de la reaction anodique suivent la loi de Tafel a tensions Blew&s, avec une pente proche de 2,3(2RT/F). La courbes cathodiques trac& de la meme facon montrent trois regions differentes. (i) A des tensions de moins de 0,4 V on observe une droite avec un pente 2,3(RT/F). (ii) A des tensions d'ention 0,5 V, on a trouve un courant limite. Ces deux regions (i) et (ii) sont determintes par la reduction du trioxide de soufre. avec une pente de 2,3(2RT/F). (iii) A des tensions de plus de 0,7 V on a retrouvc! une droite de Tafel Celle-ci est en relation avec l'evolution de l'hydrogcne et l'apparition simultanee dune teinte bleue dans l'&ctrolyte, qu'on a attribuee a la formation de trioxyde de disoufre.

Question, is a Galvanic Reactor Cold Fusion? BACKGROUND Basic Electrical Definitions Electrical units can be described in a formal manner, and that's what we do here. The standard electrical units are defined in a specific order. The ampere is defined first. It is an SI base unit, the only electrical unit derived from the outcome of an experiment. Next up after the ampere comes the coulomb and charge on an electron. Then we derive the rest of our favorites, the watt, the volt, and the ohm. These derived electrical units are defined in terms of the ampere and other SI base units (meter, kilogram, second).

position of the thiophenoxide. Here again the same charge density argument applies. as in Hammett's standard reaction, (9). Coo' p = 1.00 (9) Keeping in mind the fact that the equilibrium isotope effect (EIE) for reaction 5 is a result of two kinetic processes (Kq = kf,,mad/kmcm)r it is not surprising that the observed p value is close to that obtained from a kinetic isotope effect (KIE), which relates the dependence of kH/kD to the u value of the substituent. Westaway and Waszczyloi7 found that increasing the amount of conjugation to a benzene ring from the a-carbon in the transition state can decrease the magnitude of a secondary a-deuterium KIE. Changing the para substituent from methyl to nitro in parasubstituted a-chlorotoluenes resulted in a decrease in the secondary deuterium KIE (at 20 OC, kH/kD varied from 1.039 to 1.096) in the nucleophilic attack by thiophenoxide, reaction 10. These data correspond to a p value of-0.02.-+ c1p for kH/kD-0.02 (10) The transition state of this SN2 reaction supports some charge separation. Less charge density exists on the sp3-hybridized CH2(D2) group when X is electron withdrawing. This in turn decreases the secondary KIE. This situation is analogous to the decrease in the charge density on the s$ CH(D) groups in reaction 5 when X is electron withdrawing, which in turn results in a smaller EIE. The p values for reactions 5 and 10 are of opposite sign because smaller KIE's mean smaller kH/kD values, while smaller EIE's mean larger (closer to unity) Kos values. Westaway and Waszczyloi7 obtained a much more significant value for p (-0.50 f 0.015) when the substituent was placed in the para (17) (a) Waszczylo, Z.; Wtstaway, K. C. Tetrahedron feu. 1982,23, 143.

The field of electrochemistry can be defined as the set of physical and chemical phenomena involved by the passage of an electric current in an ionic conductor. These phenomena involve the use of electrodes characterized by at least one interface common to two conductors of different nature. They manifest themselves in various ways in electrochemical reactors made up of two electronic conductors or electrodes separated by an ionic conductive medium. After having defined the main phenomena involved in the flow of current, the article presents the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of electrochemistry (electrochemical cell). The main industrial applications of electrochemistry are briefly presented.

Conventional Voltaic cells are characterized as cumbersome setup to handle, with fragile open ended glassware, tubes, troughs or tanks which are prone to interference and contamination. In this study, design was made to construct compact, durable and portable unit of Voltaic cell. Compactability tests show that the designed and constructed Voltaic cell is a compact unit. Conventional and the constructed (compact) Voltaic cell were separately used to perform potentiometry with various concentrations of electrolytes. Relationship between concentration of stock and standard solutions (mol L-1) of CuSO 4 .7H 2 O and 1.0 M ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O and potential difference (Volts) generated were determined at the range of 1.0 mol L-1 to 4.0 mol L-1 of the electrolytes: conventional Voltaic cell measured 0.05 Volts to 0.11 Volts while Compact Voltaic cell measured 0.08 Volts to 0.14 Volts respectively. Statistical comparison of conventional and compact Voltaic cells at 95.0% percent confidence level indicated a significant difference in their performance. However at 99.0%-99.9% confidence level the comparison showed that there is no significant difference in their performance. The results of this study showed that Perspex is a good Original Research Article

Основная цель указаний – расширение знаний студентов по специальности, формирование терминологического словарного запаса и совершенствование коммуникативных навыков на английском языке. Материалы состоят из тематических разделов (Units), которые подразделяются на части (Parts). Каждая часть включает текст для изучающего чтения, предтекстовые упражнения, направленные на усвоение лексического минимума по теме, и послетекстовые упражнения для развития коммуникативной компетенции студенто

The high-temperature oxidation resistance of g-TiAl alloys can be significantly improved by the addition of small amounts of halogens, e.g. by ion implantation. The mechanism for this so-called halogen effect is based on the exclusive transport and subsequent oxidation of a gaseous aluminium-containing species in the inner region of the initially-formed scale to develop an Al 2 O 3rich protective layer. The present study verified this mechanism on the basis of thermodynamic calculations in the temperature range 700-1100 C. The standard Gibbs energies of the most important reactions for the halogens F, Cl, Br, and I were considered and temperature-dependent halogen partial-pressure limits for the occurrence of the beneficial effect were determined. The lower partial-pressure limit was considered to be dictated by the minimum supply rate of aluminium necessary to sustain Al 2 O 3 scale growth, while the upper limit was dictated by the competition between Al 2 O 3 and TiO 2 formation. The results from the chlorine calculations were used to estimate the number of chlorine atoms necessary at the alloy surface for the beneficial effect to operate.

The periodic table can be simply demarcated into four classes of metal and four classes of nonmetal. Such a treatment has been obstructed by the traditional view of metalloids as inbetween elements; understandable but needless boundary squabbles; and a group-by-group view of the reactive nonmetals. Setting aside these limiting notions reveals some interesting patterns and facilitates teaching and learning the periodic table.

Oxygen absorption-desorption processes for square planar Mn(II), Co(II) and Mn(II) complexes of tetradentate Schiff base ligands in DMF and chloroform solvents were investigated. The tetradentate Schiff base ligands were obtained by condensation reaction of ethylenediamine with salcyldehyde, o-hydroxyacetophenone or acetylacetone in the molar ratio 1:2. The square planar complexes were prepared by the reaction of the Schiff base ligands with Mn(II) acetate, Co(II) nitrate and Ni(II) nitrate in dry ethanol under nitrogen atmosphere. The sorption processes were undertaken in the presence and absence of (pyridine) axial-base in 1:1 M ratio of (pyridine:metal(II) complexes). Complexes in DMF indicate significant oxygen affinity than in chloroform solvent. Cobalt(II) complexes showed significant sorption processes compared to Mn(II) and Ni(II) complexes. The presence of pyridine axial base clearly increases oxygen affinity.

The experiment aimed at establishing a link between the varying concentration of the electrolyte in one half-cell of a concentration cell and the resulting EMF generated across the cell. Further, it also drew a connection between this variation and the change in Gibbs free energy for the electrochemical reaction. The change in Gibbs free energy calculated for the electrochemical reaction for each C2 value indicated a decreasing trend with an increasing C2 concentration. It was thus observed that as C2 increased, or the difference in concentrations of the two electrolytes decreased, the spontaneity of the reaction decreased. Reduction occurs at the negatively charged cathode and oxidation occurs at the positively charged anode. Here, aqueous NaCl is undergoing electrolysis – where the Cl-1 ions are attracted to the positive anode and get oxidized due to the loss of electrons and emerge as chlorine Cl2 gas.

Aquatris(3‐cyanopentane‐2, 4‐dionato)scandium(III) undergoes two transformations which can be monitored by X‐ray diffraction as well as solid‐state NMR spectroscopy: At 145 K, the mononuclear complex shows a reversible phase transition; in agreement with the symmetry principle, this transition of the t2 type proceeds from the monoclinic room temperature phase to triclinic twins at low temperature, the twin law corresponding to a twofold rotation. Under vacuum at room temperature, the aqua ligand of the complex is irreversibly eliminated and the structure rearranges, forming a 1D chain polymer. In both phases of the mononuclear complex as well as in the polymer, the coordination polyhedra around the ScIII atom represent distorted capped trigonal prisms. Solid‐state 45Sc NMR spectroscopic investigations on powder samples reveal a reversible phase transition of the monoclinic complex at low temperatures. Changes of the NMR signal line shapes for the room and low temperature complex as ...

With the continual modernization, researchers and scientists are very conscious about the environmental issues. The E-waste which is relatively recent addition to the waste stream in the form of discarded electronic and electric equipment is getting increasing attention from policy makers as the quantity being generated rising rapidly. The consumption of e-waste has been exponential in the last two decades. The developing countries are facing huge challenges in the management of e-waste which are either internally generated or imported illegally as used goods in an attempt to bridge the so-called "digital divide". E-waste contains hazardous constituents that may negatively impact the environmental and affect human health if not properly managed. On the other hand, e-waste contains up to 60 metals including platinum, gold, silver, copper, aluminium, palladium, iron and other valuable metals. Considering these two facts along with the resource management strategy has been committed to extract precious metals from Printed Circuit Board (PCB) of e-waste. In this study, Printed Circuit Board (PCB) are collected from the motherboards of waste computers and performing several reactions in a chemical lab. Al 2 (SO) 4 has been prepared by using sulfuric acid and potassium hydro-oxide and CuSO 4 prepared by using nitric acid and sulfuric acid. In this preparation process the top most priority is placed on the environment friendly issues. This study will very helpful in the proper management of ewaste and reservation of our resources which are limited.

Production of hydrogen using aluminum and aluminum alloys with aqueous alkaline solutions is studied. This process is based on aluminum corrosion, consuming only water and aluminum which are cheaper raw materials than other compounds used for in situ hydrogen generation, such as chemical hydrides. In principle, this method does not consume alkali because the aluminate salts produced in the hydrogen generation undergo a decomposition reaction that regenerates the alkali. As a consequence, this process could be a feasible alternative for hydrogen production to supply fuel cells. Preliminary results showed that an increase of base concentration and working solution temperature produced an increase of hydrogen production rate using pure aluminum. Furthermore, an improvement of hydrogen production rates and yields was observed varying aluminum alloys composition and increasing their reactive surface, with interesting results for Al/Si and Al/Co alloys. The development of this idea could improve yields and reduce costs in power units based on fuel cells which use hydrides as raw material for hydrogen production.

In this work a water-activated copper(I) bromide battery was developed and investigated. CuBr combined with sulphur as the reactive cathode material was compared with the CuCl-sulphur combination, the anode being in both cases a magnesium alloy. Battery characteristics were tested at room temperature and in an atmosphere simulation chamber because water-activated batteries are mostly used in meteorological radiosondes. Heat evolution

Plant extracts used in food production significantly improve the quality of food. Chemical composition is the main prerequisites for the final use of plant extracts. The chemical composition of the extracts is affected by the extraction method and conditions-temperature, duration and solvent. On the basis of experimental data optimal conditions for the extraction of phenolic compounds from the fruits and leaves of blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) were selected. Among the extraction methods used in the experiment, the highest content of phenolic compounds in obtained extracts was observed during the ultrasonic extraction. A mixture of 0.25 parts of water and 0.75 parts of 96% ethanol showed best results from different volume ratios of water and ethanol. The optimal extraction time was 90 minutes. And the optimum temperature is 45°C. The total content of phenolic compounds in the extracts obtained by the abovementioned method amounted is 35.62±0.17 mgg-1 (dry weight) for blackthorn fruits and 44,76 ± 0.08mgg-1 (dry weight) for the leaves.

In order to improve learning outcomes the Department of Basic Education conducted research to determine the specific areas that learners struggle with in Grade 12 examinations. The research included a trend analysis by subject experts of learner performance over a period of five years as well as learner examination scripts in order to diagnose deficiencies or misconceptions in particular content areas. In addition, expert teachers were interviewed to determine the best practicesto ensure mastery of thetopic by learners and improve outcomes in terms of quality and quantity.

Contact between dissimilar alloys will generate galvanic currents based on a variety of factors. The extent of risk to the overall systems and specifically to the more electronegative alloy materials can be clarified if the magnitude of the corrosion rate at various locations can be modeled and calculated. When a more electropositive cathode alloy is separated from the electronegative anode alloy in a complex geometry, there will be a variable distance between the anode and cathode and fluid flow characteristics may influence variations in the limiting current density. In systems containing elbows, the current and potential distribution will not be only in the longitudinal direction, but will have a radial contribution to current flow and corresponding potential changes.

Schiff base ligand derived from benzaldehyde and ethylenediimine and its Fe(III),Cu(II) and Zn(II) complexes were synthesized. The ligand N,N’-Bis(2-hydroxyl-1,2-diphenylethanone)ethylenediamine(B2HDE)and its complexes were characterized by molar conductivity, melting point, solubility test and spectrometrically (IR and UV-Vis). The Kinetics of complex formation obtained from a plot lnkobs verses 1/T, thermodynamic parameters were obtained from plots of ln(kobs/T) verses 1/T and antimicrobial activities of the ligand and its complexes were tested. The solubility results showed that B2HDE and its complexes were soluble in dimethylsulphoxide, dimethylformanide and acetone while the melting point of ligand and complexes showed they are fairly stable. The complexes molar conductivity indicated that they are non-electrolytes. The IR spectra showed a bidented ligand which coordinated through azomethine nitrogen and hydroxyl oxygen atom. UV-Vis results confirmed the complexation of the met...

N-[(1E)-(3-Bromophenyl)methylene]-N-(2-piperidin-1-ylethyl)amine Schiff base was prepared in good yield and characterized by the reflux of equivalent amounts of 2-(piperidin-1-yl)ethanamine with 3-bromobenzaldehyde. The structure of the desired Schiff base was analyzed based on: elemental analysis, EI-MS, TG/DTG, UV-visible, FT-IR, 1 H and 13 C-NMR spectral analysis. The condensation reaction was monitored by FT-IR.

The development of new molecules that bind strongly and selectively to nucleic acids expands the range of potential pharmaceutical agents whose mode of bioactivity is through interaction with DNA or RNA.' Metal complexes containing planar aromatic ligands have been shown to interact with both native and synthetic nucleic acids.2-10 Barton3 has shown that racemic [Ru(phen)#+ (phen = 1,lO-phenanthroline; all ligand structures are shown in Figure 1) binds to calf thymus DNA with a binding constant K of 6.2 X lo3 M-l in solutions containing 50 mM Na+. The binding site size s, expressed in numbers of base pairs, is typically 3-4 for these complexes. The dominant modes of binding for the enantiomers of this complex have been a subject of vigorous debate in the literature.5.6 Phenanthrenequinone diimine (phi) Rh(II1) complexes have been shown to bind strongly to DNA, with a K greater than 107 M-1.5 NMR data support the partial intercalation of the phi of A-[Rh(phen)z(phi)]'+ at the 5'-CG-3'step of [d(GTCGAC)2] .5 Extension of the planarity at the 5,6 sites of phen increases the strength of interaction of these complexes with DNA. Complexes containing dipyrido [ 3,2a:2',3'-c]phenazine (dppz) such as [Ru(bpy)z(dppz)]2+ also have large binding constants (K > 106 M-1).7 Partial intercalation and major groove binding has been reported by Strekas et al. for [Ru(bpy)2(ppz)]2+ (ppz = 4,7-phenanthrolino[6,5-b]pyrazine), although thebindingconstantsareonlyon theorderof lo3 M-1."l0 Baker et al. have also observed the enantiospecific cleavage of DNA using the bimetallic complex A-[Ru(bpy)2(ppz)CuL2I4+

Galvanic cells are electrochemical batteries created with the purpose of converting chemical energy to electricity. They use electrolyte solutions and metal electrodes-a cathode and an anode-to create a flow of electrons and produce voltage. In batteries, due to wear and tear, over a long period of time the individual housings for the solutions may give way and the solutions may come into contact. Leakage may severely hinder the chemical processes required to create electricity. For this experiment, I created a control copper/zinc galvanic cell out of 0.100M copper (II) sulfate (CuSO 4) and 0.100M zinc sulfate (ZnSO 4) solutions and measured the voltage it produced. Then we created cells with a solution made up of a combination of the two individual solutions and measured their voltages over time to simulate a leakage. Analysis of the voltage revealed that voltage was directly proportional to the volume of leakage introduced. This research provides new insight into the effects that leakage can have on a galvanic cell and has important implications on the importance of making battery casings durable and long-lasting.

Galvanic cells are electrochemical batteries created with the purpose of converting chemical energy to electricity. They use electrolyte solutions and metal electrodes-a cathode and an anode-to create a flow of electrons and produce voltage. In batteries, due to wear and tear, over a long period of time the individual housings for the solutions may give way and the solutions may come into contact. Leakage may severely hinder the chemical processes required to create electricity. For this experiment, I created a control copper/zinc galvanic cell out of 0.100M copper (II) sulfate (CuSO 4) and 0.100M zinc sulfate (ZnSO 4) solutions and measured the voltage it produced. Then we created cells with a solution made up of a combination of the two individual solutions and measured their voltages over time to simulate a leakage. Analysis of the voltage revealed that voltage was directly proportional to the volume of leakage introduced. This research provides new insight into the effects that leakage can have on a galvanic cell and has important implications on the importance of making battery casings durable and long-lasting.

The field of electrochemistry can be defined as the set of physical and chemical phenomena involved by the passage of an electric current in an ionic conductor. These phenomena involve the use of electrodes characterized by at least one interface common to two conductors of different nature. They manifest themselves in various ways in electrochemical reactors made up of two electronic conductors or electrodes separated by an ionic conductive medium. After having defined the main phenomena involved in the flow of current, the article presents the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of electrochemistry (electrochemical cell). The main industrial applications of electrochemistry are briefly presented.

Interfacial microstructures have been investigated for the anodically-bonded joint of borosilicate glass to Kovar alloy in order to get better insight into its mechanism. SEM observations of the joint interface revealed that the applied field displaced Na and

The importance of socialization about alternative energy that can be used for daily needs, for example from the simplest such as lighting at home, although not permanent but is very useful in the event of a sudden power outage. The high price of electricity makes small communities have to think twice as much to regulate daily expenditure needs so as to encourage to find alternative energy that can produce electricity that is environmentally friendly. Seeing the large number of detergent products in Indonesia, it inspires to process the waste from laundry clothes or other objects and even the detergent water itself, because so far the used laundry waste is thrown away so that it can pollute the environment. The purpose of this study is to reduce the effect of environmental pollution due to used laundry waste which is used as an alternative energy source to turn on lighting lamps at home or even on the road. The method used in this research is a chemical or electrolysis reaction involving zinc and carbon as well as the content in detergent washing water. From several experiments conducted for 3 detergents with several parameters, namely the amount of mass and water volume of 120 ml. From the experiment the voltage is 1 volt with a current of 2 mA for detergent Rinso, for DAIA detergent the voltage is 0.7 and current is 0.56 mA, and the experiments tested on SOKLIN produce a voltage of 0.8 volt and a current of 1 mA. Whereas the testing which was carried out randomly with a volume of 1200 ml water produced a voltage of 0.547 v with a large current of 0.006 mA. This proves that detergent waste can be utilized as a renewable energy although it still requires further research but this can ease the burden on the community to pay for electricity from PLN and in the subsequent development independent power plants are built in each house so that the community can save on electricity.

The use of Statistics in Chemistry has grown significantly with advances in computation. Nowadays it is easier to deal with a large data set and extract relevant chemical information. This paper describes the use of k nearest neighbor method to classify the representative elements as metal or nonmetal according to their periodic properties: atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity. The method requires a very simple mathematical background and can be easily performed and understood. The algorithm classifies an object into a distinct class when there are two or more groups of objects of known class and takes into account the distances among the objects. The pedagogical objective is to present an interdisciplinary activity in which Statistics can be used to make comparisons in Chemistry.

In this study, the corrosion behavior of iron nails in different solutions was investigated in four test tubes labeled A, B, C, and D. Test tube A contained deionized water, test tube B contained heated water and layered with oil, test tube C contained salt (NaCl), and test tube D contained calcium chloride (CaCl2) as a dehumidifier. The experiment was conducted for a period of 7 days, and the corrosion products formed on the surface of the iron nails were analyzed using various techniques.

In test tube A, the presence of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide caused significant corrosion of the iron nail, resulting in the formation of a thick layer of brownish rust (Fe2O3. xH2O) on the surface. The rust formation was more intense in the upper part of the test tube due to the higher concentration of oxygen. Test tube B showed similar results as test tube A, but at a slower rate, hence the lower concentration of rust formation.

In test tube C, the presence of salt helps the corrosion to occur the fastest. Presence of salt in media enhance the electrochemical corrosion on two factors; increase acidity of media by helping water molecule to dissociate into its individual ions, and increate rate of reduction at cathodic site.

In test tube D, the absence of water content due to the use of calcium chloride as a dehumidifier resulted in limited rust formation on the iron nail. Dry corrosion occurred due to the reaction of the iron nail with oxygen in the air, resulting in the formation of ferum (III) oxide (Fe2O3). This occurred at a slower rate than in test tubes A and B due to the limited supply of oxygen in the covered test tube.

Overall, this study highlights the significant role of environmental factors, such as the presence of dissolved ions and water content, on the corrosion behavior of iron nails. The results can help in understanding the corrosion mechanisms and designing corrosion-resistant materials and coatings.