Distributed Operating Systems

The Amoeba distributed operating system has been in development and use for over eight years now, which is a long enough period to warrant taking a look back at its successes and failures. We will first describe the current version of the system in some detail, as it has evolved considerably since the first publication about it. We will emphasize those aspects of the system that we consider novel, interesting, and not present in many other systems of its type. Then we will look at the measured performance of Amoeba and compare it to the performance of other systems. Finally we will specifically discuss a number of the critical design choices we have made, and point out those we consider successful and those we consider unsuccessful.

This paper proposes a new idea which makes the processes not to wait for a long time to enter into a critical section to access a data structure which is already assigned to the other process and that process enters into critical section. Till date so many approaches and algorithms are proposed to reduce the delay time between the successive executions of the critical section, but no one proposed how to assign the data structure to all the process who are requesting for the data structure. In this paper the idea we are proposing is to create an instance of the data structure before assigning to the process and allow each and every process into critical section to avoid the delay time permanently.  The  proposed  algorithm  every  time  creates  an instance of the data structure before assigning to the requested process and simultaneously it checks for the instance released by the process already assigned instanced data structure. If when a new process is requesting for the data structure and at the same time already assigned process releases the instance then the coordinator will do both creation and deletion of the instance.

In recent years, Jungle Computing has emerged as a distributed computing paradigm based on simultaneous combination of various hierarchical and distributed computing environments which are composed by large number of heterogeneous resources. In such a computing environment, the resources and the underlying computation and communication infrastructures are highly-hierarchical and heterogeneous. This creates a lot of difficulty and complexity for finding the proper resources in a precise way in order to run a particular job on the system efficiently. This paper proposes Hybrid Adaptive Resource Discovery (HARD), a novel efficient and highly scalable resource-discovery approach which is built upon a virtual hierarchical overlay based on self-organization and self-adaptation of processing resources in the system, where the computing resources are organized into distributed hierarchies according to a proposed hierarchical multi-layered resource description model. The proposed approach supports distributed query processing within and across hierarchical layers by deploying various distributed resource discovery services and functionalities in the system which are implemented using different adapted algorithms and mechanisms in each level of hierarchy. The proposed approach addresses the requirements for resource discovery in Jungle Computing environments such as high-hierarchy, high-heterogeneity, high-scalability and dynamicity. Simulation results show significant scalability and efficiency of the proposed approach over highly heterogeneous, hierarchical and dynamic computing environments.

This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law. This representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for noncommercial use only. Unauthorized posting of this publication online is prohibited. Permission is given to duplicate this document for personal use only, as long as it is unaltered and complete. Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of its research documents for commercial use. For information on reprint and linking permissions, please visit www.rand.org/pubs/permissions.html. The RAND Corporation is a research organization that develops solutions to public policy challenges to help make communities throughout the world safer and more secure, healthier and more prosperous. RAND is nonprofit, nonpartisan, and committed to the public interest. RAND's publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors.

Nowadays, due to the large amount of information and the need of rapid processing, the need for computers with up-to-date and efficient operating systems with high processing power is felt. During the last decades, progress in the field of information technology has made available fast distribution systems. Distributed systems are one of the best solutions to achieve the above goal. By placing computer systems on the platform of the distribution network, it is possible to create a high processing power, whose complexity and organization are hidden from the eyes of users and in addition, it brings us the availability of resources and scalability. Securing the core of distributed operating systems is a necessity that can help improve the security of information technology in distributed network environments. In order to fundamentally implement this process, it is necessary to create an expert security team. Also, in addition to the technical review and the implementation of protection settings and access controls, there is a need to develop new methods and tools to study the sequence of certain or possible protection operations in the core of distributed operating systems. In this article, we are going to examine the security aspects in the core of distributed operating systems.

This paper constitutes a work-in-progress report on the first, mostly conceptual phase of a major international effort in building and evaluating a distributed testbed for database application systems in safety-critical real-time environments. Given that safety/ reliability requirements and real-time constraints are in conflict there cannot be a closed form solution or design, and all system functions have to dynamically adapt to the unpredictable environmental situation in safety-critical real-time systems. Over the past years groups headed by the authors had pursued novel concepts and approaches on a novel tailored LINUX kernel, safety-critical application operating system support (MELODY project) and Active Database levels (concurrency control under data replication). In the research project a complete integration of these achievements from the basic OS kernel through the application levels is the major theme. While quite a number of research and design problems stemming from the partial insights or incomplete functionality on the various levels posed serious challenges the integration itself requires, and gives rise to, extensions, modifications, or refinements of the functions involved for ensuring system survivability. The paper will describe the technical details of these implications from the integration for the whole project as well as the stepwise design and evaluation of the different functions and models.-To our knowledge this is the first fully integrative attempts in the area of distributed safety-critical real-time systems.

Internet of Things applications often require reducing the communication delay and the traffic between sensors and actuators. In addition, research and development of dataflow platforms is ongoing. In these platforms, to meet the aforementioned requirements, geographically distributed dataflow components should be connected appropriately using edge computing environments. Existing approaches provide efficient communication considering the geographical distance using a distributed publish/subscribe broker that uses the peer-to-peer overlay; however, they do not consider resource information. In this paper, we propose two component selection methods-Multicast and Anycast-for inter-component communication considering resource information. Multicast selects a component by collecting resource information before selection, while Anycast selects a component using the aggregated resource information together with the overlay maintenance. We evaluated the hop count and amount of traffic using each method. As a result, we clarified that Anycast provides a smaller number of hops than Multicast when the aggregated values are sufficiently updated or there are sufficient available components. Furthermore, we examined how to use Anycast and Multicast considering the traffic volume against the sending interval of the component reservation request and the interval between sending the update query for maintaining the overlay. The sender node can choose the component selection method based on the number of hops and the traffic volume.

This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law. This representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for noncommercial use only. Unauthorized posting of this publication online is prohibited. Permission is given to duplicate this document for personal use only, as long as it is unaltered and complete. Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of its research documents for commercial use. For information on reprint and linking permissions, please visit www.rand.org/pubs/permissions.html. The RAND Corporation is a research organization that develops solutions to public policy challenges to help make communities throughout the world safer and more secure, healthier and more prosperous. RAND is nonprofit, nonpartisan, and committed to the public interest. RAND's publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors.

Volunteer cloud is a new concept of cloud computing where volunteers, i.e., user machines are used instead of or in addition to dedicated resources. Although volunteer clouds offer potential benefits in terms of energy and cost saving as well as elasticity, the volatility and the scalability of the volunteer resources are still open challenges that need to be investigated. In this paper, we focus on managing the connectivity in a scalable and dynamic fashion in volunteer clouds. We show that volunteer clouds could be modelled by a hierarchical small-world structure, characterised by short average path lengths among nodes, and strong local clustering, which implies small latency between nodes and therefore robust forwarding. Furthermore, we explore the benefits of the use of the recursive internetwork architecture (RINA) as a networking solution. Finally, simulation results show that our proposal achieves a trade-off between bounding the routing table size and ensuring transmission efficiency.

Ubiquitous Computing (UC) is an emerging technology of sharing the information by using large collection of computing devices. Sharing of information is in terms of availability of information at every time, every where and in invisible form. In Ubiquitous computing power of desktop paradigm is distributed to every day electronic devices in an invisible mode. Rather saying that we are living in the age of computers, using ubiquitous computing services, we can say that the computer is living in human beings. The implementation of requirements of ubiquitous computing is a real issue to address. It is considered that hand held devices' operating systems are the best candidates to achieve implementation of Ubiquitous computing. In this paper, we present our analysis of gap present between the requirements of a virtual operating system of ubiquitous computing and a currently present open source operating system of hand held devices.

The classic network file systems we examined, NFS, CIFS, AFS, Coda, were designed as client-server applications. Clients talk to a service that, in this case, happens to be a file service. The actual file service is offered by a single machine. Where multiple machines are used, the administrator is responsible for diving up file resources (e.g., home directories) among individual servers and the the entire resource (e.g., your home directory) is fully served from a single server. In Coda, which supports replication, it is up to the administrator to define the set of machines that hold volume replicas. This is not the kind of approach that we want to use if we want to divide our files among thousands or tens of thousands of machines. For an example of handling this environment, we will look at two closely-related file systems: the Google File System (GFS) and the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS). The latter is an open source version (and minor variant) of the former.

In recent years, Jungle Computing has emerged as a distributed computing paradigm based on simultaneous combination of various hierarchical and distributed computing environments which are composed by large number of heterogeneous resources. In such a computing environment, the resources and the underlying computation and communication infrastructures are highly-hierarchical and heterogeneous. This creates a lot of difficulty and complexity for finding the proper resources in a precise way in order to run a particular job on the system efficiently. This paper proposes Hybrid Adaptive Resource Discovery (HARD), a novel efficient and highly scalable resource-discovery approach which is built upon a virtual hierarchical overlay based on self-organization and self-adaptation of processing resources in the system, where the computing resources are organized into distributed hierarchies according to a proposed hierarchical multi-layered resource description model. The proposed approach supports distributed query processing within and across hierarchical layers by deploying various distributed resource discovery services and functionalities in the system which are implemented using different adapted algorithms and mechanisms in each level of hierarchy. The proposed approach addresses the requirements for resource discovery in Jungle Computing environments such as high-hierarchy, high-heterogeneity, high-scalability and dynamicity. Simulation results show significant scalability and efficiency of the proposed approach over highly heterogeneous, hierarchical and dynamic computing environments.

The next generation of many-core enabled large-scale computing systems relies on thousands of billions of heterogeneous processing cores connected to form a single computing unit. In such large-scale computing environments, resource management is one of the most challenging, and complex issues for efficient resource sharing and utilization, particularly as we move toward Future ManyCore Systems (FMCS). This work proposes a novel resource management scheme for future peta-scale many-core-enabled computing systems, based on hybrid adaptive resource discovery, called ElCore. The proposed architecture contains a set of modules which will dynamically be instantiated on the nodes in the distributed system on demand. Our approach provides flexibility to allocate the required set of resources for various types of processes/applications. It can also be considered as a generic solution (with respect to the general requirements of large scale computing environments) which brings a set of inter...

In recent years, Jungle Computing has emerged as a distributed computing paradigm based on simultaneous combination of various hierarchical and distributed computing environments which are composed by large number of heterogeneous resources. In such a computing environment, the resources and the underlying computation and communication infrastructures are highly-hierarchical and heterogeneous. This creates a lot of difficulty and complexity for finding the proper resources in a precise way in order to run a particular job on the system efficiently. This paper proposes Hybrid Adaptive Resource Discovery (HARD), a novel efficient and highly scalable resource-discovery approach which is built upon a virtual hierarchical overlay based on self-organization and self-adaptation of processing resources in the system, where the computing resources are organized into distributed hierarchies according to a proposed hierarchical multi-layered resource description model. The proposed approach supports distributed query processing within and across hierarchical layers by deploying various distributed resource discovery services and functionalities in the system which are implemented using different adapted algorithms and mechanisms in each level of hierarchy. The proposed approach addresses the requirements for resource discovery in Jungle Computing environments such as high-hierarchy, high-heterogeneity, high-scalability and dynamicity. Simulation results show significant scalability and efficiency of the proposed approach over highly heterogeneous, hierarchical and dynamic computing environments.

The next generation of many-core enabled large-scale computing systems relies on thousands of billions of heterogeneous processing cores connected to form a single computing unit. In such large-scale computing environments, resource management is one of the most challenging, and complex issues for efficient resource sharing and utilization, particularly as we move toward Future ManyCore Systems (FMCS). This work proposes a novel resource management scheme for future peta-scale many-core-enabled computing systems, based on hybrid adaptive resource discovery, called ElCore. The proposed architecture contains a set of modules which will dynamically be instantiated on the nodes in the distributed system on demand. Our approach provides flexibility to allocate the required set of resources for various types of processes/applications. It can also be considered as a generic solution (with respect to the general requirements of large scale computing environments) which brings a set of interesting features (such as auto-scaling, multitenancy, multi-dimensional mapping, etc,.) to facilitate its easy adaptation to any distributed technology (such as SOA, Grid and HPC many-core). The achieved evaluation results assured the significant scalability and the high-quality resource mapping of the proposed resource discovery and management over highly heterogeneous, hierarchical and dynamic computing environments with respect to several scalability and efficiency aspects while supporting flexible and complex queries with guaranteed discovery results accuracy. The simulation results prove that, using our approach, the mapping between processes and resources can be done with high level of accuracy which potentially leads to a significant enhancement in the overall system performance.

One of the most important potential benefits of workstation clusters (client/server computing systems) is resource sharing. By interconnecting a number of workstations using a suitable network, a large number of hardware and software resources can be made available to users. In comparison with centralized computer systems (mainframes) and shared memory multiprocessors systems, the availability of such resources can be achieved at a fraction of the costs entailed by mainframe solutions, since workstations allow the use of standard components. Another advantage of workstation clusters is their scalability and flexibility towards an upgrade or extension with some other components. The concept of a mainframe system is sharing centralized resources among all users by switching between users’ processes (time sharing). The main advantage of such systems is that they are usually easy to administrate. In contrast to this concept, we will introduce a distributed system that does not only offe...

One of the most important potential benefits of workstation clusters (client/server computing systems) is resource sharing. By interconnecting a number of workstations using a suitable network, a large number of hardware and software resources can be made available to users. In comparison with centralized computer systems (mainframes) and shared memory multiprocessors systems, the availability of such resources can be achieved at a fraction of the costs entailed by mainframe solutions, since workstations allow the use of standard components. Another advantage of workstation clusters is their scalability and flexibility towards an upgrade or extension with some other components. The concept of a mainframe system is sharing centralized resources among all users by switching between users' processes (time sharing). The main advantage of such systems is that they are usually easy to administrate. In contrast to this concept, we will introduce a distributed system that does not only offer time sharing, but also sharing of computing nodes (workstations) according to the users' application requirements (workstation sharing). Nevertheless, the organization of that system remains centralized in order to reduce the expense for management and maintenance. In this paper, we will explain the architecture and mechanism of a transparent system that consists of some Unix workstations running a network file system (NFS).

This paper presents research t o wards the formal speci cation and veri cation of a secure distributed system and secure application programs that run on it. We refer to the whole system | from hardware to application programs written in a concurrent programming language | as the Silo, and to a simpli ed view of the Silo as the miniSilo. Both miniSilo and Silo consist of a collection of microprocessors interconnected by a n e t work, a distributed operating system and a compiler for a distributed programming language. Our goal is to verify the full Silo by mechanized layered formal proof using the higher order logic theorem proving system HOL. This paper describes our current results for verifying the miniSilo and our incremental approach for evolving the veri cation of the miniSilo into the veri cation of the full Silo. Scalability i s addressed in part by extending the distributed operating system with additional servers which in turn provide services that extend the programming language.

PODOS is a performance oriented distributed operating system being developed to harness the performance capabilities of a cluster-computing environment. In order to address the growing demand for performance, we are designing a distributed operating system (DOS) that can utilize the computing potential of a number of systems. Earlier clustering approaches have traditionally stressed more on resource sharing or reliability and have given lesser priority to performance. PODOS adds just four new components to the existing Linux operating system to make it distributed. These components are a Communication Manager (CM), a PODOS Distributed File System (PDFS), a Resource Manager (RM), and Global

Modern, distributed computing systems need to cope continuously with changes. We identify two kinds of changes: low frequency infrastructural changes, such as software upgrade; and frequent c hanges in the execution environment, such a s n e t work bandwidth, memory availability. This paper proposes 2K , a component-based operating system architecture for rapidly changing environments. In 2K , adaptation is driven by architectural awareness: the system software includes models of its own structure, state, and behavior. Change in the dynamic structure of the system triggers adaptation. To implement adaptation, 2K incorporates a re ective middleware layer that admits dynamic customization through the dynamic loading of components and modi cation of object mechanisms such as method dispatch. The architecture also addresses adaptation in response to software and hardware evolution through code distribution, implemented using the active n e t working model. Prototype implementations of 2K ideas had provided encouraging results. We also present an application study, i d e n tify problems that arose while implementing the application on a traditional system, and analyze how 2K features would alleviate those problems.

Distributed Computing System(DCS) architectures have taken various forms through a considerably short development stage. In a DCS the underlying hardware characteristics are to be transparent to the application level processing. This transparency is regarded to be the function of the operating systems. The standardization efforts in communication protocols and layered approach in the analysis of DCSs has contributed to the advances in distributed control, thus the distributed operating systems. Fortunate]y, most distributed architectures are of one of several .• inds: compu ter communication networks, local area networks, and various multicomputer systems (often merged with the first two). The tightly coupled multiprocessor systems, associative processors, data flow machines, and similar parallel architectures are strictly excluded from our discussion of the DCSs. In this presentation the emphasis is given to computer networks, local area networks, and the channel sharing mechanisms such as point-to-point and multi-point connections which have been basis of the communication medium in many DCSs.

Distributed systems span a wide spectrum in the design space. In this paper we will look at the various kinds and discuss some of the reliability issues involved. In the first half of the paper we will concentrate on the causes of unreliability, illustrating these with some general solutions and examples. Among the issues treated are interprocess communication, machine crashes, server redundancy, and data integrity. In the second half of the paper, we will examine one distributed operating system, Amoeba, to see how reliability issues have been handled in at least one real system, and how the pieces fit together.

As distributed computing becomes more widespread, both in high-energy physics and in other applications, centralized operating systems will gradually give way to distributed ones. In this paper we discuss some current research on five issues that are central to the design of distributed operating systems: communications primitives, naming and protection, resource management, fault tolerance, and system services. For each of these issues, some principles, examples, and other considerations will be given.

Assets Control ("OFAC") administers and enforces economic and trade sanctions based on United States ("U.S. ") foreign policy and national security goals. These sanctions are imposed upon targeted foreign countries and regimes, international narcotics traffickers, those engaged in activities related to the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, terrorists, as well as other threats to the national security, foreign policy, or economy of the United States. Pursuant to Presidential national emergency powers, as well as authority granted by specific statutes, OFAC has the authority to prohibit transactions and freezes assets subject to U.S. governmental jurisdiction. 1 To carry out its mission, OFAC publishes a list of targeted countries, including those with state-sponsored terrorism and also, periodically publishes names on a list referred to as the "Specifically Designated Nationals" ("SDN") List to enforce U.S. sanctions aimed at individuals and entities. All U.S. entities, including casinos and card clubs, must take reasonable steps to prevent illicit transactions being conducted with targeted countries and SDNs. This paper discusses the OFAC sanctions programs related to country embargoes as well as the SDN List. Additionally, this paper discusses measures that may assist U.S. casinos and card clubs to better comply with OFAC regulations pertaining to customers or targeted countries. This paper focuses solely on the gaming side of the casino business. Nonetheless, the casino industry needs to understand that the non-gaming side of its business has exposures to OFAC requirements such as casino hotels and high-end retail stores (e.g., jewelry). Please note that there are three sections of this paper that also would apply to the non-gaming side of a casino's corporate business (i.e., "Who Is Required to Comply With OFAC Requirements, " "What OFAC Programs Exits, " and "OFAC Civil and Criminal Penalties"). Finally, to further assist readers, this paper provides 29 references/Web links to specific documents or Web sites so that readers can do further research if they wish.

This article considers the terrorism financing risk associated with the growth of Financial Technology (FinTech) innovations and in particular, focuses on virtual currency (VC) products and services. The ease with which cross-border payments by virtual currencies are facilitated, the anonymity surrounding their usage and their potential to be converted into the fiat financial system, make them ideal for terrorism financing and therefore calls for a coordinated global regulatory response. This article considers the extent of the risk of terrorism financing through virtual currencies in 'high risk' States by focusing on countries that have been recently associated with terrorism activities. It assesses the robustness of their financial regulatory and law enforcement regimes in combating terrorism financing and considers the extent to which Regulatory Technology (RegTech) and its global standardisation, can mitigate this risk.

A perceived risk in terrorist use and adoption of virtual currencies over the past few years has driven the widespread notion that this financial innovation represents a threat to security. This dissertation addresses this issue, examining the security implications associated to the rise of this technology. It argues that the risks of terrorist exploitation are in fact limited, these being primarily confined to their sporadic and ad hoc use as opposed to their adoption as a sustained financing method. Moreover, it contends that a number of practices have ultimately led to the ‘securitisation’ of this issue, or its framing in the logic of security and emergency, justifying for increased state control over virtual currencies. The dissertation first presents an overview of this question to subsequently sketch out a theoretical framework based on a critical approach to security. It then considers patterns and methods of terrorist financing to help situate virtual currencies in this context, arguing that some of the alleged benefits offered by this technology are limited. In consequently considering the case of ISIL, it determines that the organisation’s current financing needs are best served by their established methods and not virtual currencies. The final section then returns to the question of security, showing that a number of practices have resulted in the gradual securitisation of this technology, and advocating for its de-securitisation, or its negotiation in the political realm and not one defined by the logic of emergency.

In recent years, Jungle Computing has emerged as a distributed computing paradigm based on simultaneous combination of various hierarchical and distributed computing environments which are composed by large number of heterogeneous resources. In such a computing environment, the resources and the underlying computation and communication infrastructures are highly-hierarchical and heterogeneous. This creates a lot of difficulty and complexity for finding the proper resources in a precise way in order to run a particular job on the system efficiently. This paper proposes Hybrid Adaptive Resource Discovery (HARD), a novel efficient and highly scalable resource-discovery approach which is built upon a virtual hierarchical overlay based on self-organization and self-adaptation of processing resources in the system, where the computing resources are organized into distributed hierarchies according to a proposed hierarchical multi-layered resource description model. The proposed approach supports distributed query processing within and across hierarchical layers by deploying various distributed resource discovery services and functionalities in the system which are implemented using different adapted algorithms and mechanisms in each level of hierarchy. The proposed approach addresses the requirements for resource discovery in Jungle Computing environments such as high-hierarchy, high-heterogeneity, high-scalability and dynamicity. Simulation results show significant scalability and efficiency of the proposed approach over highly heterogeneous, hierarchical and dynamic computing environments.

Government officials and stakeholders in the financial industry trying to counter transnational terrorist financing face a wicked problem.  This problem is ill-defined, with multiple causes and uncertainty on whether the solutions implemented to combat this threat are effective.  It is a problem further complicated by the convergence of globalization, digitalization and introduction of disruptive financial technologies, which further enables distributed terrorist financing.

Government and financial industry stakeholders should accept transnational terrorist financing as a wicked problem, as this can help foster development of a strategic mindset focused on more effective CTF resolutions.  This will require a continuous effort on the part of all stakeholders, with hard, but necessary, choices around risk tolerance and the restoration of trust and confidence.

In this paper, we present a review of the issues that affect the software requirements for a local area network. We introduce protocols for the local area networks and characterize their software needs. Two approaches to operating systems are outlined and examples of each approach are presented. Various applications which use local area networks and performance issues are also discussed.

With the recent data deluge, search applications are confronted with the complexity of data they handle in terms of volume, velocity and variety. Traditional frameworks such as Lucene [1], index text for efficient searching but do not consider relationships/semantics of data. Any structural change in data demands re-modelling and re-indexing. This paper presents an indexing model that addresses the challenge. Data is modelled as graph in accordance to object-oriented principles such that the system learns the possible queries that can be executed on the indexed data. The model is generic and flexible enough to adapt to the structural changes in data without the need of additional re-modelling & re-indexing. The result is a framework that enables applications to search domain objects, their relationships and related objects using simple APIs without the structural knowledge of underlying data.

In May 2015, a new globally recognizable and reliable medium for savings and trade was launched. This medium referred to as BitGold is a consumer-focused internet platform offering free global payments combined with unprecedented access to secure, redeemable gold for savings.

The BitGold platform provides innovative solutions to the challenge of transacting with fully allocated and securely vaulted physical gold. BitGold accounts are free and convenient to open by anyone, anywhere in just minutes.

Although the above mentioned features of BitGold promote financial inclusion, it provides a powerful new tool for criminals, terrorist financiers and other sanctions evaders to move and store illicit funds, out of the reach of law enforcement and other authorities. Against this backdrop, BitGold Inc (a federally chartered Canadian Corporation regarded by Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre of Canada ("FINTRAC") as a dealer in precious metals and stones) has implemented Anti-Money Laundering ("AML") policies. The policies are designed to make it difficult for money launderers to use the above features of BitGold to transmit illegal funds through the BitGold platform.

This paper critically analyses the Anti-Money Laundering measures adopted by BitGold Inc. 

The aim of such analysis is to determine if those measures can effectively combat money laundering and terrorist financing.

The analysis would be done under the following headings: Impersonation Fraud, Record Keeping, Suspicious Activity Monitoring, Geographical Reach, Methods of Funding and Financial Inclusion.

Distributed computer systems have been the subject of a vast amount of research. Many prototype distributed computer systems have been built at university, industrial, commercial, and government research laboratories, and production systems of all sizes and types have proliferated. It is impossible to survey all distributed computing system research. Instead, this paper identifies six fundamental distributed computer system research issues, points out open research problems in these areas, and describes how these six issues and solutions to problems associated with them transect the communications subnet, the distributed operating system, and the distributed database areas. It is intended that this perspective on distributed computer system research serve as a form of survey, but more importantly to illustrate and encourage a better integration and exchange of ideas from various subareas of distributed computer system research.