Field Boundaries

This study used a synthetic evaluation method to assess agri-environmental externalities at the regional level in Finland. The article developed a relative measure that made it possible to rank the 15 regions studied for seven agri-environmental indicators, which were based on the preferences of the evaluators. The results indicated significant differences in the provision of public goods between the regions. The provision of public goods tended to increase over the 10-year study period. The results were robust with respect to changes in preferences.

Concerns over the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services in farmland have prompted the development of agri-environment policy measures aimed at reducing farming pressure and maintaining semi-natural habitats in farmed landscapes. However, further knowledge is needed to guarantee successful agri-environment measures implementation. The current study assessed the quantity and the quality of semi-natural habitats in farms across a gradient of farming intensities in two contrasting regions in Ireland. Policy protection seemed fundamental for semi-natural habitats preservation. Habitats not protected by agricultural policy relied on extensive farming and are in danger of disappearing if they are intensified or abandoned. Due to the lack of policy incentives for habitat quality, no correlations were found between farming intensity and share of semi-natural habitats with habitat quality. Therefore, extensive farming and retention of habitats alone may not reverse the decline of farmland quality and biodiverisity and, thus, measures incentivising the environmental quality may be more successful.

Commenté [U1]: Perhaps a definition of ADEME is needed here Commenté [U2]: Check that verbal conjugation Commenté [U3]: Do you mean Ton? Commenté [U4]: Check the units. "ml" of what? Commenté [U5]: Respect to when? Commenté [U6]: Perhaps that reference mach better in a acknowledgment section at the end of the paper Mis en forme : Anglais (États-Unis) Commenté [U7]: English revision is recommended Commenté [U8]: Ton

Hedgerows are key features in agricultural landscapes performing diverse functions that are both economically and ecologically significant. Here, we quantify how the characteristics of a relict hedgerow network of a Spanish cultural landscape (Guadarrama mountains in the north of Madrid region) have changed over a single decade both inside and outside the boundaries of a Protected Area, the aim of which is to conserve cultural uses and biodiversity. A gradient of abandonment of pasture systems was detected, including a decline and loss of woody species from hedgerows associated with grazed areas towards shrub encroachment zones. These tendencies were similar inside and outside the boundaries of the Protected Area. The results highlight the management weaknesses of the Protected Area in order to achieve its objectives. Based on the results, we propose to include a specific conservation status for hedgerow landscapes in the regulatory framework of Spanish protected areas.

Sustainable agriculture and the provision of environmental public goods are key deliverables for European farming and food production. Farmland biodiversity, cultural landscapes, soil functionality and climate stability are among the environmental public goods provided through agriculture. Future Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) direct payments are intended to be more targeted at the provision of these agricultural deliverables. Field boundaries are an example of such deliverables. They are widespread features that have both environmental and aesthetic functions in farmed landscapes. However, research on their variety, density and contribution to semi-natural habitat cover on farms in Ireland is lacking. This study investigates the diversity and density of all field boundary habitat types on 32 lowland farms in east County Galway, western Ireland. A total of 286km of field boundaries were surveyed across six study sites. Five types of field boundary habitats were recorded. The density of field boundaries on the farms studied was high and could have positive implications for delivery of environmental public goods and sustainable farming metrics. In more intensively farmed areas, field boundaries were the only remaining semi-natural habitat on some farms highlighting the need to retain, and improve the ecological quality, of these features. The condition of one field boundary type (hedgerows) was also investigated in further detail. While the density of field boundaries was high on many of the surveyed farms, we found that the hedgerows on these farms were not necessarily in good condition for wildlife.

Connecting to and extending recent debates around more-than-human thinking, this paper explores how porous boundary treatments and plot layouts might encourage ecological exchanges within new urban and peri-urban developments. This study therefore responds to suggestions for innovative plot designs that facilitate positive trans-species interactions, especially considering wider anxieties surrounding biodiversity loss and recognition of the need for climate-resilient garden spaces. Focusing on a recent example of a large-scale residential development in the English midlands, this paper outlines the socio-economic, cultural and ecological significance of embedding different hedgerow designs into early planning considerations; revealing the need to move beyond current models. The discussion then turns to how such ambitions might encourage sustainable land use, particularly through creating potentially scalable urban agricultural systems that sustain healthy food choices.

Spatial simulation may be used to model the potential effects of current biodiversity approaches on future habitat modification under differing climate change scenarios. To illustrate the approach, spatial simulation models, including landscape-level forest dynamics, were developed for a semi-natural grassland of conservation concern in a southern Italian protected area, which was exposed to woody vegetation encroachment. A forest landscape dynamics simulator (LANDIS-II) under conditions of climate change, current fire and alternative management regimes was used to develop scenario maps. Landscape pattern metrics provided data on fragmentation and habitat quality degradation, and quantified the spatial spread of different tree species within grassland habitats. The models indicated that approximately one-third of the grassland area would be impacted by loss, fragmentation and degradation in the next 150 years. Differing forest management regimes appear to influence the type of encroaching species and the density of encroaching vegetation. Habitat modifications are likely to affect species distribution and interactions, as well as local ecosystem functioning, leading to changes in estimated conservation value. A site-scale conservation strategy based on feasible integrated fire and forest management options is proposed, considering the debate on the effectiveness of protected areas for the conservation of ecosystem services in a changing climate. This needs to be tested through further modelling and scenario analysis, which would benefit from the enhancement of current modelling capabilities of LANDIS-II and from combination with remote sensing technologies, to provide early signals of environmental shifts both within and outside protected areas.

Mass-flowering crops (MFCs) are increasingly cultivated and might influence pollinator communities in MFC fields and nearby semi-natural habitats (SNHs). Across six European regions and 2 years, we assessed how landscape-scale cover of MFCs affected pollinator densities in 408 MFC fields and adjacent SNHs. In MFC fields, densities of bumblebees, solitary bees, managed honeybees and hoverflies were negatively related to the cover of MFCs in the landscape. In SNHs, densities of bumblebees declined with increasing cover of MFCs but densities of honeybees increased. The densities of all pollinators were generally unrelated to the cover of SNHs in the landscape. Although MFC fields apparently attracted pollinators from SNHs, in landscapes with large areas of MFCs they became diluted. The resulting lower densities might negatively affect yields of pollinator-dependent crops and the reproductive success of wild plants. An expansion of MFCs needs to be accompanied by pollinator-supporting p...

Hedgerows are key features in agricultural landscapes performing diverse functions that are both economically and ecologically significant. Here, we quantify how the characteristics of a relict hedgerow network of a Spanish cultural landscape (Guadarrama mountains in the north of Madrid region) have changed over a single decade both inside and outside the boundaries of a Protected Area, the aim of which is to conserve cultural uses and biodiversity. A gradient of abandonment of pasture systems was detected, including a decline and loss of woody species from hedgerows associated with grazed areas towards shrub encroachment zones. These tendencies were similar inside and outside the boundaries of the Protected Area. The results highlight the management weaknesses of the Protected Area in order to achieve its objectives. Based on the results, we propose to include a specific conservation status for hedgerow landscapes in the regulatory framework of Spanish protected areas.

The suitability of hedges and non-hedge linear boundaries for small mammals in urban Stoke-onTrent were assessed in 2015 and 2016 using baited hair tubes and footprint tubes. Small mammals were found in 63% of all study hedges and 10% of non-hedge linear boundaries, with the upper levels of hedges used as frequently as the base. Hawthorn and privet hedges showed significantly more signs of small mammals than beech hedges or non-hedge linear boundaries. Our findings suggest that we should protect and enhance our urban hedgerow resource as a valuable habitat for urban small mammals.

Wallington in central Northumberland is a late seventeenth-and early eighteenth-century country house with associated pleasure grounds. Much of the surrounding estate is agricultural land, though there are also expanses of moorland and conifer plantation. The character of Wallington's landscape, now divided into fifteen separate farm holdings, was to a large extent shaped by estate management practices and improvements in the eighteenthnineteenth centuries. Today's settlement pattern is made up largely of dispersed farmsteads, with field systems which reflect the orderly rectilinear layout of planned enclosure, being separated mainly by long and fairly straight stonefaced banks. In medieval and early modern times, by contrast, the landscape is thought to have been quite different, with nucleated villages set amidst irregular open fields which were farmed collectively. The process of long-term landscape change from open to enclosed field systems has been inferred across the whole of Northumberland but it can be difficult to understand in detail. Absolute dating evidence for field systems before the eighteenth century is generally lacking and the origins and development of historic earthworks including boundary banks and the remains of arable farming are poorly understood. This paper presents results of research which used retrogressive landscape analysis (based on documentary evidence, archaeological data, aerial photographs, and historic cartography) to identify five areas for detailed geoarchaeological investigation and sampling with optically stimulated luminescence profiling and dating (OSL-PD). The results provide new perspectives on the development of landscape character at Wallington which have wider relevance for northeast England and beyond.

SUMMARYSpatial simulation may be used to model the potential effects of current biodiversity approaches on future habitat modification under differing climate change scenarios. To illustrate the approach, spatial simulation models, including landscape-level forest dynamics, were developed for a semi-natural grassland of conservation concern in a southern Italian protected area, which was exposed to woody vegetation encroachment. A forest landscape dynamics simulator (LANDIS-II) under conditions of climate change, current fire and alternative management regimes was used to develop scenario maps. Landscape pattern metrics provided data on fragmentation and habitat quality degradation, and quantified the spatial spread of different tree species within grassland habitats. The models indicated that approximately one-third of the grassland area would be impacted by loss, fragmentation and degradation in the next 150 years. Differing forest management regimes appear to influence the type o...

Commenté [U1]: Perhaps a definition of ADEME is needed here Commenté [U2]: Check that verbal conjugation Commenté [U3]: Do you mean Ton? Commenté [U4]: Check the units. "ml" of what? Commenté [U5]: Respect to when? Commenté [U6]: Perhaps that reference mach better in a acknowledgment section at the end of the paper Mis en forme : Anglais (États-Unis) Commenté [U7]: English revision is recommended Commenté [U8]: Ton

The extensive and burgeoning literature on the productivity of urban farms and gardens is largely focused on measures of crop yield and resource use, with little offered to date on their contribution to social productivity and sustainability. This paper suggests that evaluation of urban agriculture should consider all types of resource consumption and productivity simultaneously. The research reported here used a citizen science approach to collect data from seven community gardens and one community farm in London, UK in the 2019 and 2020 growing seasons. The paper examines the many variables that impact the sites’ overall performance, highlighting the complex nature and relationship between the many benefits and outcomes of urban farms and gardens. Data are presented on crop yield, equivalent fruit and vegetable portions, input use (including water and fertilizer), journeys made to the garden by volunteers, social benefits, and social outreach. Results show very mixed levels of cro...

The extensive and burgeoning literature on the productivity of urban farms and gardens is largely focused on measures of crop yield and resource use, with little offered to date on their contribution to social productivity and sustainability. This paper suggests that evaluation of urban agriculture should consider all types of resource consumption and productivity simultaneously. The research reported here used a citizen science approach to collect data from seven community gardens and one community farm in London, UK in the 2019 and 2020 growing seasons. The paper examines the many variables that impact the sites’ overall performance, highlighting the complex nature and relationship between the many benefits and outcomes of urban farms and gardens. Data are presented on crop yield, equivalent fruit and vegetable portions, input use (including water and fertilizer), journeys made to the garden by volunteers, social benefits, and social outreach. Results show very mixed levels of cro...

Mass-flowering crops (MFCs) are increasingly cultivated and might influence pollinator communities in MFC fields and nearby semi-natural habitats (SNHs). Across six European regions and 2 years, we assessed how landscape-scale cover of MFCs affected pollinator densities in 408 MFC fields and adjacent SNHs. In MFC fields, densities of bumblebees, solitary bees, managed honeybees and hoverflies were negatively related to the cover of MFCs in the landscape. In SNHs, densities of bumblebees declined with increasing cover of MFCs but densities of honeybees increased. The densities of all pollinators were generally unrelated to the cover of SNHs in the landscape. Although MFC fields apparently attracted pollinators from SNHs, in landscapes with large areas of MFCs they became diluted. The resulting lower densities might negatively affect yields of pollinator-dependent crops and the reproductive success of wild plants. An expansion of MFCs needs to be accompanied by pollinator-supporting p...

This study used a synthetic evaluation method to assess agri-environmental externalities at the regional level in Finland. The article developed a relative measure that made it possible to rank the 15 regions studied for seven agri-environmental indicators, which were based on the preferences of the evaluators. The results indicated significant differences in the provision of public goods between the regions. The provision of public goods tended to increase over the 10-year study period. The results were robust with respect to changes in preferences.

Land use systems that integrate woody vegetation with livestock and/or crops and are recognised for their biodiversity and cultural importance can be termed high nature and cultural value (HNCV) agroforestry. In this review, based on the literature and stakeholder knowledge, we describe the structure, components and management practices of ten contrasting HNCV agroforestry systems distributed across five European bioclimatic regions. We also compile and categorize the ecosystem services provided by these agroforestry systems, following the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services. HNCV agroforestry in Europe generally enhances biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services relative to conventional agriculture and forestry. These systems can reduce fire risk, compared to conventional forestry, and can increase carbon sequestration, moderate the microclimate, and reduce soil erosion and nutrient leaching compared to conventional agriculture. However, some of the evidence is

The widespread transition into intensive agroecosystems has led to a considerable decline in plant biodiversity especially for organisms in the field boundaries. The aim of this study was to survey the vegetation of fields and field boundary types located in an agricultural landscape. We provided the structural map of the landscape and classified it into field boundary types nested in three main groups of natural and seminatural elements. Species recorded in all habitat types were categorized into two emergent groups based on their response to land use intensification: 1) agrotolerant species (AT) and 2) high nature-value species (NV). We analyzed the effect of landscape structure and soil physicochemical properties on species richness of these groups. We found both landscape structure and soil properties significant in explaining variation among AT and NV species richness both at 2-m-×-2m and landscape scales. The most overall species richness was recorded for agricultural fields (43 species) followed by non-crop field edges (37). Woody green veins and permanent ditches were the elements providing high NV species richness clearly, while fields and other field boundary types were mostly supporters of AT species richness. Diversity of AT species increased along nitrogen and clay content gradients of the soil, while NV species benefited where phosphorus and soil moisture content were high. We recommend agricultural landscapes to be more specified with (semi-)natural habitats which embed high a proportion of rare weeds as nature-value plant species.

Sustainable agriculture and the provision of environmental public goods are key deliverables for European farming and food production. Farmland biodiversity, cultural landscapes, soil functionality and climate stability are among the environmental public goods provided through agriculture. Future Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) direct payments are intended to be more targeted at the provision of these agricultural deliverables. Field boundaries are an example of such deliverables. They are widespread features that have both environmental and aesthetic functions in farmed landscapes. However, research on their variety, density and contribution to semi-natural habitat cover on farms in Ireland is lacking. This study investigates the diversity and density of all field boundary habitat types on 32 lowland farms in east County Galway, western Ireland. A total of 286km of field boundaries were surveyed across six study sites. Five types of field boundary habitats were recorded. The density of field boundaries on the farms studied was high and could have positive implications for delivery of environmental public goods and sustainable farming metrics. In more intensively farmed areas, field boundaries were the only remaining semi-natural habitat on some farms highlighting the need to retain, and improve the ecological quality, of these features. The condition of one field boundary type (hedgerows) was also investigated in further detail. While the density of field boundaries was high on many of the surveyed farms, we found that the hedgerows on these farms were not necessarily in good condition for wildlife.

Dehesas and montados are Mediterranean agroforestry systems characterized by scattered oak trees with an understory grazed extensively by livestock and, in some cases, periodically cropped. A long history of traditional management practices has created an open woodland widely recognized for rich biodiversity and multiple ecosystem services. Concerns about challenges to their longterm viability have motivated many disparate scientific studies in recent decades. We provide a synthesis of this growing body of international literature, focusing on the links between land use and management practices, biodiversity, and policy, from a "high nature value farming systems" perspective. The present review comprises 128 empirical studies carried out in Spain and Portugal. Conservation trends were assessed according to categories adapted from the DPSIR (Drivers-Pressures-State-Impacts-Responses) framework. Socio-cultural factors, economic dynamics, and agricultural policies were found to be key drivers of change, resulting in intensification of livestock production and land use simplification, among other effects. Insufficient tree regeneration and a broad range of other factors were identified as pressures that have often negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services, moving the system away from its archetypical ecological state. A variety of management and policy responses were suggested, ranging from specific conservation techniques to landscape-level initiatives. Ecosystem components and management practices were typically studied separately, and mainly from an ecological science perspective, while inter-and transdisciplinary approaches including examination of the role of people were less common. This points to a need to move from single-topic to landscape-level approaches with a broader integration of different disciplines and perspectives.

Land use systems that integrate woody vegetation with livestock and/or crops and are recognised for their biodiversity and cultural importance can be termed high nature and cultural value (HNCV) agroforestry. In this review, based on the literature and stakeholder knowledge, we describe the structure, components and management practices of ten contrasting HNCV agroforestry systems distributed across five European bioclimatic regions. We also compile and categorize the ecosystem services provided by these agroforestry systems, following the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services. HNCV agroforestry in Europe generally enhances biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services relative to conventional agriculture and forestry. These systems can reduce fire risk, compared to conventional forestry, and can increase carbon sequestration, moderate the microclimate, and reduce soil erosion and nutrient leaching compared to conventional agriculture. However, some of the evidence is

Land use systems that integrate woody vegetation with livestock and/or crops and are recognised for their biodiversity and cultural importance can be termed high nature and cultural value (HNCV) agroforestry. In this review, based on the literature and stakeholder knowledge, we describe the structure, components and management practices of ten contrasting HNCV agroforestry systems distributed across five European bioclimatic regions. We also compile and categorize the ecosystem services provided by these agroforestry systems, following the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services. HNCV agroforestry in Europe generally enhances biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services relative to conventional agriculture and forestry. These systems can reduce fire risk, compared to conventional forestry, and can increase carbon sequestration, moderate the microclimate, and reduce soil erosion and nutrient leaching compared to conventional agriculture. However, some of the evidence is

Hedges are both ecologically and culturally important and are a distinctive feature of the British landscape. However the overall length of hedges across Great Britain is decreasing. Current challenges in studying hedges relate to the dominance of research on rural, as opposed to urban, hedges, and their variability and geographical breadth. To help address these challenges and to educate the public on the importance of hedge habitats for wildlife, in 2010 the Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) programme coordinated a hedge-focused citizen science survey. Results from 2891 surveys were analysed. Woody plant species differed significantly between urban and rural areas. Beech, Holly, Ivy, Laurel, Privet and Yew were more commonly recorded in urban hedges whereas Blackthorn, Bramble, Dog Rose, Elder and Hawthorn were recorded more often in rural hedges. Urban and rural differences were shown for some groups of invertebrates. Ants, earwigs and shieldbugs were recorded more frequently in urban...

Mass-flowering crops (MFCs) are increasingly cultivated and might influence pollinator communities in MFC fields and nearby semi-natural habitats (SNHs). Across six European regions and 2 years, we assessed how landscape-scale cover of MFCs affected pollinator densities in 408 MFC fields and adjacent SNHs. In MFC fields, densities of bumblebees, solitary bees, managed honeybees and hoverflies were negatively related to the cover of MFCs in the landscape. In SNHs, densities of bumblebees declined with increasing cover of MFCs but densities of honeybees increased. The densities of all pollinators were generally unrelated to the cover of SNHs in the landscape. Although MFC fields apparently attracted pollinators from SNHs, in landscapes with large areas of MFCs they became diluted. The resulting lower densities might negatively affect yields of pollinator-dependent crops and the reproductive success of wild plants. An expansion of MFCs needs to be accompanied by pollinator-supporting p...

Windbreaks have been used for many years to reduce wind speed as a wind-erosion control mea sure. To assessment of windbreak effi ciency two main parameters are using: height of windbreak (H) and aerodynamic porosity. In South Moravian Region the total area of windbreaks is approximately 1200 ha. For purposes of horizontal profi le measurement of wind speed and wind direction windbreaks with various spices composition, age and construction in cadastral territory Suchá Loz and Micmanice were chosen. Windbreak infl uence on horizontal wind profi le was found out in distance of 50, 100, 150 and 200 m in front and behind windbreak in two-meter height above surface. For the optical porosity measurement the ImageTool program was used. The wind fi eld measurement results of windbreak in Suchá Loz cadastral shows limited eff ect of windbreak on wind speed. The windbreak is created mainly by Canadian poplars (Populus × canadensis). In dependence on main species foliage stage the eff ect of windbreak was obvious on leeward side to distance of 100-150 m (c. 5-7 H). Average optical porosity of windbreak in Suchá Loz was 50% (April). Reduction of average wind speed was about 17% maximally in this stage. Optical porosity was 20% and wind speed reduction was about 37% during second measurement (October). The second monitored windbreak (Micmanice) had a signifi cant infl uence on wind speed even to the maximal measured distance (200 m, c. 14 H). This windbreak crea ted mainly by Acer sp. and Fraxinus excelsior reduced the wind speed about 64%. During fi rst measurement (May) the optical porosity of 20% and maximal wind speed reduction of 64% were assessed. For optical porosity of 21% (October) the wind speed reduction was about 55%. Close relation between optical porosity and wind speed reduction was found out by statistical evaluation. Correlation coeffi cient regardless locality for distance of 50 m was -0.80, 100 m -0.92, 150 m -0.76 and for distance of 200 m -0.63. windbreak, optical porosity, wind erosion, wind speed, air circulation, phenological phases

The purpose of the study reported here was to develop an evaluation and grading system for the main field boundaries in Ireland-hedgerows and dry stone walls. There is currently a lack of scientific information on Irish field boundaries and very little research has been carried out on what are among the most prominent landscape features on the island. Where Irish data are lacking, values were extrapolated from research in other countries. In addition, verbal consultation was carried out with prominent landscape ecologists, scientists and environmental consultants. This consultation led to the creation of a draft survey form modeled on an earlier Hedgerow Evaluation and Grading System (HEGS) (Clements and Tofts, 1992) in the UK. The draft Irish survey, described here, is entitled the Field Boundary Evaluation and Grading System or FBEGS for short. The FBEGS was field-tested in four locations in Ireland by a number of users to assess usefulness and accuracy. Feedback from volunteer surveyors led to an amended FBEGS survey form. This was then tested in ten locations nationwide. Results are given and a grading system is proposed. It is shown that it may be possible to evaluate a field boundary using a simple grading system but the accuracy of such a survey cannot be confirmed due to the lack of baseline data for Ireland. However, preliminary trial surveys indicate that values assigned to a particular boundary approximate well to professional opinion. Discussion concludes with some recommendations for potential uses.

Land use systems that integrate woody vegetation with livestock and/or crops and are recognised for their biodiversity and cultural importance can be termed high nature and cultural value (HNCV) agroforestry. In this review, based on the literature and stakeholder knowledge, we describe the structure, components and management practices of ten contrasting HNCV agroforestry systems distributed across five European bioclimatic regions. We also compile and categorize the ecosystem services provided by these agroforestry systems, following the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services. HNCV agroforestry in Europe generally enhances biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services relative to conventional agriculture and forestry. These systems can reduce fire risk, compared to conventional forestry, and can increase carbon sequestration, moderate the microclimate, and reduce soil erosion and nutrient leaching compared to conventional agriculture. However, some of the evidence is

Considerable funding has been allocated to conservation management of non-crop habitat in agricultural landscapes, particularly field margin habitat such as hedgerows. Evaluation of the biodiversity benefits of noncrop habitat has lagged behind implementation, however, especially in the United States where this habitat has the potential to supply important resources for both common and rare species of birds. We examined the effects of woody field margin vegetation on winter and breeding season avian communities at 103 fields, row crops, and orchards in California's Central Valley, one of the most intensively-farmed landscapes on Earth. We found that margins with hedgerows, treelines or remnant riparian habitat harbored 2-3 times as many bird species, significantly greater species evenness, and 3-6 times higher maximum total abundances of birds than bare or weedy margins. The effect of margin type on richness was modulated by water year, whereas the effect of margin type on maximum total abundance was modulated by adjacent crop type. At the landscape scale, hedgerow and riparian margins that were further from woodland harbored greater species richness; a result that supports our recommendation for targeted development of hedgerows in simplified agricultural landscapes. These results demonstrate that non-crop woody habitats, both planted and remnant native patches, increase the biodiversity value of farms, providing support for policies to preserve remaining habitat and incentivize installation of woody hedgerows.

A series of experiments was set up in England in the early 1990s on five containment landfill sites engineered to modern standards to test the relative performance of 14 native and nonnative woodland tree species. This article describes the results of monitoring their survival, growth, and nutrition over a 10-year period. The experiments demonstrated that several species, notably ash, whitebeam, white poplar, and wild cherry, can usually be established on landfill sites with survival rates comparable to other brownfield sites. Despite general site infertility, growth of many tree species (for example, ash, beech, English oak, sycamore, Italian alder, silver maple, white poplar, and whitebeam) was similar to that expected on greenfield sites in the locality of the landfill sites. As well as infertility, soil droughtiness and mammal browsing were identified as limiting tree performance of particular species on some sites. After 10 years, there was no evidence of interaction with landf...

Land use systems that integrate woody vegetation with livestock and/or crops and are recognised for their biodiversity and cultural importance can be termed high nature and cultural value (HNCV) agroforestry. In this review, based on the literature and stakeholder knowledge, we describe the structure, components and management practices of ten contrasting HNCV agroforestry systems distributed across five European bioclimatic regions. We also compile and categorize the ecosystem services provided by these agroforestry systems, following the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services. HNCV agroforestry in Europe generally enhances biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services relative to conventional agriculture and forestry. These systems can reduce fire risk, compared to conventional forestry, and can increase carbon sequestration, moderate the microclimate, and reduce soil erosion and nutrient leaching compared to conventional agriculture. However, some of the evidence is

Field boundaries are important habitats for birds within the agricultural landscape. In this study, bird surveys were carried out during the winter and breeding season on nine farms in the east and south-east of Ireland and field boundaries at each site were assessed using the Field Boundary Evaluation and Grading System (FBEGS). Poisson regression demonstrated that FBEGS scores were a good predictor of both winter and breeding bird species richness and diversity within the field boundaries studied. We interpret these preliminary results with caution since our sample size was relatively small (compared to the wide variety of field boundary types found in Ireland) and no single combination of field boundary attributes is likely to be optimum for all bird species. However, our results suggest that FBEGS may be a useful surrogate indicator of overall field boundary bird diversity and we discuss the consequent implications for agri-environmental policy, and for the possible adaptation a...

Such prescriptions developed by the GWCT, where the rigorous scientific evidence of efficacy is in place, are listed below. We believe that such an evidence base to support management prescriptions is an absolute prerequisite for an AES to give confidence to users and funders alike. Conservation headlands The use of selective pesticides, both herbicides and insecticides, along the edges of arable crops to protect the flora and the invertebrate life per se but that includes the chick-food insect groups that feed young birds in the first few weeks of life (Potts, 1986). Selectivity allows pernicious weeds, not tolerated by farmers, to be removed whilst leaving key insect host plants. This is a compromise that works. Conservation headlands remaining unharvested These are designed to feed young chicks during the summer. The unharvested, selectively sprayed cereal crop edges are left uncut to provide food and shelter into the winter. Conservation headlands with low rates of fertiliser These are designed to protect our rare arable flora and associated invertebrates. Grassy margins These are from two to six metres wide and provide nesting cover for ground-nesting birds. They also support many groups of wildlife and buffer boundary habitats and watercourses from adjacent agricultural operations. Beetle banks Raised grassy banks of perennial grasses sown across the centres of large arable fields to break them up, providing habitats for a more diverse invertebrate fauna and nest sites for groundnesting birds and harvest mice. Wild bird cover mixtures Adapted from the concept of game cover crops, these are sown blocks of seed-bearing crops designed to feed and shelter birds in winter and especially see birds through the hungry gap. Secrets of Success As a Non-Government Organisation and registered charity, how have we been so influential in helping determine Agri-environment policy? Evidence based Evidence for efficacy of our management options was in place and published in peer-reviewed journals. Costed We could calculate levels of compensation needed or amounts of profits foregone. Farmer-friendly Our scientists have farming backgrounds so our prescriptions were workable, simple and References

The intensification of food production systems has resulted in landscape simplification, with trees and hedges disappearing from agricultural land, principally in industrialized countries. However, more recently, the potential of agroforestry systems and small woody landscape features (SWFs), e.g., hedgerows, woodlots, and scattered groups of trees, to sequester carbon was highlighted as one of the strategies to combat global climate change. Our study was aimed to assess the extent of SWFs embedded within agricultural landscapes in Germany, estimate their carbon stocks, and investigate the potential for increasing agroforestry cover to offset agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We analyzed open-source geospatial datasets and identified over 900,000 hectares of SWFs on agricultural land, equivalent to 4.6% of the total farmland. The carbon storage of SWFs was estimated at 111 ± 52 SD teragrams of carbon (Tg C), which was previously unaccounted for in GHG inventories and coul...

Nature-based solutions (NBS) is a term often used to refer to adequate green infrastructure that provides multiple benefits to society whilst addressing societal challenges. They are defined as actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits. Malta, the smallest member state of the EU, has been characterised by rapid economic growth and urbanisation and Maltese citizens had the highest rate of exposure to pollution, grime or other environmental problems, in the EU. The project ReNature aims to establish and implement a nature-based solutions research strategy for Malta with a vision to promote research and innovation and develop sustainable solutions whilst improving human well-being and tackling environmental challenges. Here, we introduce the opening of ReNature collection of research articles in the Open Access Research...

In some parts of Europe, stone wall field boundaries pervade agricultural landscapes, yet despite their prominence there has been very little research into field boundary walls anywhere. However, these anthropogenic features within cultural landscapes may offer insight into current debates on 'novel' ecosystems because of their artifice, their longevity in the landscape particularly in remote or exposed regions, and their morphology. In a review of the available, published literature in Europe, it was found that no publications exist that examine or illustrate specific ecological characteristics of field boundary stone walls, despite this longevity. Using examples from Ireland, where these structures are locally abundant, this paper aims first to draw attention to the poorly representative literature on this topic, and thus stimulate research that will detail the potential ecological characteristics of these ancient forms of field boundary. It then briefly explores the potential for these walls to be considered as 'novel' ecosystems within current debates on the issue.

Hedges are both ecologically and culturally important and are a distinctive feature of the British landscape. However the overall length of hedges across Great Britain is decreasing. Current challenges in studying hedges relate to the dominance of research on rural, as opposed to urban, hedges, and their variability and geographical breadth. To help address these challenges and to educate the public on the importance of hedge habitats for wildlife, in 2010 the Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) programme coordinated a hedge-focused citizen science survey. Results from 2891 surveys were analysed. Woody plant species differed significantly between urban and rural areas. Beech, Holly, Ivy, Laurel, Privet and Yew were more commonly recorded in urban hedges whereas Blackthorn, Bramble, Dog Rose, Elder and Hawthorn were recorded more often in rural hedges. Urban and rural differences were shown for some groups of invertebrates. Ants, earwigs and shieldbugs were recorded more frequently in urban...

The arrival of the phrase nature-based solutions into the lexicon of academics, planners, managers and policy makers in recent years has sparked a heated debate as to the effectiveness of using nature as a viable solution for mitigating the impacts of anthropogenic environmental change. One of the difficulties of evaluating the potential efficacy and impact of nature-based solutions is that it is believed that there is little evidence by way of a precedent or long-term successful examples. Much literature exists on the subject of designing with nature to provide multi-functional green infrastructure, connectivity in the landscape, and ecosystem service provision. Indeed, in the opinion of many, the nature-based solution approach appears to synergise research into green infrastructure, ecological connectivity and ecosystem service provision for building climate-related resilience. However, when a nature-based solution has been specifically selected over, say, an engineered solution the literature is rather less clear. So, decision-makers may find it necessary to rely on less reliable sources of impact evidence. This paper argues that field boundary hedgerows may be considered to be exemplars of a nature-based solution, one that was planned, designed, perfected and mainstreamed at a landscape scale, that was specifically selected over a non-nature-based solution, and one that is still in providing solutions and co-benefits today. Therefore, hedgerows may provide some perspective into the potential or emergent co-benefits that the current nature-based solution approach seeks to provide.

In urban and urban-industrial woodlands of the Ruhr Basin an extremely high number of non-native  woody  species  were  recorded.  These  include  a  number  of  warm-loving  and  heat-loving species like walnut [Juglans regia L.], chestnut [Castanea sativa MILL.]; tree of heaven [Ailanthus altissima (MILL.) SWINGLE], princess tree [Paulownia tomentosa (THUNB.) STEUB.],  turkey  oak  [Quercus  cerris  L.]  and  the  common  fig  [Ficus  carica  L.].  Also,  the  observations  indicate  that  other  non-native  woody  species  show  expansion  trends,  namely  European  yew  [Taxus  baccata  L.]  and  evergreen  species  like  Oregon-grape  [Mahonia aquifolium  (PURSH)  NUTT.],  Japanese  pachysandra  [Pachysandra  terminalis  SIEBOLD  et 
ZUCC.], Chinese barberry [Berberis julianae C.K. SCHNEID.] and rhododendron
[Rhododendron spec.]. Mainly they escape from different kinds of cultivation like ornamental plantings  in  gardens,  cemeteries,  parks  and  public  places.  Partly,  the  occurrence  of  these  species  can  be  related  to  the  impacts  of  urban  climate.  However,  in  the  last  two  decades  warm-loving woody plants have increased remarkably both in the number of individuals and in the number of species. Probably, this increase of woody plant diversity in urban forests is a result of climate change.

Landscapes are the living evidence of the cultural practices of a people through time and space. Human presence always leaves a legacy to future generations. This legacy becomes important when the landscape is considered a " High Nature Value Environment " in which the resources and the processes in nature combine to supply us humankind with life-supporting benefits. One such case in point is Northern Range of the island of Trinidad. We have created and tested a " High Nature Value Index " (HNVI) to assess the impact and improve the contribution of the cultural practices of farming to ecological stability in this environment. The HNVI played a vital role in finding common ground between the need of rural communities to increase agricultural productivity and the desire to reduce negative environmental impact in very sensitive areas. The current challenge is to institutionalize the HNVI as an application tool by a wider spectrum of stakeholders and to contribute to broadening the base of responsible actors in this environment.

Farm-wide bird surveys were carried out on 119 grass-based farms located in three separate regions in Ireland during the winter and breeding seasons. Data relating to livestock production system (dairy or non-dairy) and participation in the Irish agrienvironment scheme (AES) at the time, the Rural Environmental Protection Scheme, were collected. GLMMs were used to establish the factors influencing bird populations during the winter and breeding season. Region and farming system had significant effects on avian biodiversity and there were frequently greater numbers on more intensively managed dairy farms, compared with less intensive non-dairy farms. AES participation had no significant effect on bird populations. Our findings demonstrate a clear influence of region and farm system on avian biodiversity, and suggest that the greater resource availability in more intensive farm systems may actually be beneficial for certain components of farmland biodiversity. A. 2008. Nitrogen flows and balances in four grasslandbased systems of dairy production on a clay-loam soil in a moist temperate climate. Grass and Forage Science 63:467-480. Jeanneret Ph, Schüpbach B, Luka H. 2003. Quantifying the impact of landscape and habitat features on biodiversity in cultivated landscapes. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 98:311-320. Kleijn D, Sutherland W J. 2003. How effective are European agri-environment schemes in conserving and promoting biodiversity? Journal of Applied Ecology 40:947-969. Krebs J R, Wilson J D, Bradbury R, Siriwardena G. 1999. The second silent spring? Nature 400:611-612. Lafferty S, Commins P, Walsh J A. 1999. Irish Agriculture in Transition. A Census Atlas of Agriculture in the Republic of Ireland. Maynooth, Ireland: Teagasc and N.U.I. Manhoudt A G E, de Snoo G R. 2003. A quantitative survey of semi-natural habitats on Dutch arable farms. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 97:235-240. McMahon B J, Carnus T, Whelan J. 2013. A comparison of winter bird communities in agricultural grassland and cereal habitats in Ireland: implications for Common Agricultural Policy reform. Bird Study 60:176-184.