Comparative Theology

Upon death, a person’s being separates into three components: the Neschamah (celestial soul), Ruach (animal-human intellectual being), and Nephesh (shadow or ghost). The Neschamah, the true self, ascends to its divine origin, while the Ruach, containing earthly memories and desires, lingers in the astral sphere. The Nephesh, devoid of consciousness, dissipates.

The dissolution of a spirit (ruach) varies based on a person’s character, with wicked spirits lingering longer due to their material nature. Righteous spirits, however, seek to progress and are not bound to earthly attachments. True love, originating from the divine part of man (neshamah), transcends earthly life and can persist through reincarnations, while astral love, based on lower desires, fades away.

Debating Transcendence is a groundbreaking contribution to the ongoing dialogue between Confu­cian and Christian thought by addressing the transcendence debate—a key controversy that has shaped centuries of cross-cultural intellectual exchange. Song examines whether the Confucian concept of Tian (Heaven) or Taiji (Ultimate Limit) possesses a transcendent dimension comparable to Christian understandings of the Creator God. This study revisits the historical and philosophi­cal roots of the debate, tracing its evolution from early interactions between Confucianism and Christianity during the sixteenth century to present-day discussions.

At the heart of this book is Song’s aim to construct a Confucian definition of theology and a Confucian approach to comparative theology. Grounded in a scientifically rigorous methodology that transcends the conceptual boundaries of philosophy, religion, and theology, this new approach balances rootedness and impartiality, minimizing biases and revealing shared ground. Covering essential thinkers from the West and the East—such as Plato, Augustine, Descartes, and Paul Tillich alongside Confucius, Laozi, Wang Bi, and Zhu Xi—Song explores the historical development of key concepts such as creatio ex nihilo (creation out of nothing) and sheng (birth birth), challenging misconceptions and highlighting underexplored commonalities and differences. Drawing from his diverse scholarly background and extensive engagement with both traditions, Song distinguishes Confucian from Daoist metaphysics and demonstrates that Confucian metaphysics, centered around the concept of generatio ex nihilo, offers a compelling framework for understanding transcendence that not only resembles but, in certain aspects, surpasses major streams of its Christian counterpart.

Readers seeking to understand the profound spiritual foundations underpinning interactions between China and the West will find Song’s work essential. Combining rigor, scope, and depth, Debating Transcendence paves the way for refreshed interactions between Confucian and Christian thought, offering insights vital to contemporary scholarship and interreligious exchange.

This article examines how Islam's claim to universality is interpreted within the frameworks of modernity and theological sovereignty discourses. While the religion's intrinsic foundation rooted in individual responsibility, moral orientation, and cosmic unity is explored, it also questions whether the assertion to legislate in God's name and to establish religious order constitutes a theological deviation tantamount to shirk. Drawing on perspectives from thinkers such as Avicenna, Kant, and Aquinas, this analysis investigates the compatibility of the Qur'an with scientific realities, alongside its alternative ethical model in contrast to neoliberalism. The paper argues that interpretations like Wahhabism and Shiism deviate from Islam's universal philosophy, opening a critical discourse on the legitimacy of religious representation and claims to power.

This article examines the influence of secularism on youth, highlighting its impact on moral reasoning and spiritual identity. It argues that secularism's emphasis on autonomy and relativism contributes to ethical disorientation among young people. In response, the study proposes a contextual moral theological framework. It proceeds by defining secularism, analyzing its underlying causes, its impacts, and offering a constructive moral theological and pastoral engagement to restore ethical clarity and spiritual depth.

North America has become one of the most culturally diverse and religiously plural contexts in the world. Migration, colonization, slavery, Indigenous displacement, and globalization have produced a region where individuals and families embody multiple cultural, ethnic, and religious heritages. This hybridity intersects with the realities of intergenerational trauma-memories of displacement, oppression, genocide, and systemic injustice transmitted across generations. This paper argues that the complex matrix of hybrid identities and inherited wounds significantly shapes how individuals and communities in North America engage with God and spirituality within the three Abrahamic faiths: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Drawing on scripture, theology, and pastoral insights, it demonstrates how hybrid and wounded identities find resonance in the theological categories of covenant, redemption, mercy, and divine presence. It further proposes a theology of hybrid identity in which God is encountered not in pure or singular cultural forms, but in fractured and layered lives.

Darker Meaning to the Sixth Hour till the Ninth Hour Darkness? Theoretically speaking, if the strange Crucifixion Day "darkness" (see Matthew 27:45, Mark 15:33, and Luke 23:44), to which three of the four Gospel authors scantily allude but refuse to satisfactorily elaborate on, is a historical event, then the good news is, we've discovered the missing "third night" to which Jesus promised he would be in the heart of the earth (see Matthew 12:40), which has confounded and embarrassed theologians for two millennia, because there appears to only have been two nights, and this is problematic in that it appears to make Jesus a liar to 'not a few' reasonable people. Alas, however, we have found the mysterious "third night", but it brings with it a dark message for the Jews. Granted, while a literal reading of this strange "darkness" occurrence on crucifixion day may sound absurd to modern ears, it wouldn't in Joshua's day. In Joshua's day (see Joshua 10), God willed a "day" (an undisclosed period of darkness, then light, make note) to last considerably longer than Israel's enemies anticipated, who were no doubt banking on nightfall to come at the typical, designated time, as do we, to this day. History tells us, however persuasively, or not, that this moment didn't come for hours more, enabling Israel to have enough lingering daylight to defeat their enemy.

In the early 20th century, Master Taixu proposed the concept of “Buddhist Minister” to provide specific plans for reforming Buddhism in China—enhancing its social recognition and engagement. In his proposal, qualifications for becoming a Buddhist minister were in line with the “Three Stages of Formation,” “Four Levels of Learning,” and “Three Levels of Practicing.” The proposal includes a specific paradigm of “Neo-Buddhology,” that is, applied Buddhology in theory and practice. In the early 21st century, Professor Richard Osmer from Princeton Theological Seminary proposed the practical theological concepts of descriptive-empirical, interpretive, normative, and pragmatic paradigms in response to the extension of Christian church ministry into secular contexts. Under these four tasks of practical theological paradigm, the formation and profession of Buddhist chaplaincy in the US was developed. This article introduces Master Taixu’s concept of a Buddhist Minister. It analyzes the influence of Professor Osmer’s practical theological paradigm in the professional formation of Buddhist chaplaincy. Finally, this article discusses the potential enrichment and advancement of Buddhist chaplaincy in the US using Master Taixu’s applied Buddhological paradigm. Such changes may inspire Buddhist and Christian dialogues with regard to religious/spiritual social services in the US.

In the crucible of early Christian persecution, martyrdom transformed death into a fountain of life, embodying the paradox of "rotting produces life." This study explores how the decay of martyrs' bodies fostered spiritual and communal renewal, drawing on the metaphor of a seed that dies to bear fruit. Previous studies have examined martyrdom's theological and social roles, noting its contribution to Christian identity and growth, yet few have synthesized the natural imagery of decay and renewal as a unified principle. This study aims to fill this gap by analyzing martyrdom as a generative act that bridges death and life, justified by its centrality to early Christian theology and culture. Employing Durkheim's theory of collective effervescence, the study frames martyrdom as a ritual that galvanized community cohesion. It focuses on martyrdom texts from the first to fourth centuries, justified by their formative influence on Christian thought. The study underscores martyrdom's significance in shaping religious resilience and offers insights for contemporary theological reflection. The study revealed martyrdom's role in transforming decay into renewal through sacrifice, inspiring communal vitality. The study recommended interdisciplinary research and public engagement with martyrdom narratives. In conclusion, this paradox illuminates the cyclical nature of sacrifice, offering timeless lessons on life emerging from death.

The present volume, Āloka: Light of Mind, Mind of Light, arises from an urgency to reenvision Indian philosophy not as a relic of the past but as a living, evolving matrix of metaphysical intelligence. The title itself, Āloka (आलोक), serves as more than a poetic invocation of "light"; it designates that primordial clarity through which cognition, being, and reality become mutually co-constitutive. Here, light is not simply that which makes objects visible it is the very condition of their intelligibility, and perhaps, their existence. Across diverse philosophical traditions Advaita Vedānta's Chidākāśa, Yogācāra's vijñaptimātra, Nyāya's theory of pramāṇa, or Plato's Form of the Good light operates as an ontoepistemic metaphor: that which reveals, knows, and is itself the substratum of all revelation. This book, drawing from these traditions, yet unbound by any single orthodoxy, proposes a trans-temporal, trans-cultural dialogue where Indian thought does not merely echo the Western canon but enters into critical and creative engagement with it. The volume stands at a nexus: of Indian śāstric wisdom and the critical methodologies of contemporary philosophy of mind, cognitive science, phenomenology, artificial intelligence, and posthuman thought. Each contribution herein interrogates the boundaries between subject and object, mind and world, the human and the machinic, drawing from Indic conceptions of consciousness not merely to supplement global discourses but to radically reshape them. This is not a nostalgic return to metaphysical idealism, nor a culturalist assertion of "Eastern wisdom." Instead, the project unfolds from the conviction that Indian philosophy, when rigorously interpreted and imaginatively extended, offers unique conceptual instruments for rethinking the very grammar of consciousness studies. Can non-dualism offer an alternative to Cartesian duality and materialist reductionism? Can puruṣa-prakṛti distinctions speak to

This paper reexamines the 1989 WMUZ Detroit debate between John P. Koster and Frank R. Zindler as a test of explanatory adequacy. It asks which model-mindless matter or an organizing Mind-better accounts for three facts: (L) the law-like regularity of nature, (F) life-permitting fine-tuning, and (C) the rise of consciousness. Koster leaned on scripture without operational clarity, while Zindler stressed burden of proof but lacked a unifying model. By applying an evidence-from-effects method, this study proposes a decision rule: the preferred explanation is whichever framework coherently unifies L+F+C with fewer assumptions. Why 2025? The core issues raised in 1989-definition, evidence, and method-remain, but the stakes are clearer: debates now hinge on explanatory adequacy across physics-like lawfulness, fine-tuning discussions, and the philosophy of mind. This reply updates the frame to a practical test anyone can apply explain the whole bundle (L+F+C) with minimal assumptions-or concede that a single intelligent cause better unifies what otherwise fragments into ad-hoc patches. (Context from your Background section retained.)

This article examines why the Qur'an rebukes Christians for worshiping Jesus and Mary but not the Holy Spirit. Drawing on Jewish, Christian, and Islamic texts, it argues that the Qur'an reflects observable devotional practices in late antiquity rather than abstract theology. Using Rabbi Eliyahu Benamozegh's framework of divine names and attributes, it shows how concepts like "Father," "Son," and "Spirit" originated as functional metaphors but became literalized in Christianity. The article also surveys Arabian Christianity in the early 7th century to demonstrate how Mary became an object of veneration while the Holy Spirit did not, explaining the Qur'an's differing treatment. The result is a historical-religious perspective that links Joel 2:28, John 16:13, and Qur'an 16:102 as part of a shared prophetic tradition of the Spirit without compromising strict monotheism.

I respond to three articles about my book, Hindu Theology and Biology, from David Gosling, Thomas Ellis, and Varadaraja Raman. I attempt to clarify misconceptions about Hindu intellectual history and the science and religion dialogue. I discuss the role of Hindu theologies in the contemporary world in response to the three articles, each of which highlights important areas of future research. I suggest that Hindu theology should be a critical discipline in which Hindu authors are interpreted in their own terms and in conversation with contemporary authors. I argue that Hinduism and science can find an intellectual space between New Atheism (which denies the intellectual value of religion) and Neo-Hinduism (which neglects the critical discourse within the history of Hindu thought).

Opening Remarks for the “Legacy and Promise of Nostra Aetate for Christian-Dharmic Traditions Relations” panel for “Nostra Aetate at 60: Legacy and Challenges for Reconciliation and Interreligious Understanding” hosted by Georgetown University and American Jewish Committee

Las profundas y aceleradas transformaciones que viven las sociedades y el mundo en los tiempos actuales interpelan al cristianismo a volver a sus raíces, a releer sus fuentes, a curar sus heridas, para mostrar a todos los pueblos, con el propio testimonio de vida, un Dios creíble, compasivo, atractivo, sanador. Esta acción misional a favor de la vida plena, sin distinciones de ninguna índole, que actualiza la misión del Hijo y del Espíritu Santo, se ha reflexionado desde la misionología elaborada y promovida en y desde Cochabamba. Propone un estilo centrado en la memoria autocrítica, el nomadismo humano-cósmico y el estupor contemplativo del Misterio desbordante. Es todo un camino, una invitación, a experimentar en lo cotidiano al Dios Uni-Trino, Tri-Uno, y comunicarlo en los variados íconos, símbolos y lenguajes a quienes lo buscan por doquier.

Hindus for Jesus The Synthesis of Hinduism with Christianity I. Inherent Divinity (The Divine Within) *Hinduism:**Upanishads (Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7): "That which is the finest essence-this whole world has that as its soul. That is the Truth. That is the Self. That thou art, Svetaketu."

The article analyzes the categories of human and being, which occupy a central place in Ibn al-Arabi's philosophy of knowledge. It reveals the position of the human as a cosmic being in the thinker's doctrine, showing the inseparable connection of the "microcosm" (al-'alam al-saghir) with the "macrocosm" (al-'alam al-kabir)existence itself. Furthermore, the study highlights the role of the human in perceiving divine truth within Ibn al-Arabi's gnoseology, the concept of the Perfect Man, and the relationship between man and the universe in the framework of the theory of the Unity of Being (wahdat al-wujud). Through the harmony of the categories of human and being, it is substantiated that Ibn al-Arabi's philosophy of knowledge holds profound gnoseological significance not only for Sufi thought but also for the entire history of philosophical thought.

This dissertation aims to explore the meaning of 孝 (xiao): an important Chinese traditional concept originated from Confucian morality. By investigating three different discourses across time and languages, based on the authentic language data drawn from two ancient Confucian texts, the Chinese Internet Corpus and the Bank of English, the meaning of 孝 as a social phenomenon in different time and languages is extracted. This dissertation also focuses on the translation study of 孝. From the perspective of corpus linguistics, through different meanings and ideologies revealed from different translations, I hope to discover, to what extent, translators' translation purposes and strategies influence the translation effect. Based on the research from the perspective of corpus linguistics, I find 孝 in ancient Chinese refers to a complicated relationship in male-dominated feudal society, while 孝 in modern Chinese has narrowed its range of meaning and no gender bias is in connection with 孝. Furthermore, all the translations of 孝 had lost its sense of meaning addressing relationship to superiors.

A Note to the Reader: The following text is a philosophical-theological essay that challenges conventional views on anger. The "Manifesto of Anger" presented at the beginning is not a literal call to disrespect, but a provocative statement intended to spark a deep reflection on the meaning of honesty, dignity, and an authentic relationship between humanity and God. Manifesto of Anger Pour out your anger and curses upon God, for He is the Almighty. Not upon humans or other living beings, for humanity is the weakest of all creatures. Praise and cherish humanity for its weakness; do not bother praising God, for it changes nothing in Him. Whether you praise or curse God, it is His prerogative to elevate or abase you, for you are nothing in yourself. Use your weakness as your freedom. The dogma that forbids humans to be angry with God is the path of Iblis. Iblis never dared confront God; instead, he vented his resentment upon humanity, the weakest of beings. Therefore, be courageous: direct your anger toward God, not upon fragile creatures.

In his Padārthatattvanirūpaṇam, Raghunātha Śiromaṇi makes radical changes to the standard Nyāya understanding of the internal sense organ. He says that the internal sense organ is elemental, does not inhere in anything and indirectly rejects the standard Nyāya view that it is of atomic dimension. Gokul Madhavan (2017) raises an important question on what Raghunātha means by the internal sense organ being an element. He gives two possible readings. The first reduces the internal sense organ to any one of the primary elements. The second reading says that the internal sense organ is an irreducible element, different from the primary elements. Using Madhusūdana Sarasvatī's understanding of the internal sense organ as presented in his Siddhāntabhindu, I present a novel view, that the internal sense organ is different from the primary elements precisely because it can grasp contents related to all primary elements, an epistemological view that Naiyāyikas also accept, but also that it must be necessarily created from and composed of those very primary elements, a mereological view that the Advaitins propose. I argue that Madhusūdhana's view is more preferable than Madhavan's two readings.

The Templeality of a Neoillusionist Embodiment unfolds as a twelve-part meditation on the sacred architecture of being, where flesh and consciousness conspire to reveal themselves as temple, sanctuary, and liturgy. Drawing upon sources as diverse as Plato's cave, Ibn ʿArabī's Perfect Human, Husserl's epoché, Merleau-Ponty's flesh, Kashmir Shaivism's spanda, Rumi's oceanic verse, and quantum physics' wave collapse, this work assembles a Neoillusionist vision of embodiment as both question and revelation.

Against traditions that treat matter as prison or illusion, the Neoillusionist insists that body is already liberation, already the shimmering threshold where perception makes itself sacred. Each meditation explores a facet of this architecture: the primordial mirror, the cartography of flesh, the geometries of becoming, the physiology of prayer, the dance of appearances, the alchemy of incarnation, the phenomenology of sacred flesh, the metaphysics of movement, the poetics of perception, the ethics of embodiment, the eschatology of flesh, and the return wherein temple and worshipper are one.

What emerges is not a doctrine but a quality of attention: to inhabit the body as cathedral of consciousness, as both sculptor and sculpture, as both seeker and sought. The text situates Neoillusionism as a phenomenological-mystical method that honors philosophical rigor while refusing to sever art from life, poetry from ontology. The Templeality of a Neoillusionist Embodiment proposes embodiment itself as the ultimate sacred architecture, a place where metaphysics is not theorized but lived, danced, breathed, and continually consecrated in the intimacy of awareness with itself.

Somogenic Transmission A Foundational Principle of Unified Theistic Naturalism (UTN) Definition Somogenic Transmission refers to the non-genetic, non-epigenetic transfer of behavioral, perceptual, and cognitive patterns across generations through the material continuity of life. It is the process by which the lived experience of one form-encoded not in the genome but in the structure and behavior of the biological self-is materially handed down and expressed in the next. Derived from: • Soma (Greek: body) • Genic (produced by or originating from) • Transmission (the passing of something from one to another) This transmission occurs through the atoms, molecules, and cellular systems that make up the physical form. These components, while not conscious in themselves, carry forward the memory of how life has unfolded through them before.

Through an examination of his core doctrinal points, I argue that Shinran's conception of Pure Land Buddhism (Jōdo Shinshū) should not be so readily dismissed as one that is only salvific in an otherworldly sense, with no relevance to contemporary, everyday life, nor should it be reduced to a purely ethnic form of Buddhism without any reference to its universal dimension. Through this analysis, we will find that Shinran's adoption of a unique and honest evaluation of our inner lives through receiving the wisdom and compassion of Amida Buddha can offer people of today's world a way to embrace a spirit of self-acceptance so that one can live with confidence, integrity, and a modest joy, despite the manifold shortcomings of the human condition. Through the radical transformation of one's dissatisfaction and suffering, an uncontrived ethical impulse is able to emerge, accompanied by a keen awareness of deep empathy for others, leading to an existence informed by empathy instead of animosity.

This paper is not empirical research but rather a theological reflection examining contemporary AI development from a biblical perspective. The eschatological interpretations and prophetic elements contained herein are based on one pastor's faith convictions and have not undergone academic verification. Readers are encouraged to understand this work as an "interpretive reflection from the perspective of covenant theology.

This research examines the apparent paradox between Martin Luther's doctrine of justification by faith alone (sola fide) and his robust sacramental theology, particularly his affirmation of Christ's real presence in baptism and the Eucharist. While Luther's emphasis on justification through faith alone might logically suggest complete rejection of sacramental practices, he paradoxically maintained substantial elements of Catholic sacramental doctrine, causing divisions among early Reformed churches. The study demonstrates that Luther's sacramental theology actually reinforces rather than contradicts his doctrine of justification, tracing how late medieval nominalism, particularly William of Ockham's influence, provided the theological framework for maintaining both sola fide and real presence simultaneously. Through examining Luther's concept of faith as fides sacramenti, the research reveals how faith serves as the bridge between justification and sacramental efficacy, showing that while God's Word makes sacraments valid, faith makes them personally transformative. The investigation establishes that Luther's sacramental theology provides a coherent framework where divine grace operates through both Word and sacrament, unified by the principle of faith alone, with implications explored for twenty-first-century Indian Baptist Christianity.

Happiness is one of the most important variables in the field of positive psychology, and a precise understanding of its definition and components requires careful examination in the cultural context of each society. Therefore, this research was aimed at redefining the concept of happiness in Iran under the title of happy-living or wise happiness based on Ferdowsi's Shahnameh. This research was basic in terms of purpose, and qualitative research based on the grounded theory method based on the data collection. According to the purpose of the research, verse was considered as the unit of analysis. The statistical population included the complete text of Ferdowsi's
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شادکامی یکی از عوامل مهم در گستره روانشناسی مثبت گرا است که درک دقیق تعریف آن نیازمند بررسی دقیق در بافت فرهنگی هر جامعه است. از این رو، این پژوهش با هدف بازتعریف مقهوم شادکامی در ایران تحت عنوان خرّم‌زیستی یا شادکامی خردمندانه مبتنی بر شاهنامه فردوسی انجام گرفت. این تحقیق از نظر هدف، بنیادی و بر اساس ماهیت، کیفی مبتنی بر روش داده-بنیاد بود. جامعه آماری شامل متن شاهنامه فردوسی تصحیح جلال خالقی مطلق بود. تجزیه و تحلیل مبتنی بر فرایند کدگذاری باز، کدگذاری محوری و مولفه‌سازی در نرم‎افزار MAXQUDA نسخه 2018 انجام شد. اعتبار مدل بر اساس دیدگاه متخصصان و پایایی کدگذاری بر اساس شاخص کاپا برابر با 89/0 به دست آمد. یافته ها نشان داد که خرّم ‎زیستی یا شادکامی خردمندانه در شاهنامه فردوسی مشتمل بر 12 خرده‎مولفه بود که خرّم زیستی مبتنی بر اصول اخلاقی، توان پذیرش دشواری‎های غیرقابل تغییر، یادگیری هدفمند، برخورداری از اندیشه‌های منطقی و رهایی از اندیشه های آشفته ساز، تمرکز بر زمان حال، فضای ارتباطی مثبت، تنظیم هیجان و کنترل تکانشگری، ارتباط معنوی با پروردگار، رویارویی شجاعانه و تاب‎آورانه با دشواری‎ها و رنج‌های زندگی، امید به آینده و خوشبینی در شرایط دشوار، فعالیت جسمی و دوری از سستی و تامین نیازهای مادی اوّلیه زندگی به ترتیب دارای بیشترین کدهای آزاد استخراج ‎شده بودند. در نتیجه، به سبب جامعیت تعریف خرّم زیستی، توصیه می شود با ساخت پرسشنامه‌های استاندارد و مداخلات آموزشی متمرکز بر این مفهوم، ضمن وضعیت‌سنجی سطح خرم‌زیستی در جامعه، اقدامات لازم متمرکز بر راهبردهای برگرفته از فرهنگ ایرانی انجام شود

A forgotten root of Western spirituality, older than Christianity and Judaism, calls us to reclaim our ethical freedom: the Gathic tradition of Zarathustra. This text argues that true faith is not in inherited creeds or vicarious atonement but in the conscious choice for truth, justice, and freedom. In a world weary of dogma, “Return to the Light” invites us to rediscover the dignity of conscience and the power of choosing the light—reviving the oldest faith for a new era.

This paper explores the development of modern theology from the Enlightenment to the present, highlighting key movements and influential thinkers. It examines how theology has responded to cultural, philosophical, and scientific shifts, addressing tensions between faith and reason, tradition and modernity. The work discusses major figures such as Schleiermacher, Barth, Tillich, Moltmann, and Cone while covering movements like liberal theology, neo-orthodoxy, liberation theology, and postmodern approaches. It concludes that theology remains relevant when it stays rooted in the gospel while engaging contemporary cultural and ethical challenges.

This article introduces and explores the ethical theory of Robust Exemplarist Natural Law, which is a combination of John Finnis's Natural Law Theory and Linda Zagzebski's Exemplarist Moral Theory within the framework of Robust Realism proposed by David Enoch and Russ Shafer-Landau. It aims to integrate moral realism's objective truths with the notion of basic goods and the principles of practical reasonableness, with the influence of moral exemplars on belief and behaviour formation. In achieving this end, a robust ethical framework will be provided, which is able to ward off the various issues that can be raised against the individual theoretical components of it, and a particular theistic extension of the theory will be provided which applies the central components of it within a theistic context.

The term "rasa" has one of the most complex and nuanced semantic fields in the whole of Sanskrit literature. The meaning of rasa varies in the context of Vedic sacrifice, Indian alchemy. Āyurveda, aesthetic theory, religious devotionalism or Tantric ritual. In this paper I trace the evolution of the term, focusing on its etymology and on its different usages among different schools of thought. As David Gordon White observed "rasa was and
remains the ‘fluid essence’ of Indian thought.”

This is the introduction to a nonfiction piece that catalogues redemption history, commissioned by the Body of Christ to create a narrative of God's plan and active hand in carrying out.  In this work of nonfiction literature, I put forth the central parts of what is the human's meaning in and of life.

This paper has a lot of work to be done, the conclusion is somewhat rushed, and a subjective position within the body of this writing is largely missing because of time constraints on this paper, and family matters. Despite losing about 6 points on this final exam, for the issues I have just explained, it is the case that, this paper holds a lot of potential for Hindu-Christian dialogue, and  especially as it relates to hallucinogenic use in religion historically and contemporarily.

When we think about religion on social media, divisive arguments come to mind. Is joy possible for online religious communities? This is a re-formulation of a philosophical puzzle: how can joy be pursued and even commanded, when it is among the hardest emotions to control? Bringing together philosophical anthropology, positive psychology, and sociology of religion, we answer this question in relation to online communities of Hong Kong Christians, formed through interactions between new/old immigrants, local/overseas members, and Eastern/Western expressions of Christianity. We suggest we can learn from these communities about cultivating joy in diversity and through adversity.

One of the discourses that are ascribed to the Muʿazilites is their claim that the Qur’ān is created. We do have primary and secondary resources explaining this Muʿtazilite teaching and elaborating on how these rationalist mutakallims treated the Religious Text as a created entity. However, while the question of ‘how’ is intensively exposed in scholarship, what is yet to be answered is the following question: Why did the Muʿtazilites opt for this theological belief in specific? What drove them to argue for the createdness of the Qurʼān instead of just following the predominant trend of thought that was adopted by their contemporary Muslim Qur’ānic scholars, namely the belief that the Qur’ān is not just pre-existent but also an uncreated text? What could be the driving-force behind the Muʿtazilites’ parting ways with this mainstream conviction? This essay tackles these inquiries by means of proposing that the Muʿtazilites’ speech about the createdness of the Qur’ān is scriptural, linguistic, and exegetical in nature. It is expressive of their corosspollination with the other Muslim Qur’ānic scholars’ praising of the sacredness of the Qur’ān’s Arabic language; this belief that was commonly emphasized by the Muslim public. This might indicate that ‘ḫalq al-Qur’ān’ is the Muʿtazilites’ way of questioning the ‘lingua sacra’ idea in correspondence with other Muslim traditionalists’ reservations on this sacredness. The essay develops this proposal by unpacking the stances of discourses on the Qurʼān from 2nd/8th-3rd/9th centuries onwards on the sacredness of the Qurʼān’s Arabic language. It, then, looks attentively at some of the main discourses on the createdness of the Qurʼān in known Muʿtazilite texts. The essay aspires at offering a new reading of the historical-contextual and religious factors that generated the controversy between Muslim scholars over the createdness of the Qurʼān, and wants to propose a possibility exceeds the classically believed political and power-game causing factors.

This article critically examines the peacebuilding potential of religions within practical theology by focusing on shared religious principles. It begins by reviewing various perspectives and discourses on interreligious convergence, exploring common principles such as justice, love, innate spirituality, and human solidarity. It demonstrates how these elements can contribute to reducing tensions and fostering coexistence. Subsequently, adopting a critical and contextual approach, the article analyzes the challenges and shortcomings of approaches that solely emphasize commonalities among religions. This analysis reveals that an excessive focus on shared points may obscure or justify structural inequalities between religions and social groups or disregard the deep theological and cultural diversity of each religious tradition. Consequently, seemingly shared values may inadvertently reinforce unequal power relations and perpetuate structural or cultural violence. Finally, utilizing an "interreligious learning" model within the framework of critical practical theology, this article proposes a multi-layered approach to meaningful and constructive dialogue. This approach, while leveraging the valuable potential of shared religious principles, also carefully examines differences, historical contexts, and social inequalities. Accordingly, religious convergence and peacebuilding will be sustainable only when, while respecting the theological depth and breadth of various traditions, the hidden dimensions of power, hegemonic narratives, and structural issues are not neglected.

This article is an attempt to explore and practice of comparative theology. Comparative theology itself is unique in terms of its sources and methods, in which theological reflection is built on the basis of a comparison of more than one religious traditions. Moreover, comparative theology emphasizes practice rather than theory. According to the author, comparative theology is a contextual theology that can be developed in Indonesia as pluralistic society. In this practice, the author chooses the Qur'an and the Eucharist as the starting point of the discussion.

The aim of this paper is to examine the issue of Christian identity, i.e. the identity of the Church in modern pluralistic society which is described using the terms of "fluidity," "liquidity" and overcoming of all stable categorical definitions of individuals or social structures. The author describes this world as a positive stimulus for the Church which is obliged to reexamine some inherited theological assumptions of the strong (ontologized) identity and attempt to understand its position in the world where only uncertainty is certain, only insecurity is secure and only the state of continuous change is unchangeable. In this manner, the modern socio-political and religiological situation in the world would significantly contribute to overcoming certain ecclesiological limitations of modern theological thought (nationalist predispositions, the problem of the ecclesial identity of others, etc.).

All of us need a dream. Mine is this: to tell my mother what I write and think about. In my language and in her idiom. At this stage, I cannot; that is what this essay is about. "Perhaps, one day, some day …" so I dream. To that extraordinary woman, without a peer or parallel, I dedicate the first fruit of my project. In memory, because she is not there anymore. So, now I know that I merely To her, my mother, I wrote of the other, my wife, and said: "A Gift from the Gods." Gods may give; but we humans must learn to receive. Oftentimes, a gift is easier given than graciously taken. More so, when the drudgery of daily life and the problems of living corrode and erode both style and grace. Yet … To my wife, Anne, in love and gratitude, this essay is dedicated. XI correcting my English through helping me to delve into the forest of theological discussions to forcing me to amend and improve my arguments -in all these ways and more -his help has been invaluable. His acuity and intelligence, openness and tolerance, have been a source of wonder and inspiration for me. The debt I owe him is overshadowed by only one other. That which I owe to my mother and my wife, to both of whom this essay is dedicated.

Perry Schmidt-Leukels Ansatz einer interreligiösen Theologie hat das theologische Gespräch der Religionen auf eine neue Grundlage gestellt. In diesem Buch macht er sichtbar, welche spirituelle Haltung aus diesem Zugang entstehen kann. Es geht darum, sich nicht gegen, sondern mit den anderen religiösen Traditionen der Menschheit vom Geheimnis der Welt rufen zu lassen. Wie das aus christlicher Perspektive gelingen kann, erschließt dieses Buch anhand des Grundtextes des Christentums - der Bibel. Schmidt-Leukel nimmt biblische Themen und Texte zum Ausgangspunkt und deutet sie im Horizont der Religionen.

Ein Buch, das auf besondere Weise das himmlische Geflecht des Glaubens sichtbar macht, das Menschen aus unterschiedlichen Religionen miteinander verbindet.

This article explores the significance of the qur'anic term al-Masīh. (the Messiah) as applied to Jesus, son of Mary (ʿĪsā ibn Maryam). Previous scholarship has often drawn a direct, though problematic, line from first-century messianic expectations to the Qur'an. This article argues for a revised interpretive approach: understanding the qur'anic usage of al-Masīh. through its more immediate biblical subtext, namely the messianic theology of Late Antique Christianity, particularly within the Syriac tradition. This approach acknowledges that the Qur'an engages not with the Bible as a static text or with the historical Jesus directly, but with Scripture as understood and preached in its seventh-century milieu. The study surveys foundational Second Temple Jewish messianic expectations and the New Testament's portrayal of Jesus's messianic role, then explores how these traditions were received and developed in Late Antique Syriac Christianity, which formed a crucial part of the Qur'an's environment. By analysing the qur'anic account against this backdrop, the article offers a fresh perspective on the term's theological significance, moving beyond the often de-contextualized interpretations of later Islamic exegetes. Ultimately, the article aims to foster Muslim-Christian dialogue by revealing the Qur'an's profound engagement with the living messianic traditions of its time.

To the secular world, the concept of the Word often appears as myth, metaphor, or mere literary artefact-dismissed as superstition, fiction, or even folly. However, to the believer, the Wordboth incarnate and inscribed-stands as a divine gift of immeasurable worth. It is not simply a collection of ancient texts, but a dynamic, living reality. As Hebrews 4:12 declares, "The word of God is living and active," penetrating to the depths of human existence, capable of discerning thoughts, reshaping attitudes, and transforming lives.

One of the greatest synthesis of the twentieth century": this is how Edgar Morin depicted Raimon Panikkar, in the volume Ethics, in his Method, naming him along with other non-western intellectual authorities (such as Gandhi, Mandela, the Dalai Lama, etc.) who opened the contemporary consciousness to the Earth concern and to a lively interest in humanity. With equal admiration Panikkar referred to Edgar Morin, estimating his enlightened thinking of Complexity. We could think of a dialogue about Eco-sophy between Intercultural Philosophy and Thought of Complexity, between science and tradition. This was, indeed, a subject particularly dear to Panikkar as well as to Morin, both supporters, even if from different sides, of the need for a profound transformation in our times, aiming to the very survival of human beings and planet. In that regard Panikkar spoke of a "metamorphosis"(in its etymological meaning), using the metaphor of the chrysalis, which leaves the cocoon to a new form of life.

Aquinas’ Summa contra Gentiles (SCG), in its apologetic discourse aimed at Jews and Muslims of the Latin Christendom, strategically engages with Islamic and Jewish sages of its scholastic era. Since existing scholarship has not sufficiently qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated Aquinas’ most frequently referenced Islamic and Jewish philosophers in SCG, leaving a significant scholarly lacuna, this study addressed the gap by analyzing Aquinas’ direct references to and argumentative engagements with Avicenna, Averroes, Maimonides, and Avicebron, showing their distribution, Aquinas’ argumentative stance of agreements, partial agreements/disagreements, or disagreements, and purpose of these reference-based arguments, categorized as either Aquinas’ aim to refute the referenced proposition or utilize it to support, build upon, and advance his thesis. The methodology employed a dual analytical approach, consisting of a qualitative textual-philosophical analysis of the SCG text in the scholarly authoritative Editio Leonina, cross-verified against Vansteenkiste’s studies and Busa’s Index Thomisticus, followed by a quantitative assay. The results revealed that Aquinas directly referenced the Islamic and Jewish philosophers 61 times in the SCG’s 415 Capitula. Islamic philosophers (95%) Averroes (64%) and Avicenna (31%) are the most prominent. In contrast, Jewish philosophers, Maimonides and Avicebron, comprise only a minor fraction. These references are concentrated in SCG II, followed by SCG III and SCG I. The SCG IV, which deals with the Latin Catholic dogmatic theology, has only one direct reference to Avicenna. Aquinas often engaged with these philosophers through argumentative disagreements (81%), primarily based on Averroes’ arguments and secondarily on Avicenna’s. However, he never refuted the relatively few agreements (14%) and partial agreements (5%), instead utilizing them to build upon, advance, and support his thesis. Aquinas never agreed with Maimonides and Avicebron and always used these argumentative disagreements to refute their philosophical propositions. This pattern exhibits a strong correlation between Aquinas’ argumentative agreement level and purpose of direct reference-based argument, illustrating the Thomistic method of theological discernment, characterized by Aquinas’ selective appropriation, adaptation, and adoption of the other two Abrahamic traditions’ philosophies when compatible with the Latin Church’s teachings, and systematic refutations when incompatible, terming them ‘errors’ that must be countered. This study demonstrates that the Thomistic theological synthesis of Islamic and Jewish philosophy in Aquinas’ SCG Sacra Doctrina not only strengthened Thomistic theology and defended the Roman Catholic faith but also succeeded in bridging the three Abrahamic monotheistic traditions, Christian, Islamic, and Jewish, through their shared Peripatetic philosophy of universal truth, the truth that commences in God.

Throughout history, religion has been invoked in both peaceful and violent contexts, often manipulated to serve political agendas. However, beneath the surface of conflict, the foundational moral teachings of religions can provide powerful tools for reconciliation. This paper explores the shared moral principles in Orthodox Christianity and Islam, focusing on benevolence, equity, and moderation, to highlight their potential for fostering dialogue and resolving conflicts. By comparing the ethical teachings of the Bible and the Quran, the analysis reveals that both religions emphasize compassion, equity, and self-restraint as core values. Despite the historical use of these faiths to justify division and violence, a closer examination of their teachings—interpreted by leading theologians—demonstrates a shared commitment to moral principles that can bridge religious divides. This paper argues that recognizing these common values is crucial for utilizing religious teachings not as sources of conflict, but as foundations for peacebuilding. The analysis presents a comparative analysis of these moral values within Orthodox Christianity and Islam, examining their manifestations and their relevance in contemporary conflict resolution. In a world increasingly shaped by religious and cultural differences, these shared moral values offer a framework for dialogue, cooperation, and mutual understanding, ultimately contributing to a more harmonious coexistence.
Keywords: Orthodox Christianity, Islam, moral values, peacebuilding dialogue

This article explores the concept of vocation in the Analects. While most treatments of vocation focus on the Christian tradition, and while Confucian thought is often viewed as categorically nontheistic, Robert Merrihew Adams's Finite and Infinite Goods (1999) presents an illuminating comparative framework for tracing out Kongzi's religious ethical vision of how persons think, act, and feel when grasped by a sense of divine calling. I argue that in the Analects a vocation is compositely conceived as: (1) a special divine imperative to an individual or a community (2) to love particular goods within one's actual circumstances (3) with nonconsequentialist, noncompetitive, and potentially counter-cultural commitment (4) such that one's mode of life participates in Heaven's intent for human flourishing. Although diverging on their approaches toward filial and sociopolitical engagement, both Adams and Kongzi envision self-transcending purpose, faithful devotion, and existential courage as marks of a vocationally attuned life.