Earth System Sciences

This article introduces a novel physical perspective on the Earth system through the concept of the Terran Infosphere. Beyond matter and energy cycles, we argue that Earth operates as a quasi-closed system in which information is conserved, recycled, and redistributed according to thermodynamic laws.
At the heart of this framework lies the principle of Informational Inertia: the persistence of causal structures beyond the physical dissolution of their carriers. While higher-order subjective states decohere into thermal noise at death, the compressed causal architectures—such as linguistic grammars, heuristics, and symbolic logics—remain as informational fossils embedded within physical substrates. These fossils re-enter the planetary information ecology, where they are reabsorbed, recombined, and re-expressed by new Information Integration Entities (IIEs).
We formalize this through analogies with the carbon cycle, introducing a model in which causal structures circulate across biological, cultural, and geological layers. This cycle is governed by the Law of Cold Fairness, which states that in the long-term ecological recycling of information, only compression-stable patterns persist, independent of their social, cultural, or individual origin.
Mathematically, we extend the ICCF (Informational-Cognitive Compression Field) framework to define the Conservation of Total Causal Structural Complexity, showing that the sum of living informational integration (I_bio) and fossilized informational structures (I_fossil) remains approximately constant on Earth. This establishes the Terran Infosphere as a true thermodynamic system with measurable conservation laws.
Finally, we outline testable predictions, including isotopic “causal echoes” in geochemistry, syntactic fragments in non-coding DNA as genetic informational fossils, and universal neural activation patterns corresponding to archetypal structures in cognitive neuroscience. These provide concrete pathways toward empirical validation of the theory.
In conclusion, the Terran Infosphere reframes Earth as a planetary-scale information ecology, where informational inertia ensures that causal structures do not vanish but circulate across life, culture, and geology. This unified framework offers new insights into evolution, memory, and the persistence of complexity across deep time.

Chongming Island is under the framework of Shanghai administration. It is an alluvial Island in the mouth of the Yangtze River. The area is 1041 km2 and the population is about 700,000 inhabitance. An expected tunnel will combine the island to the main land in the future. The local population will increase and the island is becoming very attractive to tourists. The island could be regarded as a Peri Urban system of Shanghai neighborhood. All these turn Chongming Island into an ecological conservation project directed by Shanghai Academy Agricultural Science (SAAS) organization. The following are few ideas that can reduce the hazard of soil, water, air contamination and other environmental distur-bances. Also activities proposed to change the island agricultural features, ecological education campaign and eco-agro tourism projects Key words: Agroecology, urban and peri urban agriculture, suburb ecological conservation project. Ecological conservation activities Recycling city garbage...

Transcriptions from seven original documents describing the effects of the 1st September 1803 Garhwal earthquake constitute the basic theme of this paper. The objective is to collate all relevant materials and put it as a base document to facilitate future research. Descriptive accounts for this earthquake and contemporary research based on such sources indicate that this earthquake was a large event, if not major; and there is little reason to consider the epicenter to be located at Mathura or to suggest occurrence of two events between 00.30 and 01.30 hrs. Re-evaluation of archival materials further suggest that this earthquake might have produced aftershocks for fourteen years till the year 1817, followed by a lull period so far as seismicity is concerned in the Garhwal Himalaya up to 1831. Such a major earthquake within the so called central seismic gap in the Himalayas necessitates reconciliation on available seismic hazard assessment.

Participatory scenario visioning aims to expose, integrate, and reconcile perspectives and expectations about a sustainable, resilient future from a variety of actors and stakeholders. This chapter considers the settings in which transdisciplinary participatory visioning takes place, highlighting lessons learned from the Urban Resilience to Extremes Sustainability Research Network (UREx SRN). It reflects on the benefits of engaging in the co-production process and the challenges that must be considered amid this process.

Background and AimsTree rings, as archives of the past and biosensors of the present, offer unique opportunities to study influences of the fluctuating environment over decades to centuries. As such, tree-ring-based wood traits are capital input for global vegetation models. To contribute to earth system sciences, however, sufficient spatial coverage is required of detailed individual-based measurements, necessitating large amounts of data. X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning is one of the few techniques that can deliver such data sets.MethodsIncrement cores of four different temperate tree species were scanned with a state-of-the-art X-ray CT system at resolutions ranging from 60 μm down to 4.5 μm, with an additional scan at a resolution of 0.8 μm of a splinter-sized sample using a second X-ray CT system to highlight the potential of cell-level scanning. Calibration-free densitometry, based on full scanner simulation of a third X-ray CT system, is illustrated on increment cores...

The Anthropocene is a reflexive concept and an opportunity for interdisciplinarity in the area of teaching and learning. Developing didactic approaches for the Anthropocene requires understanding the origins of the debate. This article therefore first reconstructs the interconnections of the Anthropocene with Earth System Sciences. It then briefly examines climate and environmental history approaches in current curricula, demonstrating why earth system knowledge is the logical next step in developing timely perspectives for the didactics of history. Lastly, using examples like industrialization or the post-war period, it illustrates how earth system knowledge can enhance history lessons. Through technofossils, a material- and object-centered approach is showcased, revealing various temporalities and global/local interconnections.

Kasumitei (open levees) comprise a traditional flood mitigation measure used in Japan. Kasumitei allow floodwater to flow into surrounding paddy fields, which act as temporary flood mitigation basins. After flooding, debris accumulated in paddy fields often brings crop damage and debris removal costs. Therefore, in some areas, the disaster mitigation functions of kasumitei may bring about conflicts between beneficiaries (downstream residents) and burden bearers (midstream residents). Ensuring the continued use of kasumitei in the future requires a mechanism to support the burden bearers. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that the willingness to pay (WTP) for maintaining the kasumitei would be lower for midstream residents (potential burden bearers) than for upstream (irrelevant) and downstream residents (potential beneficiaries). The results showed that contrary to the hypothesis, WTP for maintaining kasumitei was not affected by the river sections of the respondents' residence. Thus, a financial support scheme for maintaining kasumitei might be acceptable regardless of the beneficiary or bearer in the surveyed respondents. In addition, respondents with higher interest in ecosystem conservation tended to have higher WTP. Therefore, to gain support for the maintenance and use of the kasumitei (a type of ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction), the authorities would promote awareness of the measure's contribution to ecosystem conservation. Based on the results, we discussed the potential financial support schemes for maintaining the kasumitei.

Geoelectric strike and resistivity structure of the crust have been estimated from 37 magnetotelluric (MT) data sites along a profile from Roorkee to Gangotri in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Impedance decomposition schemes based on Bahr's, Groom Bailey and Phase tensor were implemented in a MATLAB code for the average strike estimation. Geoelectric strike direction varies with period as well as in different lithotectonic units along the profile. In the period band from 1 to 100 s average geoelectric strike in the southern end of the profile (Indo-Gangetic Plains) is N79 • W, which is slightly rotated to the north in the Lesser Himalayan region and becomes N68 • W whereas it is N81 • W in the Higher Himalayan region. However, average strike is stabilized to N77 • W for the entire profile in the long period band (100-1000 s). Geoelectrical structure of the crust has been obtained along the profile by 2D inversion of MT data. Major features of 2D resistivity model are: (i) southern part of the model is a low resistivity (<50 Ωm) zone at shallow depth (5-7 km) representing the loose sediments of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), whose thickness increases in the south; (ii) highly resistive (>1000 Ωm) layer below the IGP sediments is the basement rock, representing the resistivity of the top of the subducting Indian Plate; (iii) the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Central Thrust (MCT) zones can be seen in the electrical image. However, the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) could not be resolved and (iv) a low resistivity (<10 Ωm) feature in the MCT zone extending to the depth of 30 km is delineated. This low resistivity could be due to fluid-filled fractured rock matrix or partial melt zone. Hypocenters of many earthquakes are concentrated along the boundary of this low resistivity zone and relatively high resistivity blocks around it. The resulted model supports flat-ramp-flat geometry of the Main Himalayan Thrust along which the Indian Plate is subducting.

Three great earthquakes with magnitude greater than 8 have struck the Himalayan belt within a span of 50 years, and the 1905 Kangra earthquake is one of them. The seismotectonics of the meizoseismal region of this earthquake in the Kangra-Chamba region are analyzed on the basis of the major structures and the present day seismic activity. The microseismicity recorded by a network of 12 stations for a period of 16 months spanning 4 years (1993-1996) shows the activity is mainly concentrated over the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Panjal Thrust (PT) zones and the Chamba Nappe region. A NE-SW vertical section reveals that the majority of events are concentrated within a depth range of 5 to 18 km, and the majority of the foci lie between 12 and 18 km. The base of the microseismicity zone is interpreted as representing a contact or a decollement plane between the top of the Indian plate and the Himalayan rock formations. This decollement plane is interpreted as the northern continuation of the detachment observed in the sub-Himalaya in reflection profile. The southward propagation of the Chamba Nappe, as well as the PT and MBT zones, over the detachment causes accumulation of strain energy in this region.

The morphological boundary between the Himalayas and the foreland plain is well expressed and most often corresponds to the frontal emergence of the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT). This boundary is affected by surface ruptures during very large Himalayan earthquakes (Mw > 8) that regularly induce (with a recurrence of the order of 500 to 1,200 years) the uplift of the foothills relative to the plain. However, a thrust-fold system is hidden beneath the plain and is displayed by the seismic profiles of oil companies in east/central Nepal and by H/V passive geophysical techniques in Darjeeling. Its long-term kinematic evolution is slow, with a tectonic uplift of the hanging wall that is lower than the subsidence rate of the foreland basin, that is, less than approximately half a millimetre per year. During phases of low sedimentation controlled by climatic fluctuations, the morphological surfaces of the piedmont are incised by large rivers for several tens of metres; therefore, structures hidden under the sediments emerge slightly in the plain. The evolution of the hidden structures corresponds to an embryonic thrust belt mainly affected by a long-term shortening rate of 1.4 +2.5 /-1.2 mm•yr-1 , that is, 2-20% of the shortening rate of the entire Himalayan thrust system. Nonetheless, the details of the deformation associated with the embryonic thrust belt are still poorly understood. Several deformation components could affect the central Himalayan and Darjeeling piedmonts. i) Any slow steady-state deformation, such as layer parallel Earth Science Review 2 shortening (LPS) is not detected by Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data, and such deformation would therefore absorb less than 0.5 mm•yr-1. The geodetic data that suggest the aseismic growth of some of the structures are highly controversial. ii) For the rest of the deformation of the embryonic thrust wedge, it is yet to be proven whether deformation occurs during rare great earthquakes affecting the piedmont during medium earthquakes and/or during post-seismic deformation related to great earthquakes. The amplitude of this long-term low deformation is too limited to significantly reduce the seismic hazard in the seismic gaps of the Himalayan belt. iii) In some portions of the Himalayan front, such as Darjeeling (India), the thrust deformation related to great earthquakes propagates several tens of kilometres south of the morphological front in the zone previously affected by the long-term low deformation. It induces multi-metre surface ruptures in the piedmont and a mean shortening of 8.5 ± 6.2 mm•yr-1. iiii) Pre-existing faults in the bedrock of the Indian craton, often oblique to the Himalayan structures, are locally reactivated beneath the foreland plain with low deformation rates.

Background and AimsTree rings, as archives of the past and biosensors of the present, offer unique opportunities to study influences of the fluctuating environment over decades to centuries. As such, tree-ring-based wood traits are capital input for global vegetation models. To contribute to earth system sciences, however, sufficient spatial coverage is required of detailed individual-based measurements, necessitating large amounts of data. X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning is one of the few techniques that can deliver such data sets.MethodsIncrement cores of four different temperate tree species were scanned with a state-of-the-art X-ray CT system at resolutions ranging from 60 μm down to 4.5 μm, with an additional scan at a resolution of 0.8 μm of a splinter-sized sample using a second X-ray CT system to highlight the potential of cell-level scanning. Calibration-free densitometry, based on full scanner simulation of a third X-ray CT system, is illustrated on increment cores...

India is a vast country that is growing even faster. Particularly over the last decade, there has been a sudden spurt in the construction activity in the country, especially in the large low-to-moderate seismic regions of the country. But, no systems are in place to regulate these massive constructions to ensure seismic safety. This paper raises the challenges in the current practice and provides measures to overcome them. In particular, the paper argues for separate provisions for the design and construction of structures in low-tomoderate seismic regions.

The Urban Book Series is a resource for urban studies and geography research worldwide. It provides a unique and innovative resource for the latest developments in the field, nurturing a comprehensive and encompassing publication venue for urban studies, urban geography, planning and regional development. The series publishes peer-reviewed volumes related to urbanization, sustainability, urban environments, sustainable urbanism, governance, globalization, urban and sustainable development, spatial and area studies, urban management, transport systems, urban infrastructure, urban dynamics, green cities and urban landscapes. It also invites research which documents urbanization processes and urban dynamics on a national, regional and local level, welcoming case studies, as well as comparative and applied research. The series will appeal to urbanists, geographers, planners, engineers, architects, policy makers, and to all of those interested in a wide-ranging overview of contemporary urban studies and innovations in the field. It accepts monographs, edited volumes and textbooks.

The Urban Book Series is a resource for urban studies and geography research worldwide. It provides a unique and innovative resource for the latest developments in the field, nurturing a comprehensive and encompassing publication venue for urban studies, urban geography, planning and regional development. The series publishes peer-reviewed volumes related to urbanization, sustainability, urban environments, sustainable urbanism, governance, globalization, urban and sustainable development, spatial and area studies, urban management, transport systems, urban infrastructure, urban dynamics, green cities and urban landscapes. It also invites research which documents urbanization processes and urban dynamics on a national, regional and local level, welcoming case studies, as well as comparative and applied research. The series will appeal to urbanists, geographers, planners, engineers, architects, policy makers, and to all of those interested in a wide-ranging overview of contemporary urban studies and innovations in the field. It accepts monographs, edited volumes and textbooks.

The current rate of human development poses a major threat to the ecological balance of the environment, and this is exacerbated by climate change effects. It is therefore important for people to understand the ecology of different locations so they can make informed decisions that will not have an adverse effect on the environment. In this regard, students form a signifi cant group for whom sound ecological thinking is necessary as they will be the future leaders and decision makers who can ensure the world's continued sustainability. This chapter presents the results of an ecological education project that successfully expanded students' ecological thinking. Evidence of this change is taken from interview responses before and after the ecological education project. The interview was based on a set of six photographs of different situations found in the environment. Responses were analyzed based on an ecological thinking framework developed by the researchers. This framework consisted of two components: understanding of ecology concepts and understanding of the impacts of human activity on ecosystems. The ecological education project succeeded in increasing students' ecological thinking, thereby increasing their awareness of environmental risks.

A major question about the Himalaya remains open: does a great earthquake (like the Mw~8.1 1934 earthquake) release all the strain stored by the Tibet-India convergence during the preceding interseismic period and only that strain, or can it also release a background store of energy that remained unreleased through one or more earlier earthquakes and so potentially engender giant events or a relatively random sequence of events? To consider this question, the history of the great earthquakes of the last millennium is investigated here by combining data provided by the historical archives of Kathmandu, trenches through surface ruptures, isoseismal damage mapping, seismites, and the instrumental record. In the Kathmandu basin, the location of the epicenter of the 1934 earthquake was determined from the arrival of high-energy P-waves that caused sedimentary dikes and ground fractures perpendicular to the epicenter azimuth. The epicenter of the Mw~7.6 1833 earthquake can therefore be determined analogously from dike orientation, and its location to the NE of Kathmandu indicates an overlap with the Mw~8.1 1934 rupture. The 1934 earthquake released strain not released by the 1833 earthquake. Comparison of the historical records of earthquakes in Kathmandu with 14 C ages from paleo-seismic trenches along the Himalayan front suggests that: (1) the 1344 Kathmandu event ruptured the surface as far away as Kumaon and was therefore a giant Mw ≥ 8.6 earthquake; and (2) the 1255 event that destroyed Kathmandu is attested by surface ruptures in central and western Nepal and by seismites in soft sediment as far away as Kumaon. Geometric and rheologic controls for the different types of ruptures during the medium (Mw~7), great (Mw ≥ 8), and giant (Mw N 8.4) earthquakes are illustrated in structural cross-sections. It is found that the epicenters of great Himalayan earthquakes are located on the basal thrust farther north or close to the locked zone, which is defined from geodetic measurements of regional deformation during the interseismic period; this suggests that great earthquakes initiate in a wide transition zone between exclusively brittle and exclusively creeping regimes, the extent of which depends on the dip of the Main Himalayan Thrust. The succession of the great earthquakes during the last millennium has released all the 20-m millennial Himalayan convergence; even in the central seismic gap which has been locked since 1505, the millennial seismic release rate is close to the convergence rate. Nonetheless, no evidence of a succession of characteristic earthquakes has been found: the~1100, 1833, and 1934 earthquakes in the eastern Himalaya are characterized neither by constant displacement nor by constant recurrence. Furthermore, some great earthquakes do not release all the strain elastically stored by the Himalayan and Tibetan upper crust: after the 1255 event, there was still the potential for a slip of several meters for the Mw~8.1 1505 event. This suggests a rather random release of seismic energy; great earthquakes could occur anytime and in any part of the central Himalaya. Furthermore, a future giant earthquake of Mw ≥ 8.6 cannot be excluded.

This paper discusses the development and testing of snow algorithms with speci®c reference to their use and application in land surface models. New algorithms, developed by the authors, for estimating snow interception in forest canopies, blowing snow transport and sublimation, snow cover depletion and open environment snowmelt are compared with ®eld measurements. Existing algorithms are discussed and compared with ®eld observations. Recommendations are made with respect to: (a) density of new and aged snow in open and forest environments; (b) interception of snow by evergreen canopies; (c) redistribution and sublimation of snow water equivalent by blowing snow; (d) depletion in snow-covered area during snowmelt; (e) albedo decay during snowmelt; (f) turbulent transfer during snowmelt; and (g) soil heat¯ux during meltwater in®ltration into frozen soils. Preliminary evidence is presented, suggesting that one relatively advanced land surface model, CLASS, signi®cantly underestimates the timing of snowmelt and snowmelt rates in open environments despite overestimating radiation and turbulent contributions to melt. The cause(s) may be due to overestimation of ground heat loss and other factors. It is recommended that further studies of snow energetics and soil heat transfer in frozen soils be undertaken to provide improvements for land surface models such as CLASS, with particular attention paid to establishing the reliability of the models in invoking closure of the energy equation.

The occurrences of moderate to large magnitude earthquakes and associated subsurface geological processes were critically examined in the backdrop of Indian plate obliquity, stress obliquity, topography, and the late Tertiary regional tectonics for understanding the evolving dynamics and kinematics in the central part of the Himalayas. The higher topographic areas are likely associated with the zones of depressions, and the lower topographic areas are found around the ridges located in the frontal part of the orogen. A positive correlation between plate and stress obliquities is established for this diffuse plate boundary. We propose that the zone of sharp bending of the descending Indian lithosphere is the nodal area of major stress accumulation which is released occasionally in form of earthquakes. The lateral geometry of the Himalayas shows clusters of seismicity at an angle of ∼ 20 • from the centre part of the arc. Such spatial distribution is interpreted in terms of compression across the arc and extension parallel to the arc. This biaxial deformation results in the development of dilational shear fractures, observed along the orogenic belt, at an angle of ∼ 20 • from the principal compressive stress axis.

The Schlumberger technique with four electrode configurations was used to conduct an electrical resistivity study at different locations. A total of 27 vertical electrical sounding (VES) tests were carried out during the study, with each test representing a distinct litho unit being examined. The data collected were analyzed and interpreted using the curve matching method with the IPI2Win software. From the result, 22% of VES locations dominated by H (ρ 1 > ρ 2 < ρ 3) type (VES 2, 5, 6, 11, 21, 22), indicating potential water sites and QH type (VES 3, 7, 10, 20, 23, 24) indicating complex lithology overlain by softer strata, which can be an excellent local for the groundwater potential zone. 19% of HK type (VES 8, 9, 15, 16, 19) indicating ρ 1 > ρ 2 < ρ 4 > ρ 4. A-type curves (ρ 1 < ρ 1 < ρ 3 ; VES 1, 4, 17, and 18) fell in 15% of the area, signifying complex rock with poor terrain for groundwater storage. Based on this interpretation, this study shows the effectiveness of the electrical resistivity method in identifying prospective groundwater zones. It is determined by resistivity of saltwater enriched sediments, clay containing moderate freshwater, and freshwater carrying formations are present. Salty, moderate-fresh, and freshwater aquifers are easily identified with the D-Z characteristics. Thus, the spatial behavior of the D-Z parameters confirmed the presence of salty and freshwater aquifer structures in coastal aquifers. This method is highly recommended for areas with a comparable geological setting like the one developed.

NO − 3) of meltwater draining from Gangotri Glacier was carried out to understand major ion chemistry and to get an insight into geochemical weathering processes controlling hydrochemistry of the glacier. In the meltwater, the abundance order of cations and anions varied as follows: Ca 2+ > Mg 2+ > K + > Na + and SO 2− 4 > HCO − 3 > Cl − > NO − 3 , respectively. Calcium and magnesium are dominant cations while sulphate and bicarbonate are dominant anions. Weathering of rocks is the dominant mechanism controlling the hydrochemistry of drainage basin. The relative high contribution of (Ca+Mg) to the total cations (TZ +), high (Ca+Mg)/(Na+K) ratio (2.63) and low (Na+K)/TZ + ratio (0.29) indicate the dominance of carbonate weathering as a major source for dissolved ions in the glacier meltwater. Sulphide oxidation and carbonation are the main proton supplying geochemical reactions controlling the rock weathering in the study area. Statistical analysis was done to identify various factors controlling the dissolved ionic strength of Gangotri Glacier meltwater.

The earthquake hazard associated with the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) is a critical issue for India and its neighbouring countries in the north. We used data from a dense seismic network in Uttarakhand, India, to model the lateral variations in the depths of MHT (2–6% drop in Vs at 12–21 km depths), Moho (a sharp increase in Vs (by ~ 0.5–0.7 km/s) at 39–50 km depths) and lithosphere (a marked decrease in Vs(~ 1–3%) at 136–178 km depths), across the Himalayan collisional front. Our joint inversion of radial PRFs and group velocity dispersion data of Rayleigh waves detects three NNE trending transverse lithospheric blocks segmenting the lithosphere in Uttarakhand Himalaya, which spatially correlate well with the northward extension of the Delhi -Haridwar Indian basement ridge, an inferred tectonic boundary and great boundary fault, respectively. Our radial receiver function imaging detects highly deformed and segmented crustal and lithospheric structures associated with three mapped t...

Water samples were collected from different formations of Gadilam river basin and analyzed to assess the major ion chemistry and suitability of water for domestic and drinking purposes. Chemical parameters of groundwater such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), Sodium (Na +), Potassium (K +), Calcium (Ca +), Magnesium (Mg +), Bicarbonate (HCO − 3), Sulphate (SO − 4), Phosphate (PO − 4) and Silica (H 4 SiO 4) were determined. The geochemical study of the aquatic systems of the Gadilam river basin show that the groundwater is near-acidic to alkaline and mostly oxidizing in nature. Higher concentration of Sodium and Chloride indicates leaching of secondary salts and anthropogenic impact by industry and salt water intrusion. Spatial distribution of EC indicates anthropogenic impact in the downstream side of the basin. The concentration levels of trace metals such as Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni), Bromide (Br), Iodide (I) and Aluminium (Al) have been compared with the world standard. Interpretation of data shows that some trace metals such as Al, Ni and Pb exceed the acceptable limit of world standard. Geophysical study was carried out to identify the weathered zone in the hard rock and contaminated zone by anthropogenic impact in the downstream of river Gadilam. A few of the groundwater samples in the study area were found to be unsuitable for domestic and drinking purposes.

Himalayan region is seismically one of the most active continental regions. It experienced at least 4 M ~ 8 earthquakes during an active phase from 1897 to 1952. However, no such earthquake has occurred since 1952. Detailed investigations have revealed that the region is currently in a seismic quiescence phase, and enough strains have been accumulated to source several M ~ 8 earthquakes. However, when and where such an earthquake would occur cannot be forecasted. Even if such an earthquake is forecasted to occur, can everyone leave to a safe place? That is not practical. It is therefore important to learn to live with earthquakes and develop an earthquake resilient society. Recent earthquakes have demonstrated the effectiveness of such an approach. One very effective way to develop earthquake resilient society is to create an earthquake scenario for the repeat of an earlier earthquake, estimate the losses, and then go through an exercise of imparting and sharing with public, state and central governance the ways and means of reducing the anticipated losses. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), Government of India, in collaboration with other agencies, built earthquake scenarios for the repeat of the 1905 Kangra earthquake of M ~ 8 and 1897 Shillong earthquake of M 8.7. Appropriate ground motion prediction equation was used to generate earthquake intensities. The intensities of the hypothetical Mw 8 earthquake located at Mandi in Himachal Pradesh (close to the epicenter of 1905 Kangra earthquake) were compared with the 1905 Kangra earthquake's isoseismals and found to be satisfactory. For the 1897 Shillong earthquake, the isoseismals drawn by experts for the 1897 earthquake were used. Using the 2011 Census data for demography and building typology, it was estimated that if the hypothetical Mandi earthquake occurs in the middle of the night, the human lives lost would be ~ 959100 combining the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and the Union Territory of Chandigarh. It may be noted that the 1905 earthquake had claimed ~ 20,000 human lives. For the repeat of Shillong M 8.7 earthquake in the mid of the night, the number of lives lost estimated would bẽ 423000 in the 8 northeast states (Assam,

The earthquake hazard associated with the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) is a critical issue for India and its neighbouring countries in the north. We used data from a dense seismic network in Uttarakhand, India, to model the lateral variations in the depths of MHT (2–6% drop in Vs at 12–21 km depths), Moho (a sharp increase in Vs (by ~ 0.5–0.7 km/s) at 39–50 km depths) and lithosphere (a marked decrease in Vs(~ 1–3%) at 136–178 km depths), across the Himalayan collisional front. Our joint inversion of radial PRFs and group velocity dispersion data of Rayleigh waves detects three NNE trending transverse lithospheric blocks segmenting the lithosphere in Uttarakhand Himalaya, which spatially correlate well with the northward extension of the Delhi -Haridwar Indian basement ridge, an inferred tectonic boundary and great boundary fault, respectively. Our radial receiver function imaging detects highly deformed and segmented crustal and lithospheric structures associated with three mapped t...

We investigate the Lg attenuation structure of the crust beneath the tectonically complex Himalaya and southern Tibet regions adopting a tomographic regionalization method. A total of 1671 earthquake waveforms registered at 38 seismic stations operated in the region are selected for the initial LgQ measurements using the standard two-station method. Q 0 (1 Hz LgQ) values of 76 high quality interstation paths are finally considered as input for the tomographic inversion. The estimates of Q 0 exhibit distinct variations in the crustal attenuation from north to south across the whole region. The zones of lowest Q 0 values (b 50) are observed along the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in Sikkim, Lesser Himalaya and some parts of the Greater Himalaya. Southern Tibet is characterized by low Q 0 (b 100) values. These observations are consistent with the results of body wave attenuation and velocity structure reported for the region. We interpret the variations in the attenuation characteristics in terms of both the intrinsic and scattering contributions caused by thermal effects, presence of aqueous fluids as well as heterogeneities present below these seismically active regions. Our results are found to be comparable with the other parts of Himalaya and Tibet.

The earthquake hazard associated with the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) is a critical issue for India and its neighbouring countries in the north. We used data from a dense seismic network in Uttarakhand, India, to model the lateral variations in the depths of MHT (2–6% drop in Vs at 12–21 km depths), Moho (a sharp increase in Vs (by ~ 0.5–0.7 km/s) at 39–50 km depths) and lithosphere (a marked decrease in Vs(~ 1–3%) at 136–178 km depths), across the Himalayan collisional front. Our joint inversion of radial PRFs and group velocity dispersion data of Rayleigh waves detects three NNE trending transverse lithospheric blocks segmenting the lithosphere in Uttarakhand Himalaya, which spatially correlate well with the northward extension of the Delhi -Haridwar Indian basement ridge, an inferred tectonic boundary and great boundary fault, respectively. Our radial receiver function imaging detects highly deformed and segmented crustal and lithospheric structures associated with three mapped t...

Current earthquake hazard maps for Nepal predict substantial variations in hazard within the nation, with noticeable differences between maps. We thus suggest that given present knowledge, all of Nepal may be better regarded as equally hazardous and perhaps vulnerable to much larger earthquakes than those currently known because of their long recurrence times. This proposal is based on the limitations of the historical earthquake record, the recognized deficit in seismic moment release, and GPS data showing a similar level of coupling along the arc. Support for using smoother maps can be had from analysis for Japan, which is also located on and parallel to a subduction boundary, showing that in some ways the hazard maps may be overparameterized, in that including too high a level of detail may lower the maps' ability to predict shaking. Treating Nepal's hazard as uniform and developing mitigation strategies accordingly may help reduce damage in future earthquakes.

This paper proposes a new method to approach earthquake hypocenter studies based on Chaos Game Representation (CGR), a method initially used for making fractal structures and applied for studying DNA sequences. Applying the CGR method, this study aims at checking whether any relation exists between earthquakes occurring in different depth ranges in a seismically active area. For this purpose, the seismically active areas around the Indian tectonic plate were used. The CGR images gave characteristic patterns, implying that the occurrence of earthquakes in some specific depth range combinations showed higher preference. Statistical data on the frequency of different depth range combinations were derived from these plots. We put forward a mathematical value which we call proximity index, to compare the similarity between two different CGR plots. Proximity index values were used to compare the similarity in seismic activity in two different zones by comparing their respective CGR plots.

Written history of great earthquakes in excess of magnitude M8 and recently identified 92 small faults around underlying big three fault systems parallel to the Himalayas show a high seismicity in Nepal. However, since faults are so closed that it is difficult to judge which earthquake belongs to which fault and even some of the faults do not hold earthquakes, the usual method of assigning the earthquakes to the nearest fault developing magnitude-frequency relationship is not applicable. Thus, an attempt has been made here to address the problem considering area sources with different densities at each location based upon historical earthquakes and faults which is real evidence of the seismicity of the region. Separate earthquake densities are calculated based upon historical earthquakes and maximum magnitudes of faults using the kernel estimation method which accounts the significance of both the number of earthquakes and size. Since there is no specific attenuation laws developed for the Himalayan region, five attenuation laws developed for seduction zone are selected and used, giving equal weight to all to minimize the uncertainties. Then, the probabilistic spectra for various return periods are calculated, compared with previous estimates and various aspects discussed.

The Sonapahar sillimanite-corundum deposit of Meghalaya, Northeast India occurs within high-grade metapelites and exhibits an unusual association of sillimanite-quartz, corundum-quartz, sapphirinephlogopite-corundum-sillimanite rock. Pockets of sillimanite and corundum occur within the host quartz sillimanite schist with contrasting chemical signature, where the SiO 2 /Al 2 O 3 ratio is 2.5-3 for the host quartz sillimanite schist and 0.12-0.7 in sillimanite rocks. Earlier it was explained that the sillimanitecorundum rock was produced from metamorphosed paleosol, but the present study suggests that metasomatism had a major role to modify the host quartz-sillimanite schist into sillimanite-corundum rocks during post-peak metamorphism. Field disposition and structural control of the area show that pockets of sillimanite-corundum rock are restricted near the shear zones. Shear zones were the pathways for movement of hydrothermal Cuids, conversion of host bulk chemistry by selective leaching and, Bnally, enrichment of sillimanite-quartz or corundum-quartz pockets within the quartz sillimanite schist.

Transcriptions from seven original documents describing the effects of the 1st September 1803 Garhwal earthquake constitute the basic theme of this paper. The objective is to collate all relevant materials and put it as a base document to facilitate future research. Descriptive accounts for this earthquake and contemporary research based on such sources indicate that this earthquake was a large event, if not major; and there is little reason to consider the epicenter to be located at Mathura or to suggest occurrence of two events between 00.30 and 01.30 hrs. Re-evaluation of archival materials further suggest that this earthquake might have produced aftershocks for fourteen years till the year 1817, followed by a lull period so far as seismicity is concerned in the Garhwal Himalaya up to 1831. Such a major earthquake within the so called central seismic gap in the Himalayas necessitates reconciliation on available seismic hazard assessment.

We present the results of studying the geoelectrical structure of the zone of continental subduction of the Indian lithospheric plate within the Gahrwal Himalaya. In the framework of the Russian-Indian project, the data of the broadband magnetotelluric soundings conducted by the Indian Institute of Technol ogy Roorkee on the regional profile across the structures of the orogen were expanded, processed, and inter preted by the new program tools adapted for the measurements in the mountain conditions and for the pres ence of industrial noise. The constructed model of the deep electrical conductivity cross section for Garhwal revealed its two dimensional (2D) features and more accurately delineated the location of the midcrustal conductor associated with the ramp structure of the detachment plane. The correlations with the regional dis tribution of the earthquake hypocenters and the seismotomographic images suggest a common, fluid related nature of the seismic and geoelectrical anomalies in the crust of the Garhwal Tectonic Corridor and enabled the identification of the seismogenerating zones. Among the data of the expanded profile set of magnetotel luric and magnetovariational transfer functions, the response of a poorly explored deep conductive body is revealed. This object is located east of the profile and is probably associated with the activation of the ancient trans Himalayan cratonic structures which prepares the segmentation of the Himalayan arc.

NO − 3) of meltwater draining from Gangotri Glacier was carried out to understand major ion chemistry and to get an insight into geochemical weathering processes controlling hydrochemistry of the glacier. In the meltwater, the abundance order of cations and anions varied as follows: Ca 2+ > Mg 2+ > K + > Na + and SO 2− 4 > HCO − 3 > Cl − > NO − 3 , respectively. Calcium and magnesium are dominant cations while sulphate and bicarbonate are dominant anions. Weathering of rocks is the dominant mechanism controlling the hydrochemistry of drainage basin. The relative high contribution of (Ca+Mg) to the total cations (TZ +), high (Ca+Mg)/(Na+K) ratio (2.63) and low (Na+K)/TZ + ratio (0.29) indicate the dominance of carbonate weathering as a major source for dissolved ions in the glacier meltwater. Sulphide oxidation and carbonation are the main proton supplying geochemical reactions controlling the rock weathering in the study area. Statistical analysis was done to identify various factors controlling the dissolved ionic strength of Gangotri Glacier meltwater.

Written history of great earthquakes in excess of magnitude M8 and recently identified 92 small faults around underlying big three fault systems parallel to the Himalayas show a high seismicity in Nepal. However, since faults are so closed that it is difficult to judge which earthquake belongs to which fault and even some of the faults do not hold earthquakes, the usual method of assigning the earthquakes to the nearest fault developing magnitude-frequency relationship is not applicable. Thus, an attempt has been made here to address the problem considering area sources with different densities at each location based upon historical earthquakes and faults which is real evidence of the seismicity of the region. Separate earthquake densities are calculated based upon historical earthquakes and maximum magnitudes of faults using the kernel estimation method which accounts the significance of both the number of earthquakes and size. Since there is no specific attenuation laws developed for the Himalayan region, five attenuation laws developed for seduction zone are selected and used, giving equal weight to all to minimize the uncertainties. Then, the probabilistic spectra for various return periods are calculated, compared with previous estimates and various aspects discussed.

A positive correlation between areas of increased coulomb stress changes, induced by an earthquake, and the spatial distribution in the occurrence of aftershocks have been reported in recent years. We consider such a correlation between the aftershocks of March 29, 1999 Chamoli earthquake (Ms 6.6) that occurred in the Garhwal Himalaya, India, and the mainshock induced coulomb stresses, to constrain some of the rupture parameters of the mainshock. Most of the aftershocks occurred above and near the updip edge of the rupture implying reactivation of pre-existing thrust fault of the Himalayan wedge. The 15 Â 12 km 2 rupture appears to be lying above the detachment, the plate boundary fault between the underthrusting Indian shield rocks and the Himalayan wedge rocks, in the Basement Thrust Front (BTF) zone.

A strong earthquake (6.9 M w) occurred in the Sikkim-Nepal region of the Himalayan arc which caused the death of about 100 people. The earthquake involved predominantly strike-slip motion on a steep fault, which is transverse to the Himalaya. It implies that the rupture of this earthquake did not occur on the Himalayan detachment, which slips in a stick-and-slip manner to accommodate 2 cm/year of convergence within the Himalaya. Although there is uncertainty about the depth estimates and ambiguity in the fault plane, amongst many other rupture models of the earthquake it is suggested that this, and a similar such earthquake on 20 August 1988 in the Himalayan foothills, occurred in response to the subduction of the Munger-Saharsa ridge on the Indian plate. The occurrence of this earthquake highlights the role of transverse features in the Himalayan tectonics.

The foothills of the Himalaya bordered by the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) continue to be a locus of paleoseismological studies. One of such recent studies of trench stratigraphy near the central (Indian) Himalayan foothills (Malik et al., (2016) has reported multiple ruptures dated at 467-570, 1294-1587 and 1750-1932 AD. The last offset has been attributed to the Uttarkashi earthquake of 1803 and the penultimate faulting, with lesser confidence to an earthquake in 1505 AD. We tested these claims by logging an adjacent section on a shared scarp, and the new trench site, however, revealed a stratigraphic configuration partially in variance with from what has been reported in the earlier study. Our findings do not support the previous interpretation of the trench stratigraphy that suggested multiple displacements cutting across a varied set of deformed stratigraphic units leading up to the 1803 rupture. The current interpretation posits a single episode of a low-angle displacement at this site occurred between AD 1266 and 1636. Our results conform to the inferences on a single medieval earthquake, reported from the previously studied neighboring sites to the east and west. The present study while reiterating a great medieval earthquake questions the assumption that the 1803 earthquake ruptured the MFT. Although a décollement earthquake, the 1803 rupture may have been arrested midway on the basal flat, and fell short of reaching the MFT, somewhat comparable to a suite of blind thrust earthquakes like the1905 Kangra and the 1833 Nepal earthquakes.

The central Himalaya, considered as a prominent dseismic gapT, is generally believed to be the most vulnerable segment, due for a great plate boundary earthquake (MN8). Two significant historical earthquakes are known to have occurred in this region, in AD 1505 and 1803. Interpreted by some workers as great earthquakes, occurrences of these events question the validity of central Himalaya being a seismic gap. Here, we analyze the macroseismal data from the Central Himalaya and the Gangetic Plains, and suggest that neither of these earthquakes can be qualified as a plate-boundary-type event, and the size of at least the 1803 does not exceed Mw 7.7. Our studies further indicate that the central Himalayan frontal thrusts may be undergoing a quiescence of N1000 years in terms of generation of great earthquakes. Assuming a steady elastic strain accumulation due to plate convergence, and its simple translation as periodic great earthquakes, such long quiescence may appear intriguing. We suggest that the long-term quiescence and the spatial and temporal clustering that characterize the distribution of large earthquakes in the Himalaya, is a manifestation of the tectonic deformation associated with a highly evolved fold and thrust belt. Our analyses also indicate that the large/moderate earthquakes are mostly concentrated on higher-level thrusts. These structures probably accommodate most of the seismogenic slip in the Himalaya, and the rest of the strain could possibly be expended on passive folding. Consequently, great earthquakes (MN8) are relatively infrequent, as in the case of central Himalaya, apparently leading to long periods of quiescence.

Four vertical electrical sounding (VES) survey was carried outin Vadakuthu area near Neyveli Lignite mine-IA, Neyveli, Cuddalore District. The main objectives of the study were to identify the electrical resistivity properties for the lignite formation, and to find out the subsurface layers and their corresponding thickness. In this study, the Schlumberger electrode configuration was used for the acquisition of VES data in the field. A total number of 4 VES stations were occupied within the tertiary of Cuddalore formation. Resistivity curve types ranging from simple H until HA and QHA curve types were identified to reflect the facies or lithological variations in the area. The outcome revealed that the resistivity value varies from 7.42 to 2630 Ohm meters and subsurface layer thicknesses varies between 1m and 56.7 m. High resistivity value observed in VES-2 and VES-3 could be attributed to the presence of lignite and the presence of laterite. Low resistivity value could be attribute...

Background and AimsTree rings, as archives of the past and biosensors of the present, offer unique opportunities to study influences of the fluctuating environment over decades to centuries. As such, tree-ring-based wood traits are capital input for global vegetation models. To contribute to earth system sciences, however, sufficient spatial coverage is required of detailed individual-based measurements, necessitating large amounts of data. X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning is one of the few techniques that can deliver such data sets.MethodsIncrement cores of four different temperate tree species were scanned with a state-of-the-art X-ray CT system at resolutions ranging from 60 μm down to 4.5 μm, with an additional scan at a resolution of 0.8 μm of a splinter-sized sample using a second X-ray CT system to highlight the potential of cell-level scanning. Calibration-free densitometry, based on full scanner simulation of a third X-ray CT system, is illustrated on increment cores...

Deformed monuments can be used to help constrain the timing of an earthquake, its epicenter, and the extent of its damage. In the present work, we studied the ancient temples in the Chamba and Bharmour area from the seventh century onward in the Ravi River catchment of the Chamba district of western Himachal Pradesh, India, which lies in the Kashmir seismic gap of the northwest Himalaya. Many architectural features of the temples show earthquake-induced deformation signatures that include tilting of the pillars and temple structures, fractures, and opening in the brick masonry. The Bharmour temples located 45 km north of Kangra show shear-type deformation in the eastwest direction. The Chamba temples, which lie 52 km northwest of Kangra and outside the rupture zone of 1905 Kangra earthquake, display shear or rigid body rotation in the north-south direction. The deformation features observed in the temples suggest that the Bharmour area lies within the 1905 Kangra earthquake meizoseismal zone, and that the 1555 Kashmir earthquake rupture zone extended southeast toward Chamba.

Earthquakes are the most perilous natural events that leave their imprint on geological, ecological as well as socio aspects, as measured on the Richter scale. Earthquakes produce due to sudden release of energy from inside the earth's crust triggered by the tectonic activities and rock masses move in relation to one another. The movement and straining of rock masses against one another developing numerous fractures or slips. These structures are designated as geologic faults. The major fault lines are associated with tectonic plates of earth crust. At present, the movement of Indian plate continues at the rate of 3.7 centimeter per year in North East direction and putting enormous pressure on the Eurasian plate. The effect of plate-tectonic forces acting in this region generated within the Earth's crust, and released periodically by earthquakes along the numerous faults that shape the topography of in Indian sub continents such as in the