Elevated Plus Maze

The amount of maternal licking received by newborn rats affects their adult stress reactivity and maternal behavior. Mouse studies in which litters were cross-fostered between strains that exhibit high vs. low amounts of maternal behavior also suggest that rearing conditions affect adult outcomes.The current study is the first to compare within a single mouse strain (C57BL/6J) behavioral responses between adult animals reared by mothers that exhibited frequencies of pup-licking (PL) at the high end and the low end of the normal distribution within the strain. Maternal behaviors were coded during 10-s intervals every 3 min during five 1-h periods (two light, three dark cycle) on postpartum days 2, 4, 6, and 8 in 36 unrelated C57BL/6J mothers. The distribution of mean frequencies/h for PL, still crouched nursing, hovering over pups, self-grooming, and no contact with pups were determined. Offspring (6-12 weeks of age) from the eight mothers who exhibited the highest mean frequencies of PL and the seven mothers who exhibited the lowest PL frequencies underwent the following tests over three consecutive weeks: (1) elevated plus-maze (EPM) and 1-h open field on three successive days, (2) 3-h open field with an acute stressor (IP saline injection) at the 1-h time point, and (3) acoustic startle and prepulse inhibition. Females reared by low PL mothers exhibited significantly more time in the closed arms of the EPM, less locomotion, center time, and rearing during the first test in the open field, greater reactivity to an acute stressor, and reduced prepulse inhibition, an index of sensorimotor gating. Male offspring from low PL dams had reduced reactivity to an acute stressor, but no other altered performance in the behavioral tests. PL frequencies of C57BL/6J mothers appear to selectively alter behavior outcomes, primarily in female offspring.

Androgen levels decline with aging. Some androgens may exert anti-anxiety and cognitiveenhancing effects; however, determining which androgens have anxiolytic-like and/or mnemonic effects is of interest given the different mechanisms that may underlie some of their effects. For example, the 5αreduced metabolite of testosterone (T), dihydrotesterone, can be further converted to 5α-androstane,17β-diol-3αdiol (3α-diol) and 5α-androstane,17β-diol-3β-diol (3βdiol), both of which bind with high affinity to the beta isomer of the intracellular estrogen receptor beta (ERβ). However, androsterone, another metabolite of T, does not bind well to ERβ. To investigate the effects of T metabolites, male rats were subjected to gonadectomy then implanted with silastic capsules of 3α-diol, 3β-diol, androsterone, or oil control. After recovery, the rats were tested in elevated plus maze (EPM), light/dark transition (LD), and Morris water maze (MWM). 3α-diol both decreased anxiety-like behavior in the EPM and LD, and increased cognition in MWM, while 3β-diol improved cognition in MWM, but had no effects on anxiety behavior, compared to vehicle or androsterone. These data suggest that the actions of 3α-diol and 3β-diol at ERβ may be responsible for some of testosterone's antianxiety and cognitive-enhancing effects.

There are sex differences, as well as differences across the ovarian cycle, in rodents on performance in anxiety tasks and responsiveness to noxious stimuli. Neonatally feminized male and female rats spend more time on the open arms of the elevated plus-maze and exhibit less conditioned defensive burying, as adults, than do neonatally androgenized female or male rats (Fernandez-Guasti,

Actions of 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (3α,5α-THP), in the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA) modulate sexual receptivity of female rats. Actions of 3α,5α-THP at GABAergic substrates in the VTA are known to modulate consummatory aspects of sexual behavior among rodents, such as lordosis. However, the extent to which GABA A receptors in the VTA are important for appetitive (exploratory, anti-anxiety, social) aspects of sexual-receptivity is not well-understood. Proestrous rats were bilaterally-infused with saline or bicuculline (100 ng), a GABA A receptor antagonist, to the VTA or missed-site control sites. Rats were assessed for exploratory/anti-anxiety (open field/ elevated plus maze), social (social interaction), and sexual (paced-mating) behavior. Compared to saline or missed-site controls, intra-VTA bicuculline significantly reduced the number of central entries in an open field, time spent on the open arms of an elevated plus maze, frequency and intensity of lordosis, anti-aggression towards a male, pacing of sexual contacts, and 3α,5α-THP concentrations in midbrain and hippocampus. Bicuculline-infused rats also displayed less affiliation with a novel conspecific, fewer sexual solicitations, and had lower 3α,5α-THP concentrations in diencephalon and cortex, albeit these were not significant differences. Thus, actions at GABA A receptors in the midbrain VTA are essential for appetitive and consummatory aspects of sexual receptivity among rats.

There are sex differences, as well as differences across the ovarian cycle, in rodents on performance in anxiety tasks and responsiveness to noxious stimuli. Neonatally feminized male and female rats spend more time on the open arms of the elevated plus-maze and exhibit less conditioned defensive burying, as adults, than do neonatally androgenized female or male rats (Fernandez-Guasti,

Androgen levels decline with aging. Some androgens may exert anti-anxiety and cognitiveenhancing effects; however, determining which androgens have anxiolytic-like and/or mnemonic effects is of interest given the different mechanisms that may underlie some of their effects. For example, the 5α-reduced metabolite of testosterone (T), dihydrotesterone, can be further converted to 5αandrostane,17β-diol-3α-diol (3α-diol) and 5αandrostane,17β-diol-3β-diol (3β-diol), both of which bind with high affinity to the beta isomer of the intracellular estrogen receptor beta (ERβ). However, androsterone, another metabolite of T, does not bind well to ERβ. To investigate the effects of T metabolites, male rats were subjected to gonadectomy then implanted with silastic capsules of 3α-diol, 3β-diol, androsterone, or oil control. After recovery, the rats were tested in elevated plus maze (EPM), light/dark transition (LD), and Morris water maze (MWM). 3α-diol both decreased anxietylike behavior in the EPM and LD, and increased cognition in MWM, while 3β-diol improved cognition in MWM, but had no effects on anxiety behavior, compared to vehicle or androsterone. These data suggest that the actions of 3α-diol and 3β-diol at ERβ may be responsible for some of testosterone's anti-anxiety and cognitive-enhancing effects.

Social hierarchy is considered to impart an adaptive advantage to the species by reducing long-term conflict between conspecifics. While social stratification is frequently established via stress-inducing stimuli, the subsequent integration of individuals into the hierarchy may attenuate anxiety. Presently, we hypothesized that repeated reinforcement of murine social hierarchy in the dominant-submissive relationship (DSR) food-competition test would engender divergent neuroplastic changes mediating both social and anxiety-like behavior among selectively-bred Dominant (Dom) and Submissive (Sub) mice. Two weeks of repeated respective social victory or defeat reduced serum corticosterone levels of both Dom and Sub mice, whereas socially-defeated Sub mice demonstrated markedly greater exploration of the open arms of the elevated plus maze (EPM). At the same time, social victory led to markedly greater expression of the immediate-early genes (IEGs) c-Jun and EGR-1 in the lateral septal nucleus (LSN) among Dom mice, in contrast with defeated Sub counterparts which demonstrated four-fold greater IEG expression in the cingulate gyrus (Cg). These findings point towards involvement of the Cg in the anxiety-like effect among Sub mice after repeated social defeat, and suggest stabilization of the social hierarchy to attenuate the stress-inducing nature of social interaction, particularly for subordinates. Further study of the potentially anxiolytic-like effects of Cg activity should shed light upon the functional significance of the Cg in social interaction, social hierarchical sorting and anxiety.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Thymus vulgaris L. (TVL) on oxidative stress, motor coordination and learning/memory in acute and chronic epilepsy models in rats induced by Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ). To this end, 64 male Wistar-albino rats were randomly divided into eight groups with 8 rats each: (1) acute control (AC), (2) acute PTZ (APTZ), (3) acute PTZ + sodium valproate (APTZ+VPA), (4) acute PTZ + TVL (APTZ+TVL), (5) chronic control (CC), (6) PTZ kindling (PTZk), (7) PTZ kindling + VPA (PTZk+VPA) and (8) PTZ kindling + TVL (PTZk+TVL) . Seizures were observed for 30 min after each PTZ injection and were scored. Acute PTZ-induced seizures were created by injecting a single convulsive dose of PTZ (60 mg/kg, ip) in acute groups. PTZ kindling was produced by injecting a subconvulsant dose of PTZ (35 mg/kg, ip) every other day, with 14 injections in total. No significant difference was found among the PTZk + VPA, PTZk, and PTZk + TVL groups with regard to seizur...

Background of Study: Anxiety disorders, one of the most prevalent mood disorders,affect many people around the world. It is often found in conjunction with psychiatric (depression and substance abuse disorders) as well as non-psychiatric (chronic fatigue,cardiac diseases, or respiratory compromise) disorders. Several pharmacological studies have demonstrated the ability of Psidium guajava to exhibit antioxidant, hepatoprotection, anti-allergic, antimicrobial, anti genotoxic, antiplasmodial, cytotoxic, antispasmodic, cardioactive,antitussive, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities, supporting its traditional uses.
Aim: The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of ethyl acetate fractions (EAF) and dichloroacetate extracts of Psidium guajava on anxiety in animal models.
Material and Methods: 70% Ethanol,Distilled Water,Fluoxetine, Sterile needles and syringes,Cotton Wool,Digital balance, Animal weighing balance, Transparent Box, Open field apparatus,& Digital Timer. Animals grouped into five(5) groups with five(5) mice each in each. Group I (Distilled water), Group II (Diazepam), Group III, IV, V (extract group)- 50mg/kg,100mg/kg,200mg/kg of Psidium guajava. Anxiolytic test for Psidium guajava was carried out using the Hole board test.
Results: The result suggests that over a period of 14 days of treatment Dichloroacetate extract has Anxiolytic activity at only specific doses of 50 and 200mg/kg, however the ethyl acetate fraction of Psidium guajava, on the first day of treatment, shows Anxiolytic effect of ethyl acetate fraction of Psidium guajava is seen at a small dose of 50mg/kg.
Conclusion: Our study shows that the Psidium guajava extract had marked effects on the anxiety-related behavioural parameters on exposure to the the hole board in mice.

Chronic oral methylphenidate (MP) exposure in rats is associated with numerous developmental and behavioral consequences. The present study investigated the persistence of the effects of chronic oral MP exposure after abstinence from MP use. Male and female rats were exposed to daily orally self-administered water, low dose MP (LD), or high dose (HD) MP for 13 weeks, followed by a 4-week abstinence period. Fluid, food consumption and bodyweights were monitored and animals were tested for locomotor activity, anxiety- and depressive-like symptoms, learning and memory, and social behavior during both the treatment and abstinence phases of the experiment. During treatment, MP attenuated bodyweight regardless of sex, but increased food and fluid consumption in females and males by 20.7% and 30.1%, respectively. MP also increased locomotor activity in both males and females observed as increased distance travelled in an open field. (59.1% and 95.9%, respectively) and increased locomotor a...

Objectives: The role of Ocimum canum Sim., as a medicinal agent used for the treatment and management of diseases cannot be overemphasized. The aim of the study is to screen the Phytochemical constituents and to evaluate the antiepileptic effect of methanol whole plant extract in Wistar albino rats.
Material and Methods: The whole plant part of O. canum was extracted with 85% percentage of methanol and screened for phytochemicals. An acute toxicity study was carried out using Lorke’s method and the antiepileptic activity was evaluated using pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) and strychnine in rats. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used in the analysis of the data.
Results: The phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of saponins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, terpenoids, and cardenolides. The intraperitoneal median lethal dose value (LD50) of O. canum in rats was 2154 mg/kg. The extract at the dose of 300 and 600 mg/kg body weight protected 40% and 80% of experimental animals against both PTZ and strychnine-induced convulsion; protected 60% and 80% of rats against death induced by strychnine; compared to 100% protection by the standard drug sodium valproate (20mg/kg).
Conclusion: The antiepileptic investigation suggests that methanol extract of whole plant of O. canum has antiepileptic activity which could be employed for the management of epileptic related conditions

Motivational symptoms such as anergia, fatigue, and reduced exertion of effort are seen in depressed people. To model this, nucleus accumbens (Nacb) dopamine (DA) depletions are used to induce a low-effort bias in rodents tested on effort-based decision-making. We evaluated the effect of the catecholamine uptake blocker bupropion on its own, and after administration of tetrabenazine (TBZ), which blocks vesicular storage, depletes DA, and induces depressive symptoms in humans. Male CD1 mice were tested on a 3-choice-T-maze task that assessed preference between a reinforcer involving voluntary physical activity (running wheel, RW) vs. sedentary activities (sweet food pellet intake or a neutral non-social odor). Mice also were tested on the forced swim test (FST), two anxiety-related measures (dark-light box (DL), and elevated plus maze (EPM)). Expression of phosphorylated DARPP-32 (Thr34 and Thr75) was evaluated by immunohistochemistry as a marker of DA-related signal transduction. Bupropion increased selection of RW activity on the T-maze. TBZ reduced time running, but increased time-consuming sucrose, indicating an induction of a low-effort bias, but not an effect on primary sucrose motivation. In the FST, bupropion reduced immobility, increasing swimming and climbing, and TBZ produced the opposite effects. Bupropion reversed the effects of TBZ on the T-maze and the FST, and also on pDARPP32-Thr34 expression in Nacb core. None of these manipulations affected anxiety-related parameters. Thus, bupropion improved active behaviors, which were negatively motivated in the FST, and active behaviors that were positively motivated in the T-maze task, which has implications for using catecholamine uptake inhibitors for treating anergia and fatigue-like symptoms.

Phytoestrogens are a diverse group of plant-derived compounds that structurally or functionally mimic mammalian estrogens and show potential benefits for human health. They can serve as potential alternatives to the synthetic selective estrogen receptor modulators which are currently being used in hormone replacement therapy. Estrogens play many important physiological roles in men and women. In women, life is severely affected by a variety of estrogen-related conditions such as osteoporosis, cognitive and cardiovascular disease, increased risk of breast cancer and other symptoms that decrease the overall quality of life. Phytoestrogens are effective in maintaining bone mineral density, prevent bone loss, and help in the prevention and/or treatment of such health related problems. They can be classified as flavonoids, isoflavonoids, coumestans, stilbenes, lignans and terpenoids. The main isoflavones, genistein and daidzein found in soybean, can exist as glucosides or as aglycones, and are readily hydrolyzed in the gut to their aglycones. The aglycones are easily transported across intestinal epithelial cells. Terpenoids (ferutinine, tschimgine, and tschimganidine) found in the Umbelliferae family have estrogenic activities. The main dietary source of phytoestrogenic stilbenes is trans-resveratrol from red wine and peanuts. Plant-derived foods may be an adequate source for a variety of phytoestrogens capable of producing a range of pharmacological effects and protection from various life threatening diseases. This article provides the comprehensive information about the main groups of phytoestrogens, their food as well as herbal or botanical sources, potential health benefits and probable health hazards.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the anxiolytic potential of the Linum usitatissimum (Flax seed) oil (5ml and 2.5ml/kg) in wistar rats by using Elevated plus maze (EPM) model and 5ml and 10 ml/kg in Lithium induced head twitches model. Experiments were carried out on white inbred Wistar rats (180-200 g). The efficacy of the oil at both the animal models was compared with the standard anxiolytic drugs Diazepam (0.5 mg/kg). The result showed that the oil significantly increased the number of entries and time spent in the open arm in the elevated plus maze. Similarly in Lithium induced head twitches model administration of oil decreases the no. of head twitches. Present study confirms that the extract showed significant anxiolytic activity at both dose levels which is comparable with standard anxiolytic Diazepam.

The present study examined the anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of the aqueous extract ofAlafia multiflora Stapf(AM) stem barks (150 and 300 mg/kg, 7 days administration) on rats and mice, using experimental paradigms of anxiety and depression. In the open field, the aqueous extract increased significantly the number of center square crossed and the time spent at the center of the field as well as the rearing time, while the grooming time was reduced significantly. In the elevated plus maze, the aqueous extract increased the time spent and the number of entries in the open arms. All these effects were also completely reversed by flumazenil, an antagonist of benzodiazepine receptors and pindolol aβ-adrenoceptors blocker/5-HT 1A/1B receptor antagonist. The time spent in the light compartment, the latency time, and the number of the light-dark transitions increased significantly in the light/dark exploration test after the treatment with AM. The extract was able to reduce signific...

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is one of the most important pro-inflammatory cytokines and plays a pivotal role in the neuroinflammation associated with certain forms of neurodegeneration, such as epilepsy, cerebral ischemia, trauma, and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Also, it was suggested that IL-1 is involved in physiological processes, namely modulation of sleep, glucose and lipid metabolism, and neuroendocrine regulation, as well as modulation of learning and memory. The objectives of the present work were to study the role of the IL-1 system in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as epilepsy and cerebral ischemia, as well as the influence of central IL-1 signalling on brain morphology, expression of AD-related proteins, and inflammatory markers, and on different aspects of behaviour, activation of hypothalamopituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis, and brain monoamines. It is well known that hypothermia protects against neurodegeneration induced by excitotoxic brain damage, while hyperthermia has an aggravating effect. In Paper I and II, experimental excitotoxicity was induced by peripheral administration of the glutamate analogue kainic acid (KA) in rats, a well known model for human temporal lobe epilepsy, which leads to epileptic seizures, temperature changes, and specific brain damage characterized by neuronal cell death and glial activation, as well as induction of inflammatory cytokines. The aims were to study the mechanisms underlying KA-induced core temperature changes, i.e. initial hypothermia followed by a longer hyperthermic effect, with regard to the subtypes of glutamate receptors and the involvement of IL-1, as well as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra). We found that KA-induced changes in core temperature are not dependent upon NMDA-receptors activation and are unlikely to be a result of increased motor activity since dizocilpine, a non-competitive antagonist of NMDA-receptors, blocked KA-induced behavioural, but not temperature changes (Paper I). The levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-1ra in the hypothalamus did not seem to correlate with KA-induced changes in core temperature, except for the increase in IL-1β in the hypothalamus, at 2 h after KA-injection. The ratios between IL-1β and IL-1ra or IL-6 were increased at the time points when the core temperatures were modified, suggesting that imbalances between cytokine levels may contribute to KA-induced core temperature changes (Paper II). The role of IL-1 receptor-mediated activity in the brain, upon focal cerebral ischemia and under normal conditions, was investigated in a previously developed transgenic mouse strain with central blockade of IL-1 signalling, due to the brain-directed overexpression of human soluble IL-1ra (Tg hsIL-1ra) (Paper III-V). A model of permanent focal cerebral ischemia was established in the Tg hsIL-1ra mice and analysis of neurological scores, lesion size, and inflammatory markers showed similar results in Tg hsIL-1ra (heterozygotic) and wild type mice, indicating that the brain-directed blockade of IL-1 signalling was not neuroprotective in this model of permanent focal cerebral ischemia in mice (Paper III). Analysis of the phenotype of the Tg hsIL-ra mice indicated that there were no significant compensatory changes of IL-1β, IL-6, or tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in the brain. However, the marked reduction in area density and brain volume in the Tg hsIL-1ra (homozygotic) mice indicates that IL-1 signalling in the brain affects CNS development. Furthermore, the expression of amyloid precursor protein (APP) was lower in heterozygotic, but not homozygotic male Tg hsIL-1ra mice (Paper IV). In addition, we observed modulation of different aspects of behaviour, and of the expression of dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and their metabolites in the brain of Tg hsIL-1ra mice, but no effect on the activation of the HPA-axis, reflected in the serum levels of corticosterone (Paper V). Studies on the behavioural phenotype revealed higher locomotor activity, decreased habituation for locomotion, and lower anxiety levels in the Tg hsIL-1ra mice. The levels of DA, 5-HT, and their metabolites were decreased in certain brain regions of the Tg hsIL-1ra mice. IL-1 signalling in the brain seems to have important roles, both in the basic functionality of the CNS, but also in the pathogenesis of excitototoxic neurodegeneration, suggesting that the manipulation of IL-1 system can have promising therapeutic implications. 4.1.2 KA-induced core temperature changes and neurodegeneration -the roles of

N-formylpeptide receptor 1 (FPR1) is a G protein-coupled receptor that mediates proinflammatory chemotactic responses by phagocytic leukocytes to N-formylpeptides produced by bacteria or mitochondria. Mice lacking Fpr1 (Fpr1 -/-mice) have increased susceptibility to challenge with certain bacteria. FPR1 is also a receptor for annexin-1, which mediates the antiinflammatory effects of glucocorticoids as well as negative feedback by glucocorticoids of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. However, homeostatic functions of FPR1 in the neuroendocrine system have not previously been defined. Here we show that in systematic behavioral testing Fpr1 -/-mice exhibited increased exploratory activity, reduced anxiety-like behavior, and impaired fear memory, but normal spatial memory and learning capacity. Consistent with this, the homeostatic serum level of corticosterone in Fpr1 -/-mice was significantly lower compared with wild-type mice. The data implicate Fpr1 in modulation of anxiety-like behavior and fear memory by regulating glucocorticoid production.

Serotonin transmission dysfunction has been suggested to play an important role in depression and anxiety. This study reports the results of a series of experiments in which rats were subjected to extended maize-based tortilla diets during early postnatal stages. This diet contains only approximately 20% of the L-tryptophan in normal diets of laboratory rodents. Compared with controls, experimental rats displayed a significant increase of immobility counts in the forced swimming test and exhibited anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze test after 1 month of diet treatment. Low levels of serotonin contents were found in prefrontal cortex, striatum, hippocampus, and brainstem using high-performance liquid chromatography. Immunocytochemical reactions against 5-Bromo-2-deoxyuridine revealed a significant decrease in the proliferation rate for the subgranular zone of dentate gyrus. c-Fos expression after the forced swimming test was found reduced in prefrontal cortex, dentate gyrus, CA1, and hilus of hippocampus and amygdala. Moreover, dendrite arbor atrophy and decreased spine density were evident in Golgi-Cox-impregnated CA1 pyramidal neurons. Abnormal dendrite swelling in dentate gyrus granule cells was also observed. These findings indicate an involvement of hyposerotoninergia in emotional disturbance produced by L-tryptophan restriction during critical developmental stages and suggest that neuroplasticity changes might underlie these changes.

Background: Cinnamon is one of the best known spices used as an herbal medicine. Cinnamaldehyde (CNM) the volatile oil, which was present in the essential oil of the bark, is the important constituents of cinnamon. Cinnamon has been investigated for its various effects like peptic ulcer protection, antioxidant property, inhibition of tau aggregation, anti-inflammatory activity, effect on cardiovascular system, anti-nociceptive activity, hepato-protective effects, hypolipidemic and antidiabetic activites. The present study was aimed to evaluate the anxiolytic effect of CNM per se and its interaction with diazepam in swiss albino mice.Methods: Anxiolytic activity was evaluated by elevated plus maze method. A group of 36 healthy mice of either sex weighing 20-30 grams were divided at random into six groups (n=6). CNM and diazepam were dissolved in tween twenty 20% to maintain uniformity of the solvent and given orally. Group I was given twenty 20% (10 ml/kg, p.o.), group II diazepam (0...

• Genetic models are powerful tools to help understand anxiety disorders. • In order to determine the extent to which multiple anxiety traits generalize we compared eight genetic lines of rats selected for single high or low emotional responses. • We find many behavioral traits generalize across different animal lines selected for a single trait.

Exposure to daily life stressors is associated with increases in anxiety, depression, and overall negative affect. Alcohol or other psychoactive drugs are often used to alleviate stress effects. While females are more than twice as likely to develop mood disorders and are more susceptible to dependency than males, they are infrequently examined. In this study, female rats received no stress/no alcohol control (CON), alcohol alone (ALC), stress alone (STR), or stress plus alcohol (STR+ALC). Stress consisted of restraint for 6h/day/7days, and alcohol was administered immediately following restraint via gastric gavage at a dose of 2.0g/kg. Dependent measures included tests utilizing object recognition (OR), Y-maze, elevated plus maze (EPM), forced swim (FST), blood alcohol content, corticosterone levels, and body weights. ALC, STR+ALC, but not stress alone, impaired memory on OR. All treatments impaired spatial memory on the Y-maze. Anxiety was not affected on the EPM, but rats treated...

Background: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that manifests through a broad range of symptoms and shares several phenotypes with anxiety and depression. Refractory PTSD affects 10 – 30% of the patients and highlights the need for alternative pharmacotherapy. The suggested involvement of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) with the emotional processes has enlightened the use of Cannabis sp. Then, this study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effects of a broad-spectrum Cannabis oil on anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors triggered by stressors from combined nature. In addition, this study investigated the effect of the oil on central cannabinoid receptor 1 and serum levels of cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors. Methods: Mice were randomized into five groups (vehicle; Cannabis oil; fluoxetine; single oral dose) and submitted to acute restraint and chronic unpredictable stress. Then, they were behaviorally assessed in the elevated plus-maze test (EPM...

Macaíba palm seed kernel is a source of lipids and phenolic compounds. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of macaíba palm seed kernel on anxiety, memory, and oxidative stress in the brain of health and dyslipidemic rats. Forty rats were used, divided into 4 groups (n = 10 each): control (CONT), dyslipidemic (DG), kernel (KG), and Dyslipidemic kernel (DKG). Dyslipidemia was induced using a high fat emulsion for 14 days before treatment. KG and DKG received 1000 mg/kg of macaíba palm seed kernel per gavage for 28 days. After treatment, anxiety tests were carried out using the Open Field Test (OFT), Elevated Plus Maze (EPM), and the Object Recognition Test (ORT) to assess memory. In the animals’ brain tissue, levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and total glutathione (GSH) were quantified to determine oxidative stress. The data were treated with Two Way ANOVA followed by Tukey (p <0.05). Results demonstrated that the animals treated with kernel realized more rearing....

Syzygium fruticosum (SF), a valuable Bangladeshi fruit, is considered an alternative therapeutic agent. Mainly, seeds are used as nutritional phytotherapy to ease physical and mental status by preventing chronic diseases. Here, we scrutinized the S. fruticosum seed’s fundamental importance in traditional medicine by following an integrated approach combining in vivo, in vitro, and in silico studies. The SF was fractionated with different solvents, and the ethyl acetate fraction of SF (EaF-SF) was further studied. Mice treated with EaF-SF (200 and 400 mg/kg) manifested anxiolysis evidenced by higher exploration in elevated plus maze and hole board tests. Similarly, a dose-dependent drop of immobility time in a forced swimming test ensured significant anti-depressant activity. Moreover, higher dose treatment exposed reduced exploratory behaviour resembling decreased movement and prolonged sleeping latency with a quick onset of sleep during the open field and thiopental-induced sleepin...

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder is a mental disorder characterized by obsessions and/or compulsions. In order to understand underlying the mechanism of obsessive compulsive disorder, scientists apply animal tests. Animal tests of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) include genetic, pharmacological and behavior tests. Marble burying test is unconditioned OCD test. Our aim is to investigate marble burying test in terms of biological and non-biological factors.

Larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) has the potential to supplement rodent models due to the availability of resource-efficient, high-throughput screening and high-resolution imaging techniques. Although behavioural models are available in larvae, only a few can be employed to assess anxiety. Here we present the swimming plus-maze (SPM) test paradigm, a tool to assess anxiety-related avoidance of shallow water bodies in early developmental stages. The “+” shaped apparatus consists of arms of different depth, representing different levels of aversiveness similarly to the rodent elevated plus-maze. The paradigm was validated (i) in larval and juvenile zebrafish, (ii) after administration of compounds affecting anxiety and (iii) in differentially aversive experimental conditions. Furthermore, we compared the SPM with conventional “anxiety tests” of zebrafish to identify their shared characteristics. We have clarified that the preference of deeper arms is ontogenetically conserved and can be...

The traditional use of essential oils in aromatherapy has offered numerous health benefits. However, few scientific studies have been conducted with these oils to confirm their therapeutic efficacy. (+)-Limonene is a chemical constituent of various bioactive essential oils. The present study reports on the anxiolytic-like effects of (+)-limonene in an elevated maze model of anxiety in mice. At concentrations of 0.5% and 1.0%, (+)-limonene, administered to mice by inhalation, significantly modified all the parameters evaluated in the elevated plus maze test. The pharmacological effect of inhaled (+)-limonene (1%) was not blocked by flumazenil. Analysis of (+)-limonene using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) showed its volatility to be high. These data suggest possible connections between the volatility of (+)-limonene and its anxiolytic-like effect on the parameters evaluated in the elevated plus maze test. The data indicate that (+)-limonene could be used in aromatherapy as an antianxiety agent.

Introduction: Anxiety disorders represent a significant public health issue worldwide and are linked to chronic stress, substance misuse, and elevated suicide risk. Chronic stress, substance misuse, and an increased risk of suicide are all consequences of anxiety disorders, which are a major worldwide health problem. Aim: In this study, we aimed to evaluate the anxiolytic potential of Chrozophora plicata, a medicinal plant traditionally used in India, particularly for its antioxidant and therapeutic properties. Materials and Methods: Two well-known behavioral models, the elevated plus maze (EPM) and the light-dark paradigm, were used to evaluate the ethanolic extract of the whole plant, which was prepared using a maceration procedure, for its anxiolytic effects on Wistar rats. To evaluate the plant extract's dose-dependent efficacy, three distinct dosages (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, and 400 mg/kg) were given. Diazepam was utilized as a common anxiolytic medication (2 mg/kg). Results: The findings demonstrated that C. plicata ethanolic extract, especially at the highest dose (400 mg/kg), considerably extended the time spent in the light chamber in the light-dark test and decreased the time spent in the closed arms in the EPM. Bioactive substances, including flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins, were found by phytochemical analysis; these substances are probably what cause the anxiolytic effects that have been seen. Conclusion: The results indicate that C. plicata may be used as a natural anxiolytic, with the strongest effects occurring at the greatest dosage. To identify and describe the active ingredients causing these therapeutic benefits, more research is needed.

Objective: The present study was designed to evaluate the protective effects of epalrestat (EPS) on memory and learning in type-2 diabetes. Methods: Sixty percent high-fat diet for 2 weeks and a single dose of streptozotocin (35 mg/kg, ip) was used to induce memory impairment in rats. Once the diabetes is confirmed, test drug (EPS - 13.5, 27, and 54 mg/kg, oral) and donepezil (1 mg/kg, oral) were administered to different groups of rats for 4 weeks followed by an assessment of memory and learning deficit using behavioral paradigms: Elevated plus maze (EPM), Morris water maze (MWM), and passive avoidance test. Results: EPS and donepezil showed significant improvement in learning and memory of rats, as indicated by markedly decreased escape latency to reach a hidden platform and increased time spent in target quadrant using MWM task, reduced transfer latency in EPM, and also there is a significant increase in the transfer latencies using passive avoidance test were noted. Memory-enhan...

This study provides a comprehensive behavioral characterization during aging of transgenic mice bearing both presenilin-1 (PS1) and amyloid precursor protein (APP ) mutations. Doubly transgenic mice and non-transgenic controls were evaluated at ages wherein 670,671 b-amyloid (Ab) neuropathology in APP1PS1 mice is low (5-7 months) or very extensive (15-17 months). Progressive cognitive impairment was observed in transgenic mice for both water maze acquisition and radial arm water maze working memory. However, transgenicity did not affect Y-maze alternations, circular platform performance, standard water maze retention, or visible platform recognition at either age, nor did transgenicity affect anxiety levels in elevated plus-maze testing. In sensorimotor tasks, transgenic mice showed a progressive increase in open field activity, a progressive impairment in string agility, and an early-onset impairment in balance beam. None of these sensorimotor changes appeared to be contributory to any cognitive impairments observed, however. Non-transgenic mice showed no progressive behavioral change in any measure evaluated. Given the age-related cognitive impairments presently observed in APP1PS1 transgenic mice and their progressive Ab deposition / neuroinflammation, Ab neuropathology could be involved in these progressive cognitive impairments. As such, the APP1PS1 transgenic mouse offers unique opportunities to develop therapeutics to treat or prevent Alzheimer's Disease through modulation of Ab deposition / neuroinflammation.

Omega-3-fatty acid DHA is a structural component of brain plasma membranes, thereby crucial for neuronal signaling; however, the brain is inefficient at synthesizing DHA. We have asked how levels of dietary n-3 fatty acids during brain growth would affect brain function and plasticity during adult life. Pregnant rats and their male offspring were fed an n-3 adequate diet or n-3 deficient diets for 15 weeks. Results showed that the n-3 deficiency increased parameters of anxietylike behavior using open field and elevated plus maze tests in the male offspring. Behavioral changes were accompanied by a level reduction in the anxiolytic-related neuropeptide Y-1 receptor, and an increase in the anxiogenic-related glucocorticoid receptor in the cognitive related frontal cortex, hypothalamus and hippocampus. The n-3 deficiency reduced brain levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and increased the ratio n-6/n-3 assessed by gas chromatography. The n-3 deficiency reduced the levels of BDNF and signaling through the BDNF receptor TrkB, in proportion to brain DHA levels, and reduced the activation of the BDNF-related signaling molecule CREB in selected brain regions. The n-3 deficiency also disrupted the insulin signaling pathways as evidenced by changes in insulin receptor (IR) and insulin receptor substrate (IRS). DHA deficiency during brain maturation reduces plasticity and compromises brain function in adulthood. Adequate levels of dietary DHA seem crucial for building long-term neuronal resilience for optimal brain performance and aiding in the battle against neurological disorders.

Continuous environmental stimulation induced by exposure to enriched environment (EE) has yielded cognitive benefits in different models of brain injury. Perinatal asphyxia results from a lack of oxygen supply to the fetus and is associated with long-lasting neurological deficits. However, the effects of EE in middle-aged rats suffering perinatal asphyxia are unknown. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to assess whether life-long exposure to EE could counteract the cognitive and behavioral alterations in middle-aged asphyctic rats. Experimental groups consisted of rats born vaginally (CTL), by cesarean section (C+), or by C+ following 19 min of asphyxia at birth (PA). At weaning, rats were assigned to standard (SE) or enriched environment (EE) for 18 months. During the last month of housing, animals were submitted to a behavioral test battery including Elevated Plus Maze, Open Field, Novel Object Recognition and Morris water maze (MWM). Results showed that middle-aged asphy...

Monoamine oxidases (MAO) are a valuable class of mitochondrial enzymes with a critical role in neuromodulation. In this study, we investigated the effect of natural MAO inhibitors on novel environment-induced anxiety by using the zebrafish novel tank test (NTT). Because zebrafish spend more time at the bottom of the tank when they are anxious, anxiolytic compounds increase the time zebrafish spend at the top of the tank and vice versa. Using this paradigm, we found that harmane, norharmane, and 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline (TIQ) induce anxiolytic-like effects in zebrafish, causing them to spend more time at the top of the test tank and less time at the bottom. 2,3,6-trimethyl-1,4-naphtoquinone (TMN) induced an interesting mix of both anxiolytic- and anxiogenic-like effects during the first and second halves of the test, respectively. TIQ was unique in having no observable effect on general movement. Similarly, a reference MAO inhibitor clorgyline—but not pargyline—increased the ti...

Starvation is a global challenge. Nutritional status of an organism may influence its psychosocial behavior and other nervous system processes like motor responses and its ability to learn and memorize. This study determined the impact of starvation-induced stress on memory sensitization, habituation and psychosomatic responses in an experimental animal design. 25 wistar rats were randomly sampled and grouped into 1-control, 2-feed after 6 hours deprivation, 3-feed after12 hours deprivation, 4-feed after 18 hours deprivation and 5-feed after 24 hours deprivation. Behavioral tests carried out included the multiple maze tests and elevated plus maze test. Grip strength test was performed to determine neuromuscular response and endurance in all groups. Biochemical investigation of brain stress markers was done on the last day of the study. There was a significant (P≤0.

The bis-coumarin daphnoretin (1) and its monomeric precursors scopoletin (3) and umbelliferone (4) were isolated for the first time from L. mexicana, a vegetal species used in Mexican traditional medicine. The unambiguous 13 C NMR chemical shifts assignments of daphnoretin (1) and its acetyl derivative 2 were achieved through one-bond (gHMQC) and long-distance (gHMBC) heteronuclear correlations. The crude hydroalcoholic extract and pure daphnoretin 1 obtained from this plant, showed anxiolytic effect in male ICR mice exposed to elevated plus-maze. Different doses of daphnoretin (1) were not able to modify the spontaneous locomotor activity measured in the open field test. This is the first report regarding to the anxiolytic effect of daphnoretin (1).

Studies show that estrogens can influence alcohol consumption; however, findings are variable and an etiology remains unknown. Furthermore, estrogen administration can alter several neurotransmitter systems implicated in alcohol consumption, including the b-endorphin (b-EP) system. The present studies investigate (a) whether estradiol valerate (EV) alters voluntary alcohol consumption in Wistar and Lewis rats, (b) if an effect of EV on drinking is associated with changes in hypothalamic or pituitary b-EP content, and (c) whether differences in alcohol drinking between treatment and rat groups are related to locomotor or defensive behavior/anxiety scores. Of 30 Wistar and 30 Lewis rats used in this study, half were injected with 2 mg EV in 0.2 ml sesame oil, while the remainder were injected with the vehicle only. After 8 weeks, all animals were tested in the open field and elevated plus maze. A week later, 4 Á/6 animals in each group were sacrificed. The remaining animals were tested for voluntary alcohol drinking for 24 days prior to being sacrificed on the last day. Radioimmunoassay was used to estimate hypothalamic and pituitary b-EP content. Wistar and Lewis rats injected with EV showed an increase in alcohol drinking, but their behavior scores and b-EP levels remained unaltered. This result suggests that any EV effect on drinking is unrelated to changes in b-EP or behavioral performance. Furthermore, Wistar rats show higher alcohol drinking, locomotor and defensive behavior scores, and hypothalamic b-EP than Lewis rats. Higher alcohol drinking by Wistar rats might be due to higher behavioral scores or endogenous opioid activity/sensitivity.

This research work was carried out to evaluate the neuropharmacological and analgesic activities of methanolic extract of Diospyros blancoi leaves by experimenting Swiss albino mice. The neuropharmacological activities of methanol extract were conducted using hole cross, force swimming and tail suspension tests. On the other hand, analgesic activities of the extract were performed using acetic acid induced writhing and hot plate tests. The mice were treated orally at dose of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg of leaves extract for neuropharmacological and analgesic tests. The methanolic leaves extract of Diospyros blancoi significantly (p

Pharmacological evidence indicates that the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA) is involved in the mediation of inhibitory avoidance but not of escape behavior in the elevated T-maze test. These defensive responses have been associated with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and panic disorder, respectively. In the present study, we determined whether the BLA plays a differential role in the control of inhibitory avoidance and escape responses in the elevated T-maze. Male Wistar rats (250-280 g, N = 9-10 in each treatment group) were pre-exposed to one of the open arms of the maze for 30 min and 24 h later tested in the model after inactivation of the BLA by a local injection of the GABA A receptor agonist muscimol (8 nmol in 0.2 µL). It has been shown that a prior forced exposure to one of the open arms of the maze, by shortening latencies to withdrawal from the open arm during the test, improves the escape task as a behavioral index of panic. The effects of muscimol in the elevated T-maze were compared to those caused by this GABA agonist in the avoidance reaction generated in the light/dark transition test. This defensive behavior has also been associated with GAD. In the elevated T-maze, intra-BLA injection of muscimol impaired inhibitory avoidance (control: 187.70 ± 14.90 s, muscimol: 37.10 ± 2.63 s), indicating an anxiolytic effect, without interfering with escape performance. The drug also showed an anxiolytic effect in the light/dark transition test as indicated by the increase in the time spent in the lighted compartment (control: 23.50 ± 2.45 s, muscimol: 47.30 ± 4.48 s). The present findings point to involvement of the BLA in the modulation of defensive responses that have been associated with GAD.

Introduction: The endogenous dipeptide L-tyrosine-L-arginine (kyotorphin, KTP) is found in brain structures related to the processing of information for nociception, the control of emotions, and memory formation. Besides the antinociceptive effect of KTP, it has a mild protective activity against the deleterious influence of the brain hypoperfusion and streptozotocin on the behavior and memory.  Aim: We aimed to study the effects of the intracerebroventricular injection of effective antinociceptive doses of KTP on the motivational behavior, memory, and blood and hippocampal levels of the carbonylated proteins in healthy male adult Wistar rats. Materials and methods: We used a paw-pressure test for assessment of acute nociception, an open field test for assessment of exploration and habituation to a new environment, elevated plus maze test for the evaluation of anxiety-like behavior, and novel object recognition test for working memory. Carbonylated protein assay was used for the ass...

Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impaired social interactions and repetitive patterns of behavior. Symptoms appear in early life and persist throughout adulthood. Early social stimulation can help reverse some of the symptoms, but the biological mechanisms of these therapies are unknown. By analyzing the effects of early social stimulation on ASD-related behavior in the mouse, we aimed to identify brain structures that contribute to these behaviors. Methods: We injected pregnant mice with 600-mg/kg valproic acid (VPA) or saline (SAL) at gestational day 12.5 and evaluated the effect of weaning their offspring in cages containing only VPA animals, only SAL animals, or mixed. We analyzed juvenile play at PD21 and performed a battery of behavioral tests in adulthood. We then used preclinical PET imaging for an unbiased analysis of the whole brain of these mice and studied the function of the piriform cortex by c-Fos immunoreactivity and HPLC. Results: Compared to control animals, VPA-exposed animals play less as juveniles and exhibit a lower frequency of social interaction in adulthood when reared with other VPA mice. In addition, these animals were less likely to investigate social odors in the habituation/dishabituation olfactory test. However, when VPA animals were weaned with control animals, these behavioral alterations were not observed. Interestingly, repetitive behaviors and depression-related behaviors were not affected by social enrichment. We also found that VPA animals present high levels of glucose metabolism bilaterally in the piriform cortex (Pir), a region known to be involved in social behaviors. Moreover, we found alterations in the somatosensory, motor, and insular cortices. Remarkably, these effects were mostly reversed after social stimulation. To evaluate if changes in glucose metabolism in the Pir correlated with changes in neuronal activity, we measured c-Fos immunoreactivity in the Pir and found it increased in animals prenatally exposed to VPA. We further found increased dopamine turnover in the Pir. Both alterations were largely reversed by social enrichment. Conclusions: We show that early social enrichment can specifically rescue social deficits in a mouse model of ASD. Our results identified the Pir as a structure affected by VPA-exposure and social enrichment, suggesting that it could be a key component of the social brain circuitry.

Although regulation of energy metabolism has been linked with multiple disorders, its role in depression and responsiveness to antidepressants is less known. We found that an epigenetic and energetic agent, acetyl-l-carnitine (LAC, oral administration), rapidly rescued the depressive- and central and systemic metabolic-like phenotype of LAC-deficient Flinders Sensitive Line rats (FSL). After acute stress during LAC treatment, a subset of FSL continued to respond to LAC (rFSL), whereas the other subset did not (nrFSL). RNA sequencing of the ventral dentate gyrus, a mood-regulatory region, identified metabolic factors as key markers predisposing to depression (insulin receptors Insr, glucose transporters Glut-4 and Glut-12, and the regulator of appetite Cartpt) and to LAC responsiveness (leptin receptors Lepr, metabotropic glutamate receptors-2 mGlu2, neuropeptide-Y NPY, and mineralocorticoid receptors MR). Furthermore, we found that stress-induced treatment resistance in nrFSL shows ...

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a digestive tract functional disorder, without anatomical or structural problems, manifesting through stool abnormalities, diarrhea or constipation or both forms alternating between them over time, accompanied by abdominal pain, bloating or flatulence. These symptoms contribute not only to poor digestive absorption, disturbed intestinal motility, but can alter gut microbiota, induce intestinal inflammation through immunity mediators, and negatively impact the psychology of the person. The literature concerning animal models of IBS encompasses numerous studies based on unpredictabile chronic mild stressors applied on rodents, rats. Generally, the stress paradigms consist in exposing the animals to a series of randomly alternating micro-stressors. A key aspect when applying the low intensity stress factors is to maximize their degree of unpredictability by a randomized order, as well as the period of exposure which may last from 2 to 16 weeks. Considering the time and resource-demanding procedures for establishing such IBS stress models, we were interested in developing a reliable and effective model that would result also in the emotional depressive changes accompanying the gastrointestinal disturbances. Thus, our approach was to combine water avoidance stress, an equally reliable acute and chronic stressor, as a constantly repeated factor, with randomized unpredictable mild stressors. Thus, this is a new approach and a new combination that we presumed to be efficient even if applied for a shorter period of one week. Our results are suggesting that the current protocol of 1-week-long multiple heterotypic combination with homotypic chronic stress can be effective to replicate the behavioral manifestations similar to IBS symptoms and the accompanying depression-like features. We would presume this would be more efficient if applied for longer time, although in the present case it did work, even if applied for a shorter period of one week.

Marijuana is a widely used recreational drug with increasing legalization worldwide for medical purposes. Most experimental studies use either synthetic or plant-derived cannabinoids to investigate the effect of cannabinoids on anxiety and cognitive functions. The aim of this study was to mimic real life situations where young people smoke cannabis regularly to relax from everyday stress. Therefore, we exposed young adult male NMRI mice to daily stress and concomitant marijuana smoke for 2 months and investigated the consequences on physiology, behavior and adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Animals were restrained for 6-h/day for 5-days a week. During the stress, mice were exposed to cannabis smoke for 2 × 30 min/day. We burned 2 "joints" (2 × 0.8 g marijuana) per occasion in a whole body smoking chamber. Cannabinoid content of the smoke and urine samples was measured by HPLC and SFC-MS/MS. Body weight gain was recorded daily and we did unrestrained, whole body plethysmograp...

Obesity is the main component of metabolic syndromes involving distinct etiologies that target different underlying behavioral and physiological functions within the brain structures and neuronal circuits. An alteration in the neuronal circuitry stemming from abdominal or central obesity stimulates a cascade of changes in neurochemical signaling that directly or indirectly mediate spontaneously emitted behaviors such as locomotor activity patterns, anxiety, and exploration. Pharmacological agents available for the treatment of neurologic disorders have been associated with limited potency and intolerable adverse effects. These have necessitated the upsurge in the utilization of herbal prescriptions due to their affordability and easy accessibility and are firmly embedded within wider belief systems of many people. Gnidia glauca has been used in the management of many ailments including obesity and associated symptomatic complications. However, its upsurge in use has not been accompanied by empirical determination of these folkloric claims. The present study, therefore, is aimed at determining the modulatory effects of dichloromethane leaf extract of Gnidia glauca on locomotor activity, exploration, and anxiety-like behaviors in high-fat dietinduced obese rats in an open-field arena. Obesity was experimentally induced by feeding the rats with prepared high-fat diet and water ad libitum for 6 weeks. The in vivo antiobesity effects were determined by oral administration of G. glauca at dosage levels of 200, 250, and 300 mg/kg body weight in high-fat diet-induced obese rats from the 6 th to 12 th week. Phytochemical analysis was done using gas chromatography linked to mass spectroscopy. Results indicated that Gnidia glauca showed anxiolytic effects and significantly increased spontaneous locomotor activity and exploration-like behaviors in HFD-induced obese rats. The plant extract also contained phytocompounds that have been associated with amelioration of the main neurodegenerative mediators, viz., inflammation and oxidative stress. These findings provide "qualified leads" for the synthesis of new alternative therapeutic agents for the management of neurologic disorders. However, there is a need to conduct toxicity studies of Gnidia glauca to establish its safety profiles.

Obesity is the main component of metabolic syndromes involving distinct etiologies which target different underlying behavioral and physiological functions within the brain structures and neuronal circuits. An alteration in the neuronal circuitry stemming from abdominal or central obesity stimulates a cascade of changes in neurochemical signaling that directly or indirectly mediate spontaneously emitted behaviors such as locomotor activity patterns, anxiety and exploration. Pharmacological agents available for the treatment of neurologic disorders have been associated with limited potency and intolerable adverse effects. These have necessitated the upsurge in utilization of herbal prescriptions due to their affordability, easy accessibility and are firmly embedded within wider belief systems of many people.Gnidia glaucahas been used in management of many ailments including obesity and associated symptomatic complications. However, its upsurge in use has not been accompanied with aut...

Aim: COVID 19 pandemic has negatively affected many people's mental health and created new barriers for people already suffering from mental illness. Aims include to assess the level of depression and anxiety among post COVID-19 patients and their families and to find the association between depression and anxiety with the selected demographic variables, at the post COVID care center, KIMS hospital Bhubaneswar.

Anxiolytic and anxiogenic-like behavioral outcomes have been reported for methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ecstasy) in rodents. In the present experiment, we attempted to identify behavioral, hormonal and neurochemical outcomes of MDMA treatment to clarify its effects on anxiety-related responses in 2-month-old BALB/c male mice (25-35 g; N = 7-10 mice/ group). The behavioral tests used were open field, elevated plus maze, hole board, and defensive behavior against predator odor. Moreover, we also determined striatal dopamine and dopamine turnover, and serum corticosterone levels. MDMA was injected ip at 0.2, 1.0, 5.0, 8.0, 10, or 20 mg/kg. MDMA at 10 mg/kg induced the following significant (P < 0.05) effects: a) a dose-dependent increase in the distance traveled and in the time spent moving in the open field; b) decreased exploratory activity in the hole board as measured by number of head dips and time spent in head dipping; c) increased number of openarm entries and increased time spent in open-arm exploration in the elevated plus maze; d) increased time spent away from an aversive stimulus and decreased number of risk assessments in an aversive odor chamber; e) increased serum corticosterone levels, and f) increased striatal dopamine level and turnover. Taken together, these data suggest an anxiogenic-like effect of acute MDMA treatment, despite the fact that behavioral anxiety expression was impaired in some of the behavioral tests used as a consequence of the motor stimulating effects of MDMA.

Anxiolytic and anxiogenic-like behavioral outcomes have been reported for methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ecstasy) in rodents. In the present experiment, we attempted to identify behavioral, hormonal and neurochemical outcomes of MDMA treatment to clarify its effects on anxiety-related responses in 2-month-old BALB/c male mice (25-35 g; N = 7-10 mice/ group). The behavioral tests used were open field, elevated plus maze, hole board, and defensive behavior against predator odor. Moreover, we also determined striatal dopamine and dopamine turnover, and serum corticosterone levels. MDMA was injected ip at 0.2, 1.0, 5.0, 8.0, 10, or 20 mg/kg. MDMA at 10 mg/kg induced the following significant (P < 0.05) effects: a) a dose-dependent increase in the distance traveled and in the time spent moving in the open field; b) decreased exploratory activity in the hole board as measured by number of head dips and time spent in head dipping; c) increased number of openarm entries and increased time spent in open-arm exploration in the elevated plus maze; d) increased time spent away from an aversive stimulus and decreased number of risk assessments in an aversive odor chamber; e) increased serum corticosterone levels, and f) increased striatal dopamine level and turnover. Taken together, these data suggest an anxiogenic-like effect of acute MDMA treatment, despite the fact that behavioral anxiety expression was impaired in some of the behavioral tests used as a consequence of the motor stimulating effects of MDMA.