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Cello History

Cello History

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Cello history is the study of the development, evolution, and cultural significance of the cello as a musical instrument, tracing its origins from the Renaissance period to contemporary practices, including changes in construction, playing techniques, repertoire, and its role in various musical genres and traditions.
lightbulbAbout this topic
Cello history is the study of the development, evolution, and cultural significance of the cello as a musical instrument, tracing its origins from the Renaissance period to contemporary practices, including changes in construction, playing techniques, repertoire, and its role in various musical genres and traditions.
BACH, Johann Sebastian. 'Prélude'. 6th Cello Suite, BWV 1012. (Ed. Berrocal 2021) .Violoncello à 4 cordes.
by Joseba Berrocal

2021

Preface Three centuries later, the debate still rages concerning which instrument –or instruments– Johann Sebastian Bach had in mind when he composed his 6ème Suitte a Violoncello Solo senza Basso, BWV 1012. On the one hand, we know that... more
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CONTEMPORARY CELLO TECHNIQUE: PERFORMANCE AND PRACTICE
by Professor Alfia T . Nakipbekova

2020, Music & Practice, Volume 6

In my performance practice and pedagogy, I approach the inter-related elements of playing the cello – technique, interpretation and performance – as a single integrated domain. This article seeks to elucidate this notion, highlighting the... more
Sofia Gubaidulina’s Ten Preludes (originally titled Ten Etudes) for solo cello is another outstanding example of a contemporary set of studies that can be productively included both in teaching material and as part of a concert repertoire. The composer describes them as ‘sketches’ for her future compositions and as part of her own study of the cello’s expressive possibilities.” Figure 1. Palm, Instructions for mini-music to Siegfried Palm© 1971 by Musikverlag Hans Gerig, K6In © 1980 assigned to Breitkopf & Hartel, Wiesbaden
In their compositional style and approach to technique, Pekker’s Etudes show the influence of Popper’s traditional method, as illustrated by the following two examples, the first from Pekker’s Etude No. 3 and the second from the Etude No. 25 by Popper (Examples 3 and 4):
According to Michael Kurtz, Pekker approached several composers, including Sofia Gubaidulina, with the idea of creating a compilation of studies for his cello students. He received the Ten Etudes from her in 1974. However, ‘because Pekker had never studied contemporary music, he did not know what to do with the score he had been sent and simply ignored it’.°* The composer clarifies her intention:
Example 4. Gubaidulina Prelude No. 9, pizzicato - arco, bb. 1-16. By kind permission of © 1977 MUSIKVERLAG HANS SIKORSKI, Hamburg Visually, these inner permutations are traced as the lines in the score indicating glissandi. In performance, the micro- and macro transitions are embodied by particular physical gestures required for connecting the pitches on the fingerboard; the physicality of the sliding motions is an expressive component of the piece. Michel Berry argues for the significance of the physical gestures in Gubaidulina’s compositions in terms that resonate with my intuitive understanding:
Table 1. Siegfried Palm, 12 Contemporary Studies
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O violoncelo italiano: de Bolonha e Veneza a Boccherini
by William Teixeira
Resumo: Esse trabalho descreve o panorama histórico do violoncelo do final do século XVII para o início do século XVIII e discute quais foram os caminhos percorridos para que a técnica de execução do instrumento chegasse à acepção que é... more
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A Reestruturação Técnica na Perspectiva de Dois Violoncelistas/Professores: Alceu Reis e Márcio Carneiro
by Frederico Nable
O presente trabalho tem como objetivo discutir e definir o processo de reestruturação técnica no ensino e aprendizado do violoncelo. O objeto de estudo é abordado através de uma revisão bibliográfica e dos conceitos de dois... more
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Gaspar Cassado's Concerto for Cello and Orchestra in A Minor " Arpeggione " and Schubert's Arpeggione Sonata: A Comparative Analysis
by Fanny Nemeth-Weiss
Composer virtuosi since the 19th Century frequently arranged and transcribed popular masterpieces to expand the repertoire of their instruments. Perhaps Franz Liszt’s paraphrases are the most well-known examples. However other famous... more
Measures 33-54 of Cassado’s Concerto first movement is a great example of the use of
Example 13. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 1S movement, mm. 32-50. In measures 134-139 of the first movement (example 14) Cassado throws in a musical
Example 1a. Franz Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata D. 821.,1S* movement,mm.1-18, the more convenient tenor clef. measures are the same material in the cello part. In terms of notation, Schubert writes the
Example 1b. Gaspar Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 1** movement,mm. 1-22. Schubert introduces the second theme in measure 53 (see example 2a), which appears in
Example 2a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 1%* movement, mm. 53-63.
Example 2b. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 1° movement, mm.78-88.
Example 3b. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 1 movement,mm. 53-63. Example 3a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 1%* movement, mm. 31-38
Bars 89-99 in Schubert’s Sonata (example 4a) contains the same thematic material as
Example 4b. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 1%*movement,mm.120-130. Example 4a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 1%* movement, mm. 89-99. anticipation. bowing than any of the Schubert editions. In bar 130 he marks a calando which creates more
Measures 200-207 (example 5a) of the first movement of Schubert’s Sonata is borrowed in very last chord, which is voiced differently. In Schubert’s case the ending of the movement
Example 5a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 1S‘ movement, mm. 200-207. Cassado’s live recording the audience bursts into enthusiastic applause after the ending of
Example 6a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 2’ movement, mm. 1-39 34. Cassado, Halle Tradition.
Example 6b. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 2°‘ movement, mm. 1-36. Measures 47-72 are very similar in both pieces, except measure 55, which is marked
Example 7a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 2"? movement, mm. 41-71. Example 7b. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 2°‘ movement, mm. 41-71.
Example 8b Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 3™ movement, mm. 1-24. Example 8a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 3™ movement,mm. 72-95. beginning.
2-64, (examples 9a and 9b), Cassado adds arpeggiated chords and double stops to the
Example 9b. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 3% movement, mm. 46-89. Example 9a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 3™ movement, mm. 123-135.
The entire “C” section of the Rondo form consists of the same thematic material in both third 224), rubato (measures 232), espressivo (measure 233) since he writes out the repeated
Example 10a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 3™ movement,mm. 270-314. Example 10b. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 3™ movement, mm. 216-297.
Example 11a. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 1% movement, mm. 18-33. Example 11b. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 1‘ movement, mm.22-23. Cassado introduces a “new” second theme in measure 65 (example 12b) in the first
The largest and most original section of the entire concerto is the cadenza (example 15) Example 14. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 1S movement, mm. 134-139. in the first movement which serves as a bridge from the development section to the
Example 15. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 1%*movement, cadenza. Measures 156-167 of the Concerto’s first movement is a good example of how
exposition. 66 a” in measure 167 the orchestra plays the dramatic version of motive “a” again just like in th
Despite the fact that the second movement of the concerto is very similar to the sonata’s the emphasis on the “ arpeggione effect” again. capable of playing Cassado’s tempo. These passages and the chords in measure 241 manifest narked “‘g” is in the cello part (example 18a), in Cassado’s piece the cello is tacet and the
Example 20a. Schubert, Arpeggione Sonata, 3“ movement, mm. 323-337. accompaniment of the orchestra. have not projected over an orchestra and would not have been idiomatic as a bowed
Example 21. Cassado, Concerto in A minor, 3“ movement, mm. 389-437. Cassado’s cello technique and inventions chord at the end guarantees a blockbuster ending for the concerto and it is quite contrasting new, added material and a paraphrase of the themes of the previous sections of the movement.
Cassado’s writing in the Concerto expands the possibilities of range and virtuosity of the cello repertoire grew immensely with pieces that constitute most of the standard repertoire
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Le Sonate di Antonio Guida: una nuova fonte napoletana per la didattica del violoncello
by Giovanna Barbati and 
1 more
Guido Olivieri

2022, Studi Musicali

Content of the volume
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Prassi e didattica del violoncello nella Napoli del Settecento: un bilancio degli studi
by Guido Olivieri

2020, Gli esordi del violoncello a Napoli e in Europa tra Sei e Settecento a cura di Dinko Fabris

A view at the main perspectives of studies on the history of the cello in Naples. The essay mentions new documents, lists the most important publications on the topic and indicates future directions of research.
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"L'evoluzione della forma del violoncello: ragioni fisico-acustiche", in: I violoncelli di Antonio Stradivari, Consorzio Liutai A. Stradivari, Cremona 2004
by Diego Cantalupi
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Violoncelo, um compêndio brasileiro
by William Teixeira and 
2 more
André Micheletti
Marc Vanscheeuwijck

2021, Editora UFMS

O livro Violoncelo, um compêndio brasileiro compreende uma condensação de riqueza histórica e musical inestimável através de artigos e entrevistas realizados por alguns dos maiores nomes do violoncelo do Brasil e do exterior, em... more
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I bassi d'arco di Antonio Vivaldi. Violoncello, contrabbasso e viola da gamba al suo tempo e nelle sue opere
by Bettina Hoffmann

2020, Quaderni Vivaldiani 19, Firenze, Olschki

La prima parte del libro, «Intorno a Vivaldi», costituisce un'ampia indagine sul contesto in cui Vivaldi componeva per violoncello, contrabbasso e viola da gamba. Dopo un chiarimento terminologico che prende in esame i molteplici usi... more
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The Cello in Naples in the Early 18 th Century: Teaching Methods and Performance Practice
by Inés Salinas
This research presents an overview of performance practices related to the cello in the city of Naples in around 1700, with special focus on its training in the Neapolitan conservatori. The Neapolitan cello school, neglected in modern... more
Caspar van Wittel. Posillipo with the Palazzo Donn Anna, Naples, Italy. c. 1700 Compton Verney Art Gallery
Ex.1: Incipit of the first movement of Sinfonia quinta’” Both movements present a single bass line with continuo figures, with the indication “la prima viola'” sona le numeri” (Examples 1 and 2). Thus, the second cello was meant to play the bass line, while the first cello would play the harmonies suggested in the figures. In my view, this practice is related to the teaching of partimenti in the conservatori, since these movements are very similar to the extant partimenti for keyboard instruments. Moreover, Rocco Greco was the brother of Gaetano Greco, maestro di cappella in the Conservatorio dei Poveri di Gesu Cristo, and author of many partimenti, which might have had some influence on Rocco’s compositions. Rocco was himself violin teacher in the same institution from 1677 to 1695.'°°
Ex. 2: Incipit of the first movement of Sinfonia sesta’” 5.3.2. Teaching Ornamentation and Diminution
Ex. 4: Incipit of the Sonata no.10 by Francesco Supriano'™ I believe these pieces were used by Supriano for teaching ornamentation and diminution to his students, since they present a large variety of resources for melody variation and are built upon a harmonic bass which support this ornamented melody. Furthermore, they can be seen as an example of how mutual instruction (the practice of experienced students teaching younger students) was applied to instrument learning. They are composed of a bass line, and two upper lines of which the student would choose one or the other depending on his level. The bass line would be probably played by the mastricello or maestro.
Ex. 5: Sonata no.10 by Francesco Supriano, bars 42-45. Passage in the high range of the instrument (going up to the d’’)''° which requires the use of thumb position
Ex. 6: Incipit from Passagaglio quarto by Gaetano Francone Aside from Supriano’s sonatas, we find another set of pieces that could have also been a teaching resource for ornamentation. These are the /0 Passagagli [sic] per Violoncello by Gaetano Francone (Examples 6 and 7). They are preserved in the same manuscript as the Sinfonie by Rocco Greco. Few details are known about Francone, except that he was the violin teacher of Francesco Durante at the Conservatorio di S Onofrio a Capuana.''! The ten pieces, based on the passacaglia bass pattern, are written for cello and basso continuo. Through the various sections, we find different melodic and rhythmical patterns that can serve as suggestions for further development of the basic melodic pattern. However, they could also have been intended for performing for an audience and not just for pedagogical purposes, since they are composed in a very pleasant way.
Ex. 7: Two of the variations from the same Passagaglio quarto by Gaetano Francone
Tarantella for solo cello. Ms. MI0344 Noseda Noseda O.46.4bis. I-Mc. All his compositions that have survived are preserved in the library of the Conservatorio di Musica Giuseppe Verdi in Milan. These pieces consist of some vocal works, a balleto for two violins and continuo, five sonatas for cello and continuo and five dances for violoncello solo.'*? Considering the early composition date of his cello sonatas (1703), we can say they require an advanced technique. Ruvo was probably a talented cellist, which would explain why he composed all those works for the cello. Unfortunately, I have not found more evidence about his activities as a cellist, such as performances, teaching employment, etc.
Figure 5: “Ritratto a sanguine di Salvatore Lanzetti”. By Charles van Loo.
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La notazione musicale per violoncello
by Francesco Tanzi

2019

La notevole estensione del violoncello-di oltre quattro ottave-lo ha reso uno degli strumenti più versatili esistenti. Sin dalle sue origini, questo strumento è stato utilizzato tanto come basso quanto come voce principale in sonate,... more
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EL VIBRATO EN LA SONATA EN LA MENOR PARA ARPEGGIONE Y PIANO TRANSCRITA PARA VIOLONCHELO DE FRANZ SCHUBERT Y EN LA SONATA EN RE MENOR PARA VIOLONCELLO Y PIANO DE CLAUDE DEBUSSY PROPUESTA INTERPRETATIVA
by Johanna Mora

2016

La siguiente investigación plantea una propuesta de interpretación del vibrato que puede usarse en extractos seleccionados de dos obras de estilos y compositores diferentes: la sonata en la menor para arpeggione y piano transcrita para... more
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'True violins' and 'artistic license'
by Wim Raymaekers

2022, Louvain

This is a scholarly article, but at the same time a plea for an urgent rewrite of the early history of the violin, this time unhampered by prejudice and entrenched ideas. To me, this is symbolic of the world we are now fighting for: a... more
1. The Violin in the painting called “The Paston Treasure” by a Flemish or Dutch artist, c. 1663-1670 (Norwich Cactle Miscetnum and Art Gallery).
2. Aviolin with a label by Hendrick Aerninck, 1681, with”improved” sound holes (Brussels, Musical Instrument Museum, inv. nr. 2802). The “archaic” shape of the original f-holes is still traceable and can be reconstructed as such. in fact, this is one of the reasons why the few surviving instruments are often “tarnished” by alteration and forgery, trying to fit them into the Procrustean bed of classical Italian lutherie ‘illus.2). Classical music, and classical violin making, is mostly a conservative and normative world. It’s a bastion of like-minded people, who have a well-defined idea of how a violin is bt and what it should look like. This conviction, unfortunately, has lead to blindness for the valu ~ and even for the existence of everything else. This is definitely the case when it comes to the study of early violin making. Usually it takes time for new insights in history or science to oecome generally accepted. In the case of new findings concerning the early violin this appe< to take a few generations. Why is that? Why does it take so long before makers, merchants, scholars and musicians can give up the illusions and the standard misconceptions they have adhered for centuries? Why so little has changed since Laurence Libin highlighted this proble more than thirty years ago”? to take a few generations. Why is that? Why does it take so long before makers, merchants,
3. Pieter Claesz (c.1597-1661), Vanitas with Violin and Glass Ball, c. 1628, Nuremberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, inv. nr. Gm1409.
4. The dancing master kit in the painting called “The Paston Treasure” by a Flemish or Dutch artist, c. 1663-1670 (Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery). As the researcher investigates increasingly distant historical periods, the number of extant instruments decreases gradually, whereas, generally speaking, the documentary value of iconographic sources increases more or less proportionally. Visual arts are often more reliable and informative than the scarce material testimonies that have come down to us without a good traceable origin. Unless the works of art are later redone or restored, normally they are not susceptible to alterations common with bowed instruments: cutting over, damages, repairs, relocations and replacements of spare parts like tailpieces, strings or bridges. lconographic sources add information about frequency, geographic diffusion and chronology of developments regarding these, and other issues. As a rule, they put forward a "terminus ante quem", meaning the instruments being represented are older than the image itself. Furthermore, if critically interpreted, they also provide information on themes like the use, playing positions and social context. For example: during the 17th and 18th centuries gut string: were usually attached to the tailpiece by means of a long loop, and not with a simple button as is Common practice nowadays among baroque players and string makers.
Works of art need a critical approach and some knowledge to read them. That is one of the ‘easons why many researchers are afraid to use them or fail to interpret them properly.The value to be given to iconographic sources is partly inherent to each source on its own and its quality as an organological document. How relevant is the given information, how complete tow realistic are the objects being rendered, or did the artist try to evoke a fantasy world? t detailed or how schematic has the instrument been elaborated? Is the perspective useful? C any proportions be deduced? Is the viewpoint interesting, is it frontal and are there more gaintings by the same artist with a similar instrument on them, maybe seen from a different angle? And finally, is the art work a reliable, authentic source, with a clear pedigree and a we astablished location chronologically and geographically or not? Careful reading of the source visual art objects included, can broaden our knowledge of early violins, and even result in ohysical reconstructions of violin types that ware completely lost, as proven by the |” ‘speelmansviool” kept in the Museum Vleeshuis in Antwerp (illus. 6)*?.
Tons of paper have been written and printed about the classical Lombard school, so much so that everything around it has almost been forgotten. This is the gap that needs to be filled. The 2arly history of violin making needs to be rewritten, and the new insights need to be sopularized, answering the following questions: what was the broad environment in which the 1ew Italian school developed? What were the stylistic and technical features of “common” /iolins before the middle of the 17th century as opposed to the classical ones? And how is this -oexistence and mixture of “old” and “new” reflected in violin making after 16507°? popularized, answering the following questions: what was the broad environment in which the
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A Complete List of Methods, Tutors, Treatises and A Complete List of Etudes, Caprices, Exercises for the Violoncello in the XVIII and XIX centuries
by Boris Atanasov

2018, Boris Atanasov

Here I endeavoured to make as complete as I could two lists: one containing all methods, tutors, treatises for cello that appeared until WWI (in chronological order by publish date); and another list with all etudes, caprices, exercises... more
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Les prétentions du violoncelle: The cello as a solo instrument in France in the pre-Duport era (1700–1760)
by Francis Yapp

2012

Figure 1.2 — Title page to Boismortier’s Op. 26, sonatas, showing the specific reference to L’abbé and to the cello.
Example 2.1 — Jean-Baptiste Sttick, ‘E la rosa Regina’ from the Cantate Italienne, Livre IV (1714).
Figure 2.1: Acte de décés of Martin Berteau in the region. He may well have spent his early years in Valenciennes or perhaps some years in the employ of Stanislas (or Stanislaus) Lesczcynski, the former King of Poland who was then Duke of Lorraine and Bar, and who, as we have seen in Section 1.5, had established a court in Lunéville. While the phrase cy-devant de la musique du feu Roy de Pologne Stanislas is used in the acte de décés of Berteau (Figure 2.1), his employment at the court is not conclusive. He is not mentioned in Jacquot’s list of cellists who played at the court at Lunéville, and it seems astonishing that Jacquot would omit such a significant cellist. *°7 Other studies of music at the court at Lunéville make no reference to Berteau. !°
Example 4.151: Boismortier, Op. 50, Sonata I, Allemanda, showing batterie in the low register. Location: page 2, system 6 (lowest system). Example 4.150: Boismortier, Op. 26, Sonata III, Allegro, ma non troppo, showing batterie figuration. Location: page 7, lowermost system (system 6).
Figure 2.2: Michel-Nicholas-Bernard Lepicié, Portrait of Berteau. Source: <http: / /www.harmoniasacra.com/page-1050.html>
Example 3.1: Jean-Baptiste Matho, opening of the storm scene from Arion, Act III, scene iii (1714). Source: F-Po, A.88b
Example 3.2: Opening of the Recit de la basse de Violon from Marc-Antoine Charpentier sonate pour 2 flutes Allemandes, 2 dessus de Violon, une basse de Viole, une basse de Violor 15 cordes, un Clavecin et un Teorbe, ed. by Alessandro Bares (Albese con Cassano Musedita, 2010), p. 10.
Figure 3.1: Dirk Hals (1591-1656), Das Solo (Gemaldegalerie de Akademie der Bildenden Ktinste, Vienna). Source: <http://www.greatbassviol.com/iconography / hals2.jpg> [accessed 29 July 2012].
Example 3.4: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IV, Allegro. Location: Page 25, Systems 4-5. Viewed from this perspective, one of the most intriguing passages can be found in the final movement of Sonata IV in Livre I of Barriére (Example 3.4) On a four-string instrument with the standard tuning, the passage can only be performed by shifting between each note, a very unidiomatic practice With the lower notes played on the C-string and the upper notes on the A-string, the stretch is too large for the hand. Moreover, the leaps are to the extremities of the baroque fingerboard. With a five-string cello, the passage can be played across the strings. On the other hand, a performer who could pull off this feat would certainly have won the admiration of his audience and peers.
Example 3.5: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata I, Andante, showing extended parallel thirds.
Example 3.6: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata VI, Largo
Example 3.7: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata I, Allegro. Location: page 3, system 4.
Example 3.8: Barriére, Sonata I, Livre I, Adagio. Location: page 1, system 5.
Example 3.10: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata I, Allegro. Location: page 7, systems 5-6.
Example 3.11: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IV, Aria Amorosa. Showing batterie between D string and higher pitches, followed by D string drone.
Example 3.14: Corrette, Méthode, p. 21, fingering pattern in the third position. Example 3.13: Corrette, Méthode, p. 21. Fingering for a chromatic scale in first position, excepting the final note.
Example 3.16: Corrette, Méthode, p. 41, showing instructions for thumb position. Example 3.15: Corrette, Méthode, p. 34. All four positions are used in this example. its use, except for playing diminished fifths (Example 3.18). His reasons are that it does not correspond with the violin fingering, making it difficult for violinists to play the cello, and that it prevents the playing of fast passages (“elle arréte tout court celui qui s’en sert dans les vitesses”).>* Corrette names it “la position des Anciens” and claims that “cette position est un restegotique des grosses Basses de Violon montées en sol qui sont Exclués de ‘Opéra et de tous les pays Etrangers”, °3 suggesting that it was used as the standard basse de violon fingering.
whether the virtuoso cellists used Corrette’s fingering system, or whether it was only for amateurs, and possibly those transferring from the violin. The use of diatonic fingering patterns above the third position makes passages in the French sonatas more playable, but only if the fourth finger is also used. On the other hand, the unwieldy omission of the third finger in the lower positions, which then requires a semitone to be played between the second and fourth fingers, causes tension in the hand. It seems unlikely that players trained on either the basse de violon or the viola da gamba, both of which use a chromatic fingering pattern involving all four fingers, would have ceased using the third finger when they took up the cello.
Figure 3.4: Lancret, Idealised Scene of an Opera-Ballet (Paris, formerly Madame de Polé’s collection), showing the violoncello held in ‘gamba’ position. Source: Smith, ‘An Iconographical Study’.
Both written and iconographical sources confirm that bass violin-family nstruments were played in the da spalla position in France, although it
Figure 3.6: Frontispiece to Corrette, Les amusemens du Parnasse. Source: Smith, ‘An Iconographical Study’.
Example 4.1: Masse, Menuets Nouveaux, [sixth set of minuets, second minuet], showing true duo-writing for the two cellos. Note that the part for the ‘continuo’ cello is on a separate stave. The other pieces in the collection are for a simple texture of cello and continuo. Location: page 5, systems 4-5.
Example 4.3: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IV, Allemanda. Location: page 23, final two systems of page. Example 4.2: Jean-Baptiste Masse, Op. 5, Sonata I, Tambourino II. Location: page 3, systems 2-4.
Example 4.4: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IV, Allegro, showing the second cello released to play a third below the first, initially in a slurred batterie figure, and then in a drone passage. Location: page 25, systems 2-4.
Example 4.5: Barriére, Livre IV, Sonata III, Gavottes I & II. Location: page 11, systems 3-7:
Example 4.6: Barriére, Livre IV, Sonata I, Andante. Location: page 3, system 2. discrepancy in timbre and difference in tessitura make it less effective. This dual-use of the continuo cello is one of the unique features of the French cello repertoire.
Example 4.8: Martin, Sonata II, Allegro. Location: page 8, systems 5-6.
Example 4.10: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata VI, Allegro. Location: page 37, final system on page. Example 4.9: Martin, Sonata II, Allegro. Location: page 9, system 6.
Example 4.11: Baur, Sonata II, Allegretto. Location: page 8, systems 3-5.
Example 4.13: Martin, Sonata IV, Aria gratioso. Location: page 16, system 3. Example 4.12: Baur, Sonata III, Allegro. Location: page 10, system 5.
Example 4.14: Barriére, Livre IV, Sonata II, Adagio. Location: page 8, first four systems on page. Here, the continuo cello has pulsing, chordal double-stops. The extract also
Example 4.15: Martin, Sonata II, Allegro. Location: page 5, systems 4-5. by the solo cello, one bar later (Example 4.15). But even this is not as polyphonic nor as extended as the use of the two solo instruments is in a typical trio sonata. Nor is it as rhythmically independent as the ornamented bass lines allocated to the cello in some of Corelli’s trio sonatas. A possible reason for not using the continuo cello contrapuntally is that the second cello, participating momentarily as an independent voice in the texture, was not seen as a truly separate voice, but rather as additional harmonic colour. It may also be simply due to the French preference for homophonic textures at this time, evidenced by the frequent passages of parallel thirds, sixths and tenths between the solo cello and continuo bass even when the second cello is not released, which are unique to the French repertoire.
Example 4.16: Galliard, Sonata II, third movement, [no bar number given in Zingler source], showing an example, from a non-French sonata, of the continuo cello playing an inner line. Source is Ute Zingler, “Uber die Rolle zusatzlicher Noten im Basso Continuo bei Violoncellsonaten”, p. 36. [From the six cello sonatas, published in 1746 together with six sonatas by Caporale.] only the examples in Galliard and Geminiani can be considered comparable to the French practice. “4 The example from Galliard shows his use of the ‘shadowing’ technique. It is drawn from the third movement of Sonata II (of a set published in 1746) (Example 4.16), where the continuo cello plays in thirds with the solo, first above and then below it. It is worth noting that Galliard, as his name suggests, had connections with France. Although he was born in Celle and spent most of his career in England (from 1706 onwards), his father was the French wig-maker Jean Galliard, and “he learnt both flute and oboe from a French member of the Celle court orchestra, Pierre Maréchal”. * It is not unlikely that he maintained contacts with France, and may have heard French cellists, especially as he (a non-cellist) had an interest in writing cello sonatas.
Example 4.18: Lanzetti, Op. 1, Sonata IV, opening bars, showing cellistic chordal writing in the continuo part. Unlike the examples from the French sonatas, this is not a true inner part. Source: Zingler, ‘Uber die Rolle’, pp. 135-36. The two other non-French examples cited by Zingler, by Lanzetti and Mattern, fall into a different category. They are double-stopped parts for the continuo or second cellist, rather than examples of it being ‘released’ to play an independent part. Lanzetti requires stopped chords from the continuo cellist for weight (Example 4.18). Mattern gives a notated ‘realization for the cellist of the continuo line, which was without figures and intended to be played by the continuo cello alone (Example 4.19). Mattern was writing in the second half of the eighteenth century, when accompaniment by the cello alone, rather than by a continuo group, became the norm. They may be found, for example, in the sonatas of Boccherini.
Example 4.17: Geminiani, Sonata III, Affetuoso. Location: page 14, system 4.
Example 4.19: Mattern, Solo a Violoncello et Basso in C, opening movement (Adagio), showing a written-out realization of the bass for cello, as opposed to a true inner part for the continuo cello. Source: Zingler, ‘Uber die Rolle’, p. 136.
Example 4.20: Vivaldi, Sonata I, Largo. Location: page 1, system 3. In the Italian cello repertoire from this period, it is rare for the solo part and the continuo to play in parallel thirds. Where the bass does have a more melodic, rather than simple harmonic-support role, the parts move indepen- dently (Example 4.20).*® Conversely, in the French repertoire, passages of parallel thirds are so common that they may be considered a feature of the French cello repertoire throughout the first half of the eighteenth century. It is interesting that they are found in the continuo sonata repertoire, as passages in parallel thirds are a particular feature of the duo texture. This is a French trait which extends beyond the cello repertoire alone. In discussing the violin sonatas by Somis, Burdette notes that “passages in which the two parts are conducted in parallel thirds, sixths, or tenths for several measures, common in duo writing, are found” and adds “as are chains of suspensions, long passages of pure figuration, some in triplet rhythms, and Trommelbass passages.” 79
Example 4.22: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata VI, Allegro, showing parallel thirds writing between the continuo and solo. Location: page 37, first system and third system. Example 4.21: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata III, Allegro, showing the solo cello and the continuo bass playing in thirds, in an imitative passage. Location: page 15, third and fourth systems.
Example 4.23: Barriére, Livre IV, Sonata I, Aria gratioso. Location: page 3, systems 4-7.
Example 4.24: Masse, Op. 1, Sonata I, Allegro ma non presto. Location: page 2, final system, and page 3, first system.
Example 4.25: Masse, Op. 1, Sonata I, Aria. Location: page 4, systems 2-3.
Example 4.26: Masse, Op. 1, Sonata V, Largo. Location: page 20, systems 1-4.
Example 4.27: Masse, Op. 2, Allegro. Location: page 16, systems 5-6.
Example 4.28: Masse, Op. 5, Sonata III, Giga—Allegro ma non tropo [sic]. Location: page 7, system 2.
Example 4.29: Boismortier, Op. 26, Sonata I, Moderato. Location: page 1, system 1. In contrast to these brief snippets, in the final movement (Gigue) from Spourny’s Sonata III in Op. 9, long stretches of parallel thirds can be found (Example 4.31). Here, as is often the case in these sonatas, the structure is created out of changing textures: the opening phrase is in parallel thirds, while in the answering phrase only one part (first the solo, then the bass) moves in quavers, while the other part accompanies in dotted crotchets. A similar pattern occurs in the second half, where two phrases in parallel thirds alternate with phrases where the two parts ‘answer’ each other, first in sub-phrases as in the first half, then in alternating bars. The juxtaposition
Example 4.30: Boismortier, Op. 50, Sonata V [Quarta], Largo. Location: page 17, system 3.
Example 4.31: Spourny, Op. 9, Sonata III, Gigue. Location: page 11, systems 3-7.
Example 4.32: Boismortier, Op. 50, Sonata III, Corrente, showing a unison scale between the continuo and solo parts, after the initial unaccompanied opening. Location: page 10, first system.
Example 4.33: Masse, Op. 3, Sonata II, Allegro ma non presto. Location: page 7, final system on page.
Example 4.34: Masse, Op. 3, Sonata II, Allegro. Location: page 11, final system on page.
Example 4.35: Berteau, Sonata I, Allegro assai. Location: page 4, system 4. The unison at the octave, which may require the solo cello to play in its upper register in the thumb positions, as is the case in the Berteau sonatas, introduces an element of virtuosity. In the opening phrase of the fourth movement of Sonata I, Berteau takes advantage of the expanded upper register afforded by the thumb positions, still a relative novelty at the time, to write octaves between the cello and continuo lines; the subsequent phrase continues the parallel motion, first in sixths and then in tenths (Example 4.35). The opening phrase closely resembles writing in a violin sonata. In Martin’s Sonata VI, the same octave unison texture, progressive by thirds, can be found. (Example 4.36).
Example 4.37: Baur, Sonata I, Fuga, showing parallel octaves conclusion to the movement, using the middle and low registers of the solo and continuo cellos respectively. Is it helpful if I include more of this, i.e. the previous line as well? Example 4.36: Martin, Sonata VI, Allegro. Location: page 26.
Example 4.40: Blainville, Sonata III, Caccia—Allegro. Location: page 13, systems 2-3. Example 4.39: Blainville, Sonata IL, Andante, showing unison ending to the movement. (The half-close concludes with a similar passage in the dominant, a fifth higher). Location: page 7, final system on page.
Example 4.38: Blainville, Sonata I, Allegro, showing unison two-octave scale and surrounding context. Location: page 3, systems 2-3.
Example 4.43: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IV, Allegro, showing a high brisure passage in the final couplet, which contrasts, in terms of register, with the low scale passage in the refrain (Example 4.42). Location: page 25, systems 4-5. Example 4.42: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IV, Allegro, conclusion to refrain, showing a low-register scale in the concluding bars, followed by a chordal finish. Location: page 25, first system.
Example 4.44: Patouart, Op. 1, Sonata I, Gigue, showing the use of sudden low notes within a leapwise melody. Location: page 3, second and third systems on page.
Example 4.46: Masse, Op. 1, Sonata II, Allegro ma non presto, showing low-register arpeggios at the close of the movement. Location: page 7, final system on page.
movement (second movement) from the second sonata in Op. 2 concludes with a descending scalic figure; in this case the continuo cello plays in unison with the soloist in the final two bars (Example 4.48). This device of a considerable descent to the lowest register at the close of a movement seems a favourite of Masse’s but does not appear in any other French cello sonatas from this era. Example 4.45: Masse, Op. 1, Sonata I, Andante, showing arpeggio descent to the open C string at the end of this opening movement. Location: page 2, fourth system [final system of the movement].
Example 4.47: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata VI, Presto, showing the use of the low register at the end of the movement. Location: page 25, final system.
Example 4.48: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata II, Allegro ma non tropo, showing a scale down to the low C at the close of the movement, played by the solo cello and continuo group in unison. Location: page 7, final system on page.
Example 4.49: Masse, Giga allegro staccato simpre (Posteglionne) from Sonata III in Op. 2
Example 4.51: Blainville, Op. 1, Sonata I, Allegro, first movement, showing broken arpeggios involving the lower register, before the repeated chords at the conclusion of the movement. Location: page 3, final system on page.
Example 4.52: Blainville, Op. 1, Sonata III, Caccia. Location: system 6.
Example 4.50: Blainville, Op. 1, Sonata I, Allegro, showing the use of the low register in an experimental passage combined with the bariolage technique. Location: page 3, systems 4-5.
Example 4.53: Fingering pattern for the basic thumb position across all four strings. In the French repertoire composed before 1760 (and indeed in all cellc repertoire composed before this date), most of the passages using the thumk position make use of what may be termed the ‘basic’ thumb position. Ir this position, the thumb itself is placed across the harmonic d’ and a’ or the D-string and A-string respectively. The player can then play the notes between d’ and g’ on the D-string, and the notes between a’ and d” on the A-string, as in Example 4.53.28 Notes on the G- and C-strings can also be used, as occurs in Barriére’s Livre IV, Sonata VI. As can be seen, this thumk position ‘mirrors’ the notes in the first position, one octave higher. As we shall discover later, some cellist-composers played on this octave relationshit between the first position and the ‘basic’ thumb position for virtuosic effect
A similar use of the thumb position occurs in the first movement of Sonata IV (Example 4.55). Again, it is clearly marked in the soprano clef, and again it uses double stopping with one string being a drone, this time the A-string. From bar 7 of the extract (the second complete bar on line 2), the player reaches back with the thumb, step-by-step, into the lower thumb positions, where it can remain for the arpeggios in line 3. 3° In Sonata III (the duo), there is a short passage in the third movement
Example 4.55: Martin, Sonata IV, Allegro, showing use of the thumb position. Location: page 15, systems 2-3.
1.4. The Extreme Upper Registers Example 4.56: Martin, Sonata V, Minuetto, Variatio 3. Location: page 25, systems 1-3.
Example 4.57: Blainville, Sonata II, Rondo—Allegro. Location: page 8, system 6, and page 9, systems 1-2.
Example 4.59: Blainville, Sonata IV, Rondeau—Allegro. Location: page 17, system 6. Example 4.58: Possible fingering for Blainville, Sonata II, Rondo—Allegro, bars 34-41.
Example 4.61: Patouart, Sonata III, Aria gratioso. Location: page 9, systems 3-4. Example 4.60: Patouart, Sonata IV, Presto. Location: page 12, systems 2-3.
12, systems 2-3; Sonata V, Andante, page 15; system 7). As an example of Patouart’s use of the thumb position, the example from Sonata IV is given here (Example 4.60). The other two, in Sonatas III and V, are simpler, slightly shorter, and use only the A-string. A fourth example of the thumb position occurs also in Sonata III; however, it is not indicated by a change in notation, and is written in the tenor clef (Example 4.61). There is no logical explanation for this discrepancy; rather it must be taken simply as part of the unstandardized notation of the era.
which use thumb position (including Barriére’s use of thumb position in Livre II), there is a very clear-cut use of block thumb positions: the hand remains in one thumb position for an extended period. It is clear from the context that the passage is intended to be played in the thumb position. In this sonata, conversely, it is sometimes deliberately unclear (and left to the individual performer) as to where to change between the neck and the thumb positions. 33 In Example 4.62, the notes from the d” in bar 5 until the last quaver of bar 13 are clearly meant to be played in thumb position, as this is the only logical way to play them. However, the first four notes in bar 5 could potentially be played in thumb position on the D-string; furthermore, one may stay in thumb position right to the end of bar 13 and into bar 14, if one is prepared to play on the G string in thumb position (this is necessary in the final movement in any case), although one would most likely shift into the neck positions before the end of bar 15, so as to avoid playing the Fi on the C-string. (The notes after the repeat sign in this extract are played in the neck positions).
Example 4.63: Barriére, Livre IV, Sonata VI, Allegro (first movement). Location: page 22, system 4. C-strings. (The a in bar 4 of the extract on the G string, and the f{ and d on the C-string; similarly in bar 5, the g can be played with the thumb, on the G-string, and the e and c on the C-string.) Indeed, this is the most secure way to play the passage, but the cellist still needs to shift into the neck positions to play the B in bar 6, since this is out of the range of the ‘basic’ thumb position.
Example 4.64: Barriére, Livre IV, Sonata VI, Largo. Location: page 25, system 6 (second from bottom). It is possibly because of these ambiguities, where fingering details are left to the discretion of the performer, that Barriére does not use the soprano clef to mark clearly thumb position passages, as he does in Livre HI Sonata VI, and as other composers did as well. Instead, as may be seen from the examples, the first two movements are notated in the treble clef, an octave above sounding pitch; this, also, is a notational convention more typical of the late eighteenth-century French cello school than of the mid century. The second movement, Largo, is also notated in the treble clef. Although there are several passages using the high c” and even db”, these can be played without using the thumb position. There is only one passage which does explicitly need the thumb position (Example 4.64). Here, in addition to the high thumb-position notes, the open G-string is incorporated to give a contrast of register.
Example 4.65: Barriére, Livre IV, Sonata VI, Allegro. Location: page 24, systems 2-4. s€ellis tO DE palliCulal tO Ulis Ole MLOVEMent Wi tus OLE sOlldata. In this movement, there are only two passages in the ‘basic’ thumb position. The first (Example 4.65) makes extensive use of the harmonic d’ on the D-string, in a passage involving batterie and making use of rapid repeated notes. Towards the end of the thumb passage, the player is required to play on the G- and then even C- strings in thumb position (final bar of line two of the extract third beat, and a C-string d in the first bar of line three of the extract). Even without the notation, the only logical way to finger the passage is to stay in thumb position throughout; jumping from the neck positions to the high c” at the start of line three of the extract does not make sense.
Example 4.66: Barriére, Livre IV, Sonata IV, Allegro, showing use of the basic thumb position (from the treble clef in line 1 of this extract, and ending at the change to the soprano clef in line two of the extract). Location: page 24, system 7 (last system) and page 25, system 1.
Example 4.67: Barriére, Livre IV, Sonata VI, Allegro, showing use of the higher thumb positions. Location: page 25, systems 1-5.
Example 4.68: Berteau, Sonata I, Vivace, showing the use of and notation for the higher thumb position. Location: 1771 edition, page 2, system 5 (second from bottom).
Example 4.70: Berteau, Sonata III, Allegro. Location: 1771 edition, page 13, systems 2-4. the extract. (The surrounding music is provided for context.) Beginning at the double bar, the first phrase (to the low g, can be played either in the ‘basic’ thumb position, or in the neck positions. The following phrase (from the upbeat to bar 4 of the example) fits naturally under the hand in the ‘basic’ thumb position, although the performer may shift directly into the higher thumb position to play this passage, so as to avoid the need for a second shift elsewhere. Otherwise, the performer may shift at any time before the high e” in line two of the extract. After the final high e” in that line, one can then shift back to the ‘basic’ thumb position; this needs to be done to play the d’ in bar 1 of system 3, so as to keep the passage on the top two strings.
Example 4.69: Berteau, Sonata I, Allegro assai, showing use of the higher thumb position, marked with fingerings. Location: 1771 edition, page 4, system 5 (second from bottom).
Example 4.71: Berteau, Sonata V, Aria—Amoroso. Location: page 21, system 2.
Example 4.72: Berteau, Sonata V, Aria—Amoroso. Location: page 21, systems 5-6. Because there are no fingerings given in any of the published French sonatas from this period, other than in the 1771 edition of the Berteau sonatas, it is difficult to be absolutely certain where the lower thumb positions are intended. 35 (Because of their high tessitura, passages in the high thumb positions are more immediately recognizable.) In this section, then, we will first focus on those passages where the lower thumb positions are necessary because to play the passage in any other way would either be impossible, or would involve difficulties out of keeping with the character of the sonata. Following that, discussion will turn to other passages which might conjecturally be played with the thumb. Because there are no fingerings given in any of the published French
of playing this. It is not just these passages, however, that appear to demand the use of the thumb in these lower positions. There are also two other double-stopped passages that are significantly easier to play if the thumb is used, due to the large stretches required. In Sonata IV, a series of suspensions requires double-stopped seconds (Example 4.76). In this case, rather than it being the extreme low positions, it is in the ‘higher’ neck positions, above the fourth position. In these positions, it is difficult to use the fourth finger, due to the angle that the hand is placed on. Therefore, the cellist has the use of only three fingers (making the passage impossible), unless the thumb is brought into play. Of all the passages discussed in this section, this is the one that most needs the use of the thumb. The final passage discussed here is from Sonata VI of the same collection (Example 4.77). It consists of a long descending passage in parallel thirds, and is thus similar to the second part of Example 4.74. These thirds would require a shift between every note if the (modern) conventional fingering is used. On the other hand, if the thumb is included, one would need to shift only every half-bar. To an extent this could also be achieved by using the violin-style fingerings, but as discussed above, these can only be used in the first position (required in this extract) if an extremely short string-length is used. Example 4.73: Barriére, Livre II, Sonata IV, Allegro. Location: page 13, systems 3-5.
Example 4.74: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata I, Andante. Location: page 5, systems 2-5.
Example 4.75: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata III, Adagio. Location: page 16, systems 1-4.
Example 4.76: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IV, Adagio. Location: page 21, system 4.
Example 4.77: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata VI, Largo. Location: page 33, system 2.
Example 4.78: Berteau, Sonata II, Aria—variatione, third variation, showing the use of natural harmonics. Location: 1771 edition, page 8, systems 7-8. Figure 4.2: The introduction to the 1771 edition of Berteau’s sonatas, describing the notation and technique for harmonics.
Example 4.80: Berteau, Sonata III, Amoroso, showing the use of double-stopped natural harmonics. Location: 1771 edition, page 14, systems 1-2. Example 4.79: Berteau, Sonata II, Aria—variatione, sixth variation, showing the use of natural harmonics in double stops. Location: 1771 edition, page 9, systems 9-10.
Example 4.82: Baur, Sonata VI, Adagio. Location: page 24, system 6 (last system). Bridge-End Harmonics
Example 4.81: Patouart, Sonata VI, Minuetto, showing the use of natural harmonics. Location: page 22, systems 1-2.
The two Martin examples are drawn from the same movement, one occurring at the half-close (Example 4.83), and the other, a fifth lower, and played on the D-string instead of the A-string, at the end of the movement (Example 4.84). In both cases, Martin uses a clef-change for the harmonics passages; curiously, the A-string passage is notated in the French G clef (the only use of this clef in the French cello repertoire published before 1760), and the D-string passage is notated in the soprano clef. Because the relationship between the two clefs is exactly a fifth apart, the visual appearance of these two passages, other than the clefs themselves, is identical. Martin, like Baur, explicitly writes “Sons harmoniques”, and places a wavy line above each harmonic note, thus distinguishing them from the open-string notes. In both cases, there is a note marked to be played as a harmonic, which physically cannot be played as one: the cf” in the first example (system 1, penultimate note, in extract), and the ft’ in the second example (system 1, penultimate note, in extract). This note must be played as a stopped note. Example 4.83: Martin, Sonata IV, Allegro. Location: page 14, systems 5-6 (lowermost two systems).
Example 4.85: Blainville, Sonata VI, [no tempo indication]. Location: page 22, systems 2-3.
his allegiance to the French style, even if (or perhaps because) his sonatas themselves are not French in style at all. A more mundane explanation is that he did begin as a viol player and was simply accustomed to the clef. I is equally possible that he simply wanted to distinguish between passages played in the neck positions (notated in the tenor clef), those in the ‘basic thumb position (notated in the alto clef) and those in the higher thumk positions (notated in the soprano clef). The problem with this theory is that while it is generally applicable, there are times when the alto clef is used ir spite of the fact that the thumb position is not suitable for those passages Sonata I will be used as an illustration. The first movement uses only the tenor and bass clefs. In the second movement, which uses three clefs, the distinction is clear: the alto clef is used for ‘basic’ thumb position, while the tenor and bass clefs are used for the neck positions, as well as passages ir the lower thumb position. However, in the third movement (Grave), whick begins in the tenor clef, there is an inexplicable change to the alto clef afte: the first four bars. There is no reason to use thumb position here, however and in fact it is not possible in the final five bars, because of the double stops (Example 4.86). In the fourth movement, in contrast, the distinction is cleat with the alto clef being used for all thumb position passages (including the higher thumb position; see Example 4.69), and the tenor and bass clefs being used for all passages in the neck positions. Example 4.86: Berteau, Sonata I, Grave, Location: page 4, system 3.
Baur uses the alto clef only once, in the final movement of Sonata VI (Example 4.87)(the rest of the set is notated in the tenor and bass clefs). In this case, as in the Berteau collection, it marks the shift into the first thumb position. However, similarly to Berteau, Baur does not shift out of clef to mark the end of the thumb position; rather, he remains in the alto clef until the end of the phrase, in spite of the fact that the final one-and-a-half bars of the phrase can be, and would normally be, played in the neck positions. This contrasts with practices in the use of the soprano clef, since that clef is normally used exclusively for the thumb position, and the notation shifts out of the clef to indicate that the performer should shift out of the thumb position. Example 4.87: Baur, Sonata VI, Adagio. Location: page 24, systems 4-5. out of the clef to indicate that the performer should shift out of the thumb
Example 4.88: Blainville, Sonata IV, Rondeau—Allegro. Location: page 17, systems 3-6.
Example 4.90: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata VI, Adagio (beginning in third bar of extract). Location: page 35, final system. Example 4.89: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata V, Adagio. Location: page 30, first system.
the French repertoire, appearing only in these two examples from Barriére’s
Example 4.91: Martin, Sonata IV, Aria gratioso, showing extended double stopping over the course of an entire movement. Location: p.16, entire page. 4.6. Double Stopping
Example 4.92: Martin, Sonata II, first movement Adagio. Location: page 4, systems 1-3.
Example 4.93: Martin, Sonata III, Allegro, excerpt showing continual double stopping by at least one cello. Location: page 10, systems 3-4.
Example 4.95: Martin, Sonata V, Andante, an excerpt showing the use of double-stops in a movement that is not entirely double-stopped. Location: page 21, systems 3-5. not pervade an entire movement. One such example is in the first movement of Sonata V. Example 4.95 illustrates the type of frequently recurring double stops that are common in the Martin sonatas: they do not take up the whole movement, as in previous examples, yet they are a feature of the movement far more than in any non-French sonatas from this period.
Example 4.94: Martin, Sonata III, Grave, showing the use of double stopping in thi: slow movement. Location: page 11, systems 4-5.
Example 4.96: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata II, Adagio. Location: page 6, systems 1-4.
Example 4.97: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata V, Adagio. Location: page 18, systems 1-4.
Example 4.98: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata VI, Adagio. Location: page 22, systems 1-4. 4.6. Double Stopping
Example 4.99: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata VI, Allegro ma non presto. Location: page 22, lowermost system.
Example 4.101: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata VI, Aria 2a. Location: page 24, systems 3-4. Example 4.100: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata VI, Allegro ma non presto. Location: page 23, systems 2-3.
Example 4.104: Boismortier, Op.50, Sonata V [quarta], Largo. Location: page 18, systems 5-6. Example 4.103: Boismortier, Op. 26, Sonata V, Adagio. Location: page 15, system 2.
Example 4.102: Boismortier, Op. 26, Sonata III, Adagio. Location: page 9, system 3.
Example 4.105: Spourny, Op. 9, Sonata III, Musette I. Location: page 9, systems 2-4.
upper registers is easier and almost certainly developed before its use in the lower registers. Therefore, it is most likely that a cello with a short string length was used, so that the interval of a fourth could be reached within one position. Example 4.107: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata I, Andante. Location: page 5, systems 1-5. length was used, so that the interval of a fourth could be reached within one
Example 4.108: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata III, Adagio. Location: page 16, whole page. THE FRENCH CELLO IDIOM EXPLORED
Example 4.109: Barriére, Livre II, Sonata IV, Allegro. Location: page 13, systems 3-5. texture. A very similar texture may be found in the Adagio movement of Sonata IV (Example 4.111). The difference here is that the second cello is released for the entire movement, and its part is notated on a separate stave Texturally this movement is otherwise similar to the example from Livre I Sonata II, in that the first cello double-stops, while the second is used to play echo passages of the first cello’s melody. The double-stops themselves are not terribly difficult, consisting of parallel thirds, drones against the open strings, and other intervals which fall easily under the hand.
Example 4.110: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata II, Adagio. Location: page 11, systems 2-6.
Example 4.111: Barriére, Livre II, Sonata IV, Adagio. Location: page 14, whole page and page 15, system 1.
Example 4.114: Blainville, Sonata I, Aria Gracioso, showing the use of drone double stopping in the second cello part. Location: page 13, systems 4-6. Example 4.113: Martin, Sonata II, Allegro, showing drones. The drone begins in bar 5 of the extract. Location: page 4, system 6 (second system from bottom).
Example 4.112: Martin, Sonata II, Adagio, first movement. The drone begins at the end of bar 3 of the extract. Location: systems 2-3, page 4.
Example 4.115: Patouart, Sonata IV, Presto, bars 64-80, showing the use of the open D-string as a drone while repeated notes are played on the A-string. A ‘textbook example’ of the use of drones can be found in Patouart’s Sonata IV, in the second movement (Presto): the D-string is used as a drone, while repeated notes, marked with a portato bowing, are played in the upper-middle register on the A-string (Example 4.115). This is the typical tessitura and use of the drone technique, although normally the A-string material is of a more melodic nature.
Example 4.116: Jean Baur, Sonata III, Tempo di gavotta—Allegro, bars 81-116, showing the use of the open A-string as a drone, with the melody played on the D-string.
Example 4.117: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IV, Adagio. Location: page 21, whole page.
Example 4.118: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata VI, Largo. Location: page 33.
Example 4.121: Patouart, Sonata I, Presto, showing parallel thirds double stopping (in the first three bars of the second system of the example, and the anacrusis to these bars). Location: page 2, second and third systems on page.
Example 4.120: Martin: Sonata II, Allegro, showing thirds double-stops in the highe: neck positions. Location: page 4, system 5.
Example 4.119: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata III, first movement, Adagio, showing thirds double stops. Location: page 14, second system.
Example 4.122: Jean-Pierre Duport, opening bars of Exercise no. 8, in Jean-Louis Duport, Essai sur le doigté du violoncelle et sur la conduite de l’archet, p. 198.
Example 4.123: Gaspar Cassad6 (1897-1966), Suite per violoncello solo (1926), second movement: Sardana (Danza), bars 56-75.
Example 4.125: Berteau, Sonata II, Grave. Location: 1771 edition, page 8, systems 2-3. need to be held while the other part moves, including playing repeated notes. Lewis has addressed this issue, arguing that “possible solutions include releasing the held note in order to play the other line, re-striking the held note every time there is a new note in the other part, and manipulating the bow such that it re-strikes on one string but holds on the other”.°° Mentioning the Duport Etude cited above (Example 4.122), she concludes that “this last solution is one that is worth exploring”.>* In fact, the extent to which such passages occur in lesser-known French cello sonatas from this period indicates that it was an integral part of French cello technique at this time.
Example 4.127: Baur, Sonata II, Adagio, showing polyphonic double stopping (bars 4-5 of extract) within the context of a thickly double-stopped movement. Location: page 8, first three systems on page.
Example 4.126: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata ITI, Adagio, showing polyphonic double stopping (bars 2-4 of extract). Location: page 10, first system on page. be to release the long notes on the beat, and slur the moving parts. been used, since there are no repeated notes to articulate as in the Berteau
Example 4.128: Baur, Sonata VI, Allegro, showing the use of the polyphonic technique. The preceding and subsequent systems are provided to show the context. Location: Page 23, systems 1-3.
Example 4.129: Baur, Sonata VI, Adagio, showing the polyphonic double stopping in a variety of rhythms, and including the use of thumb position fingerings. Location: page 24, systems 2-5.
Example 4.133: Blainville, Sonata I, Allegro, first movement, showing repeated chords at the conclusion of the movement. Location: page 3, final system on page. Example 4.132: Blainville, Sonata VI, opening movement [no tempo], showing the use of chords in both cello parts simultaneously.
Example 4.131: Martin, Sonata V, Allegro. Location: page 22, system 1.
Example 4.130: Martin, Sonata II, Allegro. Location: page 9, system 6 (bottom system).
Example 4.134: Berteau, Sonata II, Aria. Location: page 9, systems 9-12. duration of the notes in the Blainville examples, together with the musical contexts surely precludes arpeggiated patterns. A more ambiguous case, however, can be found in Berteau’s Sonata II, where the final variation of the fourth movement consists entirely of chords (Example 4.134). It is unclear whether this is a notational shorthand for broken arpeggios or whether the passage is intended to be played as a succession of block chords. The relatively brisk tempo and short duration of the notes, combined with the fact that there is a mixture of three- and four-note chords (and even a two-note double-stop) seem to indicate that block chords are intended. However, there is no other instance of such a succession of chords in the French repertoire for cello from this period. Unsurprisingly, this passage has attracted some scholarly attention. Adas remarks that “in the last variation from the second sonata, the performer would have to decide whether to roll the chords or to break them up into some sort of pattern”.°3 Lewis also notes that it is an ambiguous situation, and that her “instinct as a cellist” would be to arpeggiate the chords, but concludes that “this must be left to the discretion of the individual performer”. + It could well be that multiple performance interpretations were envisaged; however, the difference in sound between block chords and arpeggiation is so vast that it seems more likely that one of these options was intended by Berteau, whichever that may be. It could of course have been intended as a show of skill for the performer; as the last variation of the finale, it was the opportunity for impact via an ‘improvised’ interpretation. In that sense, Berteau may have deliberately left the options open. These options could have included ‘mixed’ playing of block chords and arpeggiated patterns.
Example 4.135: Jean-Baptiste Masse, Op. 1, Sonata III, Sarabanda, showing the de- tailed and deliberate notation of bowing, typical of the French sonatas in this period. Location: page 12, top two systems. scores. °° In general, the publications are marked with care and deliberation concerning bowing; of all the cello music published in Paris only a few, non-French sets, such as those of Somis and Chinzer, are sparsely marked as far as bowing is concerned. This care in notating articulation and bow strokes can itself be seen as an element of gallicizing the sonata repertoire. Some indication of the deliberation with which the majority of French cello sonatas from this period are marked with regard to bowing may be drawn from the Sarabanda from Sonata III of Masse’s Op. 1 set (Example 4.135).
Example 4.136: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata III, Aria gratioso, showing slurred staccato Location: page 18, system 4. 58. From a different perspective, Phillpott has commented that while Barriére’s sonatas have a tendency to be overtly virtuosic, Masse’s sonatas, while technically demanding, use this to not require any further comment, being found in almost every movement of every sonata published in Paris at this time. However, they are carefully notated; in other, non-French cello sonatas issued in Parisian publications, slurs are sometimes not notated, instead being left to the performer. Slurs of up to eight notes, while less common than shorter slurs, are not unusual Walden, speaking of wider Europe rather than France specifically, notes that “for violoncellists who used bows of pre-Tourte design, the majority of slur groupings encompassed two to four notes, with occasional groupings having as many as eight notes. Longer slur groupings were rare.” 5° This applies to the cello music composed in France in this era.
Example 4.137: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IV, Allemanda, showing the use of slurred staccato. Location: page 22, systems 2-3. is drawn from Sonata III in Op. 1 (Example 4.138). Another run in a faste: tempo is found in Sonata I, Op. 2 (Example 4.139). Example 4.140 shows a quite different use of slurred staccato: rather than a rapid, isolated rur as a virtuosic flourish, here a clearly defined bowing pattern is established for the sequence, including (as well as the slurred staccato) ordinary slurs and ordinary staccato. In this passage, the bowing pattern is remarkable the compression of three different bowings into the brief motive showing huge subtlety of effect. This emphasis on detail and finesse contrasts witt the broad sweep of the Italianate style. Indeed, this clearly marked, intricate bowing is a marked feature of the French school, and in its emphasis or finely chiselled detail is typical of the French rococo.
Example 4.138: Masse, Op. 1, Sonata III, Andante, showing a flourish using slurred staccato towards the end of the movement. Location: page 10, system 3. technique in the pursuit of musicality. “The technical scope of Masse’s sonatas is comparable to that of Barriére’s music. The primary difference is the absence of ... virtuosic fireworks in the sonatas of the former. While Masse’s sonatas are certainly virtuosic and extremely difficult, the technical demands here serve a primarily musical effect in terms of texture and variety; this is in contrast to Barriére’s virtuosic language, which mainly serves to cast the performer’s skill in an impressive light.” Phillpott, p. 97-98.
Example 4.139: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata I, Allegro assai. Location: page 4, system 5.
Example 4.140: Masse, Op. 1, Sonata VI, Aria, showing slurred staccato within a very well-defined articulation. Location: page 24, penultimate system (system 5).
Example 4.141: Masse, Op. 5, Sonata IV, Allegretto, showing the use of portato bowings in the continuo part. These continue for most of the movement. Location: page 9, system 1.
Example 4.142: Martin, Sonata II, Allegro. Location: page 8, systems 4-5.
Example 4.143: Blainville, Sonata VI, Aria gracioso, showing portato bowing in both parts. It is likely the portato pattern continues even where not marked. Location: page 24, systems 2-3.
Example 4.144: Baur, Sonata II, Allegretto, showing portato in the continuo part, and double-stopped portato in the solo part. Location: page 8, system 6.
Example 4.145: Masse, Op. 1, Sonata IV, Allegro, showing use of slurred staccato and portato, with two separate notations, and in both solo and continuo parts. Location: page 15, lowermost system.
Example 4.146: Masse, Op. 5, Sonata I, Aria gusto, showing the use of portato/slurred staccato in the context of a technically simple sonata. Location: page 1, system 4. techniques in the late-eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. An example of this in-between bow stroke can be found in Masse’s Op. 5 (Example 4.146). It is also noteworthy that this occurs within the context of a technically simple sonata. This shows that mastery of this type of bow stroke was expected of all cellists, even those without command of other difficult techniques. A similar type of bow stroke can be found in Baur’s Sonata I (Example 4.147). In contrast to the Masse example, this occurs in the context of a set of virtuosic sonatas, although the use of the technique here is not in itself virtuosic.
Example 4.147: Baur, Sonata I, Fuga-allegro, showing paired portato or slurred staccatc bowings. Location: page 3, systems 1-2.
Example 4.148: Spourny, Op. 9, Sonata II, Menuet I, showing use of batterie technique Location: page 7, systems 3-4. In Boismortier’s Op. 26, in Sonata III (Example 4.149), just as in the Spourny example, the bow alternates between the open D-string and a moving part on the A-string. Walden has claimed that the batteries on the lower strings are rare in French sonatas before 1815; however, while Boismortier uses the A- and D-strings, he has batterie on the G-string, and on the C-string as well. In the Allegro, ma non troppo movement of Sonata III in Op. 26, his batterie passage has the moving part on the solo cello’s G-string (Example 4.150). ©? In this way, Boismortier takes advantage of the cello’s bass register to write innovative textures that are not possible in a sonata for solo treble instrument and continuo. In the Op. 5o collection, we discover Boismortier using batterie on the C-string (Example 4.151) for intensifying effect. The placement of this technique in such an unusual register serves to highlight the re-iteration of the tonic close at the end of the movement. Day en ee eee, ee, ee, eee eer: ee ee, a ee
Example 4.149: Boismortier, Op. 26, Sonata III, Corrente, showing a classic batterie figuration. Location: page 9, second system.
Example 4.153: Blainville, Sonata I, Allegro, showing two cellos in thirds batterie Location: page 3, systems 3-4. second cello enters a few beats after the first, in imitation of it. A different way of incorporating two cellos both playing batterie occurs in Spourny’s Op. 14, in Sonata IV (Example 4.154). Here, the two cellos (for this is a duo) play batterie figuration in alternative bars against a simplified harmonic filler. Notwithstanding Walden’s suggestion that the batterie passages on the lower strings were “rare in French cello music before 1815”, in this passage Spourny makes full and effective use of the G- and C- strings, just as Boismortier did in the examples above. ©
Example 4.152: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata II, Allegro ma non tropo, showing batterie tech- nique in the higher neck positions. Location: page 7, system 5.
Example 4.154: Spourny, Op. 14, Sonata IV, Allegro (first movement), showing batterie in the low register, traded between the two cellos. Location: page 15, systems 4-5.
Example 4.155: Patouart, Sonata I, Presto, Location: page 2, system 6 (penultimate) which has the moving part, while the lower voice is the static open string. Aurally, the impression is the same as a batterie passage (though normally in a higher register), while visually, the effect is different for the audience, since there is no string-crossing involved. In terms of technique, the passage is no more difficult to play than a standard batterie passage. One such passage occurs in Patouart’s Sonata IV (Example 4.156). In this case, rather than the moving part being purely stepwise, the passage approaches in some ways a broken-chord figuration. While most of the examples discussed so far have had 1-1 ratios between the two parts, with the second part (whether it is the upper or lower voice) remaining basically static, an example in Baur’s Sonata IV combines batterie technique with ordinary figuration in the lower voice (Example 4.157). upper or lower voice) remaining basically static, an example in Baur’s Sonata
Example 4.156: Patouart, Sonata IV, Presto. Location: page 12, final system (system 7) and page 13, system 1.
Example 4.157: Baur, Sonata IV, Allegro. Location: page 23, systems 5-6.
Example 4.159: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata III, Allegro, Location: page 15, systems 4-5. Example 4.158: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata IL, Allemanda, Location: page 10, systems 1-2.
Example 4.162: Berteau, Sonata IV, Allegro ma non troppo. Location: 1771 edition, page 17, systems 4-5. Example 4.161: Berteau, Sonata IV, Allegro ma non troppo. Location: 1771 edition, page 17, system 1.
Example 4.160: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata III, Aria gratioso, Location: page 18, systems 2-4.
Example 4.164: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata IIL, Porteglionne—Giga allegro staccato simpre Location: page 12, systems 5-6 and page 13, system 1.
Example 4.163: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata II, Allegro ma non tropo, Location: page 6, final system (system 6). the extract; the wider context is given to show that the passage occurs in a movement where string-crossing leaps are part of the overall texture). As in the example above, the lower notes of the brisure follow the bass line, although because it is a triplet figure, the upper notes are repeated afterwards. Unlike the other brisure passages discussed above, that make use of the cello’s lowest register, these two Masse examples are placed in the higher neck positions. The final example to be discussed is found in Spourny’s Op.g set, in Sonata II (Example 4.165). In this case, the brisure technique is standard, but what is interesting is that instead of being accompanied by a bass line that reinforces its lower voice, in this case the brisure passage itself accompanies melodic material in the second cello part.
Example 4.165: Spourny, Op. 9, Sonata II, Allegro, Location: page 4, system 2.
Example 4.166: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata I, Allegro, showing a batterie figuration in an extreme range. Location: page 7, last two systems on page.
Example 4.168: Blainville, Sonata I, Rondo—Allegretto, showing bariolage passages. Location: page 5, systems 3-4. double stopping in the same low register. In direct contrast to this, Patouart uses bariolage in a passage in the thumb position (Example 4.169). Here, the thumb stays on the note g’ on the A-string, while the third finger (or the third and second fingers, depending on the player’s preference) plays the other g’ and then the f’ on the D-string.
Example 4.167: Blainville, Sonata I, Allegro, showing the use of the low register in an experimental passage that includes the bariolage technique. Location: page 3, systems 4-5.
Example 4.170: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata II, Allegro assai, showing the stemmed notation to indicate the passage is to be played across two strings. Location: page 9, system 3. A-string), since this would otherwise not be clear from the context (unlike in the majority of batterie examples).The fingering of this passage is awkward once it moves into the upper neck positions (bar 6 of extract) and then the double stops. While most modern-day cellists would probably use the thumb and second finger, cellists of the mid-eighteenth century may have preferred to use the first and fourth fingers to play the passage, rather than involving the thumb (thumb technique is not strictly necessary anywhere in the Masse sonatas). the thumb (thumb technique is not strictly necessary anywhere in the Masse and second finger, cellists of the mid-eighteenth century may have preferred Arpeggios and Ondeggiando
Example 4.169: Patouart, Sonata IV, Minuetto, showing the use of thumb-position bariolage. Location: page 14, system 2.
Example 4.171: Barriére, Livre I, Sonata V, Allegro, Location: page 31, systems 5-6 (lowermost two systems). An example of basic arpeggios, with no pattern provided, occurs in Barriére’s Sonata V in Livre I (Example 4.171). Although it appears that a pattern is established, the ‘arpeggios’ in the first four bars of the extract include passing notes, so are not strictly across the strings. The notated bar in the second line (bar 17 of the extract), similarly, is played across two strings only, and is notated because it is not an ‘across the strings’ arpeggio. This confirms that the notated ‘block’ chords are indeed meant to be arpeggiated ‘simply’, across the strings. As soon as the bowing pattern deviates from that (because of passing notes, or because only two strings are used), the music is fully notated for the sake of clarity. A simpler example is found in Patouart’s Sonata IV (Example 4.172).
Example 4.172: Patouart, Sonata IV, Presto. Location: page 13, systems 3-4.
Example 4.175: Martin, Sonata II, Allegro, Location: page 9, system 2. Example 4.174: Martin, Sonata II, Allegro, Location: page 5, system 3.
Example 4.173: Martin, Sonata IV, Allegro. Location: page 15, systems 3-4.
manner, Barriére changes from shorthand to standard notation to indicate this (Example 4.171). In one example found in Masse’s Op. 2, however, there is a series of broken arpeggios which are all played across two strings (Example 4.176, bars 22-30 of extract). As in the examples discussed above, Masse provides the pattern in the initial bar (bar 22 of extract). Note that in the initial bars of this example (bars 1-8), there is another example of arpeggios. In this series, bars 1 and 5 are also played across two strings. Note also that bars 5-8 are an exact repeat of bars 1-4; the entire sequence is written out before the engraver changes to shorthand. A similar pattern to this one, in that it combines slurs and separate notes, occurs in Blainville’s Sonata III (Example 4.177). Another slurred pattern, a little longer and more complicated than the Blainville example, is found in Baur’s Sonata V (Example 4.178). Unlike the two examples discussed above, this one is played across three strings. However, it is noteworthy that it descends freely to use the C-string. This is an observable trait of the French sonatas of this era, which falls out of use after 1760, when greater use is instead made of the upper registers. Example 4.176: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata I, Allegro assai, Location: page 5, systems 4-6 (bottom three systems).
Example 4.178: Baur, Sonata V, Battué de Lievres dans la plaine de Chailly, Andante poco allegro. Location: page 19, systems 3-4. Example 4.177: Blainville, Sonata III, Allegro. Location: page 10, system 4.
Example 4.179: Berteau, Sonata III, Allegro. Location: page 11, systems 4-6.
Example 4.181: Masse, Op. 2, Sonata I, Allegro assai, showing a typical ondeggiando pattern. Location: page 5, first system. Example 4.180: Cupis, Méthode nouvelle et raisonnée, showing a typical ondeggiando bowing pattern. Location: page 11, second system.
Example 4.182: Baur, Sonata IV, Allegro, showing two instances of ondeggiando bowing with notational shorthand and pattern given. Location: page 15, systems 3-6.
Example 4.183: Blainville, Sonata I, Rondeau—Allegretto, showing ondeggiando bowing (in the second half of the extract) and its notational shorthand. Location: page 5, system 4. 4.8. General observations: The Larger Context
Example 4.185: Martin, Sonata II, Sicilanna—Andante. Location: page 6, systems 2-3. Example 4.184: Barriére, Livre II, Sonata VI, Largetto. Location: page 22, systems 1-2.
Example 4.186: Boismortier, Op. 50, Sonata II, Largo. Location: page 7, systems 2-3. The Use of Techniques Within the Entire Movement
Sn, —_ oe oa ee The second half has a ‘slightly varied opening which sees the brisure and the stopped chord replaced by a modulation to the relative minor. The structural importance of this new tonality at the centre of the second half is firmly emphasized by two techniques in succession: broken arpeggios (bar 29-33), and a rather more virtuosic brisure passage in the upper neck positions (bars 34-39); the minor-mode section ends in a quasi-duet texture (bars 40-44). The release of the second cello then emphasizes the structural return to the tonic at bar 47. This tonality is reinforced in a two-bar sequential passage of a further variant of the chordal double-stopping technique with the upper note sustained and the lower note spread into an arpeggio pattern Brisure technique underpins the cadential coda, which closes in triple- and quadruple-stop chords. The cumulative use of technique is obvious with final double stopping echoing the single-line arpeggio chords earlier in the movement and the brisure now involving the highest register used in the movement. The underpinning of the tonal areas by technique and texture is also readily apparent.
The use of double stopping in Allegro movements is somewhat restricted (although still virtuosic), as exemplified in the above example. The slow- tempo movements allow for a more thorough exploration of this technique, well demonstrated in the opening movement from Sonata IV in Livre I by Barriére. It is combined with the technique of the released second cello in the exploration of textures which provides a sense of ongoing colouring through the varied ‘accumulation of sound’. Barriére’s intensive working of this technique is apparent in the six-bar first half of the movement. This half falls into three sections. The first closes with the double-stop perfect cadence over bars 1-2. The second, in continuous double stopping, is rounded off by the release of the second cello above the dominant pedal (bar 4) to create a four-part texture which continues into the third section for the restatement of the dominant of the new key, and resolves into double stopping for the cadential close. This is a hugely intricate handling of texture where the change is not only bar-to-bar, but also within a single bar. At the same time, the cumulative effect from the single-line opening to the firm cadence gives an overall direction to the music. The faccimiilatinn of caiund’ ice alen in evidence in the cecond half of the 4.8. General observations: The Larger Context
4.8. General observations: The Larger Context Similar use of varied double-stopping textures can also be found in sonatas by Masse. A pertinent example is the opening movement, Adagio, of Sonata II, Op. 2. Two contrasted textures in double stops divide the four-bar opening phrase into antecedent and consequent passages. The former has a progression of ‘vertical’ double stops, first on the D- and G- strings, then, moving to the V chord, on the A- and D- strings. The consequent has a more ‘horizontal’ texture of two ‘voices’ answering each other in a chain of suspensions, and concludes on a four-note tonic chord replicating the gesture in bar 1. The modulation to the dominant close of the first half of the movement is achieved through two further double-stopping passages separated by a transition bar (bar 7). The first passage (bars 5(iii) 7(i)) arguably combines the previously distinct ‘vertical’ and ‘horizontal’ stoppings of bars 1-4; the second passage enlarges the stopping in thirds of bars 1, 5-6 with a faux-batterie (bars 8-9(i)) in semiquavers that drives home the new tonality in a succession of six V-I cadences, including a dominant pedal in the batterie. This latter passage suggests Masse saw certain techniques might be particularly suited to specific structural moments. A final single- stopped flourish before the central repeat bar-line reinforces the new key and provides textural contrast. The second half of the movement uses techniques in a similar way. It begins with a phrase rhyme but with the consequent of the opening replaced by a descending sequence that juxtaposes a single-stopped motive with a double-stopped response (bars 13-14). A further passage featuring paired bowing over adjacent (bar 15) then disjunct notes (bar 16) ends ina pause on the dominant. The remaining bars repeat the second Sf oN fat ge a o£ If mM P ik f 4 a |
Like Barriére, Masse eschews continuous double stops in fast movements, showing a similar perception of which techniques and textures are appropri- ate within different contexts. Thus in the Allegro ma non troppo movement of Sonata II, Op. 2, a variety of bowing and string-crossing techniques, rather than double stops, delineates phrases and structure. In its overall structure the movement has technical ‘islands’ at the centre of each half surrounded by melodic and less overtly technical material. A point of imitation secures the tonic (bars 1-3(i)) with a melo-bass texture carrying on to the dominant con- clusion at bar 6. Masse isolates the ensuing technical island tonally, confining it to the relative major, and heightening its appearance with a transition both of key (no modulation) and technique that clearly sets off the much more angular solo line. This can raise the question as to whether the basic motive (bar 7) has been conceived with the specific technique of articulation already in mind (that is, a ‘technical’ approach to composition) or if the articulation is arrived at subsequently to best emphasize the melodic/rhythmic nature of the motive (that is, a ‘musical’ approach).
4.8. General observations: The Larger Context
4.8. General observations: The Larger Context It can be seen from these examples that structure and technique are tightly integrated in the early French cello sonatas. This is in contrast to the majority of Italian and other non-French cello sonatas from the period, where such a combination of technique and texture to underpin the structural framework rarely appears. This gives further weight to the argument that the output of the early French cellist-composers gives them the right to be considered a distinct school.
Table 1.1 — Basse players in the Opéra orchestra to 1764. Table based on La Gorce, ‘L’Orchestre de l’Opéra’, pp. 39-43.
instead remaining in the grand cheur throughout their careers. On the other
Table 1.2 — Cello Performances at the Concert Spirituel, 1725-1760
considered a regular soloist at the Concert Spirituel in the same way as other
Table 1.3 — Cello sonatas listed in the catalogues of J.-P. Leclerc 79. Sonatas that also appear in the catalogues of C.-N. Leclerc are not included. 80. Devrias, Edition et commerce, p. 43. The process of dedications is discussed in detail in David Hennebelle, De Lully a Mozart: Aristocratie, musique et musiciens a Paris, XVII°-XVIIF siécles (Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 2009), pp. 133-36.
The sonatas by Barriére provide a useful example of the process of issuing and sale of such a publication. A privilége was issued to Barriére on 1 Novem- ber 1733, for “plusieurs Sonates et autres ouvrages de musique instrumentale de sa composition.” ** Before printing, permission would have been sought from the Compte de Guergorlay for the dedication. The Mercure de France announced the publication in November 1733, and the sonatas appeared in the catalogue issued by J.-P. Leclerc in 1734, as well as in subsequent cata- logues. Copies of the sonatas were then sold from Barriére’s own residence, as well as from the shops of Boivin and J.-P. Leclerc, as advertised on the title page (Figure 1.1). An unchanged re-issue, with a privilége dated 6 December 1739, shows the work continued to be printed after the original privilége had expired. ® 1. FRANCE: CULTURAL, SOCIAL, AND INSTITUTIONAL BACKGROUND
fable 1.4 — Cello Sonatas Listed in the Catalogues of C.-N. Leclerc
100. This is included here because it is listed in the column of cello sonatas in the catalogues. It is the only viola da gamba set to appear in C.-N. Leclerc’s catalogues. 1. FRANCE: CULTURAL, SOCIAL, AND INSTITUTIONAL BACKGROUND 101. This work is listed without an opus number in Catalogue 4; however, the unusual spelling ‘Spourny’ allows it to be identified, since Op. 12 retains this spelling of the composer’s name in later catalogues.
1.6. Printing and Publishing C.-N. Leclerc’s catalogues suggest quite uneven growth: from an initial three books in the earliest catalogue (c. 1738), one more was added in time for the 1738-39 catalogue; then the number of cello collections doubled to eight books for the 1740 catalogue. However, only two further books (of which one was for viol) were added in the catalogue issued in 1741 or 42. In contrast, seven books were added for the 1743 catalogue, including the four by Masse. This is also the first catalogue to include cello sonatas by a French composer. A further three books were added in 1744, but subsequent catalogues, issued over the next five years, do not add any new cello sonatas. It is not until the catalogue issued in 1749 or 1750, that new cello sonatas are added: six sets, by Dutch and Italian composers. Thereafter, growth is relatively even: two new books were included in the tenth catalogue (issued between 1752 and 1760); three in the catalogue issued between 1760 and 1762, and three in the final catalogue, issued at the end of 1767. This final catalogue is also the first to omit books that appeared in previous catalogues: two books by Thomas are absent, suggesting that prints had sold out and no re-prints had been made.
Table 1.5 — Title page designations for French cello sonatas and duos 1. FRANCE: CULTURAL, SOCIAL, AND INSTITUTIONAL BACKGROUND
Table 3.1: Cellos and basses de violon in the estate inventories of Bertrand, Pierray, Boquay, and their circle.
Table 3.2: Cellos and basses in the inventories of Guersan and his circle Ouvrard and Salomon
Table 3.3: Cellos and basses in the inventories of Salomon and Ouvrard. Salomon, likewise, enjoyed a high reputation among French cellists of the time; his instruments were praised by Patouart, Davesne, L’abbé and Cupis. ** Two inventories survive of the possessions of Salomon. The first, made following the death of his wife in 1748, lists six “violons de chelle” valued at 360 livres together, but no “basses”; ?? the other, following Salomon’s death in 1767, lists only one cello—“un violoncel avec son etuy”—valued at 15 livres, but a number of basses: one “Basse de Loraine” [sic] valued at 4 livres, eight “basses neuves dud. feu S. Salomon” valued at 240 livres, another four “basses d’hazard” valued at 24 livres, a further four “basses d’hazard” valued at 20 livres, six other “basses d’hazard” valued at 24 livres, and one “basse dud. feu S. Salomon” at 18 livres. 73 The wording of this last implies that at least some of the other instruments were not by Salomon himself.
Table 3.4: Cellos and basses in the estate inventories of Ursule Gaffin and Joseph Gaffino.
Table 3.5: Combined table of cellos and basses (with prices) in the inventories of the French luthiers of the early and mid eighteenth century. Table 3.5 gives a complete summary of the output, in terms of cellos and related instrument, of the luthiers at work in Paris in this period. It also provides average prices of cellos and “basses” as found in their inventories. Although the figures show only unsold instruments, they suggest there were a number of makers at work on the cello in Paris. They also show an increase in both the number and the value of cellos being produced in Paris at precisely the same moment the early solo repertoire was being published.
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Cello Development From GabrielliI to Vivaldi
by William Teixeira

Música Hodie, v. 1, p. 1, 2014.

This paper presents a history of the cello as a soloist instrument. Since the first piece written with this in- tention, Domenico Gabrielli`s Ricercare up to Antonio Vivaldi`s Sonatas there is a gap of only fifty years, but huge... more
Example 1: Domenico Gabrielli, Ricercar No. 2, opening In the three first beats of Ricercar No. 2, Gabrielli transforms a chord (A minor) into 1 melody. This technique is used repeatedly throughout the piece, as if the performer were ooking for cadences, each of these cadences delineates one section of motivic exploration rom another, bringing to us directly to the word Ricerca, which means “searching” in Italian. The cello literature that emerged in the late seventeenth century also mirrored the riolin literature and technique of the time. For instance, Gabrielli’s Ricercar No. 7 uses dou- le stops (see Ex. 2), just as Biagio Marini did in his violin sonatas. The change of character vith the change of meter in between the second and third lines antecipated the function of eparate movements less than a decade later.
Example 2: Gabrielli, Ricercar No. 7, mm. 61-89
Example 3: Gabrielli, Canon for two celli, opening
Example 4: Gabrielli, Sonata for cello and continuo, opening Gabrielli’s four last ricercari are for cello and basso continuo (see Ex. 4), which can be taken to be a sonata in four movements. The movements are well defined and all in G major. The opening movement, Grave, is marked at entry 8 in the facsimile and Allegro at entry 9, which can therefore be considered as the second movement. As in most of Corelli’s violin sonatas, the movements are separate. At the end of the Grave there are two measures of Adagio and four measures of Presto, which add expressiveness and freedom. Gabrielli concludes this set of pieces with a singing Largo and a virtuoso gigue-like Presto.
Example 5: Vivaldi, Sonata for cello and continuo, RV 46, manuscript from Wiesentheid, |, opening Table 1: Antonio Vivaldi, Sonata RV 46, movements
Example 6: Vivaldi, “Sposa son disprezzata” from Bajazet (the third measure of this ex.) Note the long notes right in the opening of Ex. 5, and how the cello moves do- wnwards with faster notes in the second measure of this very example. In the last measure of the first line in Ex. 6, the voice is treated in the same way: long note, then separated faster notes in the first measure of the second line. Ex. 6 has indications of forte for the long notes, and piano for the faster ones, indicating that attention is on the long note. Vivaldi probably used the messa di voce to bring out the color of the instrument or vocal timbre (see Exx. 5 and 6). Also note that in the accompaniment of both examples, there is no movement, so as not to disturb the messa di voce.
Example 7: Vivaldi, Concerto in G major for Cello and Orchestra, RV 413, first movement (Allegro), mm. 66-98
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‘New’ Cello Concertos by Nicola Porpora
by Piotr Wilk

2020, Musica Iagellonica

The instrumental output of Nicola Porpora has not aroused great interest among researchers. For this reason, even the lists of his works in the most important musical dictionaries are incomplete. However, his instrumental works enjoyed... more
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Miklós Rózsa, Toccata Capriccosa, op. 36.docx
by Jeffrey Solow
The paper traces the genesis and development of Miklós Rózsa's Toccata capricciosa for solo cello, op. 36.
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“Tra Napoli e Vienna: musicisti e organici strumentali nel Viceregno Austriaco (1707-1736)”
by Guido Olivieri

2002, Analecta Musicologica 32

A study on performers and performing organizations active in Naples from 1701 to 1736, with specific attention to the presence of string instruments (violin and cello) and winds, and to the repertory of sonatas for three violins. Includes... more
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Antonio Guida’s unpublished manuscript for violoncello: an example of the Neapolitan teaching method in the eighteenth century. Draft. Un manoscritto inedito di Antonio Guida per violoncello: un esempio di didattica napoletana del Settecento. Presentazione.
by Giovanna Barbati and 
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Guido Olivieri

2018, Draft of the paper. Sidm (Italian Society of Musicology) Conference, October19, Bozen

The manuscript Sonate per violoncello, kept in the Jean Gray Hargrove Library, University of Berkeley, includes a complete method for cello, dating back to the eighteenth century. The Sonate include short minuets and gavottes, exercises... more
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RECOMENDACIONES INTERPRETATIVAS SOBRE EL CONCIERTO EN C
by Esther Moratilla
Es un error frecuente de todo instrumentista, el de abordar cualquier pieza u obra grande del repertorio dejándose absorber por las dificultades técnicas con las que se encuentra y buscando la manera de solucionarl as. Todos sabemos que... more
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Jaguar Songs - Paul Desenne - Nancy Green (CD)
by Hermann Hudde
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A resolução de appoggiaturas a acciaccaturas na Sonata para Violoncelo RV44 de Antonio Vivaldi
by William Teixeira

Revista Musica, v. 14, p. 275-282, 2014.

Although Antonio Vivaldi’s Cello Sonata RV 44 is one of his greatest sonatas, this one in special is cutted off his traditional six sonatas cânon for the instrument, giving it the nickname “the seventh sonata”. Due the fact it has not... more
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«In questa città ... ho ritrovato la musica all'estremo decaduta ed avvilita». Le occasioni napoletane di Giovanni Battista Cirri (1780-1782)
by Lucio Tufano
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El músico detrás del mito: una revisión de la bibliografía sobre Pau Casals. The musician behind the myth: a bibliographical review about pablo casals
by Igor Saenz Abarzuza

2020, ETNO, Cuadernos de Etnomusicología

En el año 2023 se cumplirá el 50 aniversario de la muerte de Pau Casals i Defilló, nacido en 1876 en El Vendrell, y fallecido en 1973 en San Juan de Puerto Rico. Su figura ha generado numerosas publicaciones de distinto ámbito: desde las... more
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GiovinCello. E. Moreau & Il Pomo d'Oro. Erato (2015).
by Guido Olivieri

2015

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THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE CELLO IN NAPLES: GIOVANNI BONONCINI, ROCCO GRECO AND GAETANO FRANCONE IN A FORGOTTEN MANUSCRIPT COLLECTION
by Guido Olivieri

2021, Eighteenth Century Music, 18(1), 65-97

Full text available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1478570620000457 The analysis of a forgotten source sheds light on the early history of the cello in seventeenth-century Naples. The manuscript MS 2-D-13, held in the library of the... more
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Gaetano Francone's 10 Passagagli for cello
by Giovanna Barbati

2021, 10 Passagagli per violoncello

Cover of the HH edition, https://www.editionhh.co.uk/shop/item.aspx?itemid=820 Ten passagagli for cello from the Montecassino manuscript, Neaples 1699. The only collection of passacaglias expressly aimed for cello, showing an... more
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Cello Napoletano. Van Diemen’s Band. ABC Classics (2017).
by Guido Olivieri

2017

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Die Melodie des Schwans von Saint Saens
by Tibor Szasz

2020, Die Melodie des Schwans von Camille Saint-Saëns aus der Suite « Le Carnaval des Animaux » 1886

Die Melodie des Schwans von Camille Saint-Saëns (aus der Suite « Le Carnaval des Animaux », 1886) wird von Kennern zu Recht als eine der schönsten Melodien angesehen, die jemals komponiert wurden. Was könnte die Inspiration für die... more
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YouTube Releases
by Antony Cooke
Antony Cooke on YouTube
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Six-Stringed Virtuoso
by Felipe Avellar de Aquino
In spite of being acclaimed as a valuable contribution to the arts, the arpeggione was in use for only about a decade before being forgotten. This article traces its origins and considers the editorial mistakes in the most important piece... more
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Suitte 4 ème a Violoncello à cinq cordes Solo senza Basso composée par J. S. Bach
by Joseba Berrocal

2006, BACH, J.S. 4th Suite for Violoncello Piccolo or Violoncello da Spalla in G major. Arrangement of the 4th Cello Suite in E flat major, BWV 1010.

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Bologna, Modena, Roma, Napoli: i luoghi del violoncello tra XVII e XVIII secolo
by Giovanni Andrea Sechi

2019

Liner notes to the CD "Porta Magna", with Stefano Veggetti (cello solo) & Ensemble Cordia
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“The Forgotten Genius of Composer Carlo Graziani,” Strings (Oct. 2010): 43-46
by Guido Olivieri
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