Buddhist art and architecture

In this paper, by comparing the archaeological remains of meditation caves in Kucha and Termez and by referring to Buddhist literature, we aim at gaining a better understanding of how meditation was practiced in both regions. In Kucha and Termez the arid climate shifted between extreme summer heat and extreme winter cold, making the caves ideal choices for meditation. In Kucha, various types of meditation caves have been recorded. These include small cells for seated meditation, single corridors, and corridors that intersect to form a cross or an inverted U plan. The latter type is associated with a residence and a courtyard, which show many similarities with the complexes located in the mounds south and west of the monastery of Kara Tepe. Two possible uses of the corridor-shaped caves have been proposed based on various factors, such as the distance of the caves from the surface monastery, the similarity of the type, the presence of a courtyard in front of the caves, and the existence of a cell where a person could repose. Buddhist accounts remark on the importance of mindful pacing...

The worship of the Nāga deity is an ancient Indian cult. It was known as Nāga-maha. The fairs in honor of the Nāga deity were known as Nāga-maha, Nāga-yātrā or Nāga-jattā. It was a very widespread cult known in all corners of the country and the worship offered to Nāga gods was also known as Nāga-bali. The Nāga worship was accepted in Brāhmanical, Buddhist and Jaina religions. Nāga, the snake in Indian mythology is a general term for quasi-divine being depicted in anthropomorphic form, some are depicted as Guardians, Nāgas shown paying homage to the principal deity, Nāga as a celestial bed and so on. They are represented as single, three, five, seven or ten-hooded beings. In Hindu, Jaina and Buddhist iconography, numerous images have backgrounds or canopies formed by Nāgas and trees, which denote a very ancient non-Āryan serpent cult combined with the worship of trees and rivers. The present paper focuses on the depictions of anthropomorphic Nāga figures and the recently discovered Nāgarāja at Ghatotkacha.

--Errors in the identity of a sacred filter components posited by Mahadevan
I submit that component 6 in the drawing is the key script cipher. सांगड sāṅgaḍa (संघट्ट S) That member of a turner's apparatus by which the piece to be turned is confined and steadied. सांगडीस धरणें To take into linkedness or close connection with, lit. fig. Top and Bottom Registers taken together signify rebus: sāṅgaḍa,  ‘dhow, maritime seafaring vessel’; kōndaṇa sāṅgaḍa ‘dhow with cargo of set gems in fine gold’

This paper considers how Buddhist art of the early Tang dynasty was shaped by concerns with states of consciousness and transmigrating spiritual entities. Focusing on the Medicine Buddha (Skt. Bhaiṣ ajyaguru) tableau in the main chamber of Mogao Cave 220, dated to 642 CE and among the earliest full wall transformation tableaux at Dunhuang, I propose that the tableau depicts a structured process centered around the transmigrating spiritual entity of spirit consciousness (shenshi 神識) and its transformations that were visually expressed by lighting devices. Other elements in the tableau, such as the dancers and bodhisattvas seated in the pond, are also part and parcel to this visual project of transformation, as indicated through the colors of their attire and the types of dance being performed. The spirit consciousness could be visualized through lighting devices in the Medicine Buddha tableau because of the associations of lamps with vital, spiritual parts of humans since the first century CE. More importantly, the central role of the spirit consciousness in the Medicine Buddha tableau shows that such Buddhist murals depicting rituals and performances situated among grand edifices could be visual expressions of states of spiritual entities and their transformations. Seemingly intangible spiritual entities in Buddhist art were thus inextricably intertwined with and visually expressed through physical objects and their representations. To this end, this study is a first step towards understanding the pictorial program of Mogao Cave 220 and similar cases through explorations of cognitive templates that informed the creation and production of Buddhist art, with the spirit consciousness as a case in point.

Ancient Gandhāra remained a vibrant center of culture, religion, education, trade and commerce. The people of Gandhāra were passionate about art, music, and dance, which is reflected in the intricate carvings and sculptures from that period. These artworks often depict scenes of merry-making and dancing, showcasing the region's lively cultural atmosphere. Particularly notable is the depiction of the musical instruments in Gandhāra art, which highlights the refined aesthetic sense of the people. The skillful portrayal of these instruments further emphasizes the region's deep appreciation for music and arts of their time. In this article which is a part of M.Phil. dissertation titled, 'Continuation of Cultural Traditions in Peshawar valley as revealed in Gandhāra art', I will highlight the well-known representations of the musical instruments in this art.

Since the end of the 14th century on, the central government of the Ming Dynasty has guided and strengthened the sense of belonging and centripetal force of Xizang towards the central dynasty, through output of institutional culture, material culture and ideological concepts to Xizang, and has strengthened its identification with the cultural traditions of the Han region. As results, the artistic practice in Xizang entered a profound “west-to-east” transformation in the mid-to-late 15th century, gradually shift from the South Asian artistic traditions of the Himalayan surrounding regions such as India and Nepal to the Han-Tibetan art trend integrating the Han style. Many famous painting schools and artists with the style of Han-Tibetan integration emerged in the central Xizang by that time.Tibetan art came to the golden age. However, the impact of this new artistic trend of Han-Tibetan was not limited to the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, but with
the cross-regional political and economic networks of the Himalayas, gradually reversing the early learning posture towards Nepalese art and continuously spreading southward. It then merged with local South Asian
artistic styles to form an internationally distinctive localized adaptation. Han-Tibetan art has always been the focus in academics, but most existing studies focus on domestic regions, and there has been no indepth exploration of issues such as the cross-regional dissemination and cross-cultural development of HanTibetan art. Based on the fieldworks and multilingual literatures, with the achievements in related fields, this paper attempts to outline the historical background and localized development of Han-Tibetan art in the Kathmandu Valley from the 15th to the 19th century, and further reflects on the international development and cross-cultural evolution of Han-Tibetan art.

Bkra shis sgo mang, as a particular form of stupa, was widely acted as the gdung rten (relic stupa) for deceased hierarchs in bka’ brgyud sects. While, in the early constructions of Bkra shis sgo mang in bka’ brgyud sects, the original denotation of Bkra shis sgo mang is the base of the relic stupa, which that is wide different from the bkra shis sgo mang mchod rten in mchod rten cha brgyad (Eight Stupas). Driven by the highly worship to honorable hierarchs, Drikung, Drukpa, and some other kagyu sects all have the remarkable Bkra shis sgo mang constructions for the deceased masters, in which astonishingly visualized and materialized the magnificent Tibetan Buddhist pantheon.
In the meanwhile, in the early practice of gdung rten Bkra shis sgo mang, there were also a tradition of building the Sku ’bum (Stupa of ten thousand Buddhas) for honorable hierarchs. Therefore, the early tradition of the Kagyu School provides us with the ideal point to understand the connotation and extension of the Bkra shis sgo mang. In this article, I will mainly utilize the early remains in main monasteries of Kagyupa, like Denstil, Drikungtil, and Ralung, and related Tibetan historical resources to build up the development of Bkra shis sgo mang in aspects of the perception, practice and evolution in 11-15th centuries.

מאמר זה מציג את פירוש רבינו סעדיה גאון (רס"ג) לעניין התשובה ביום הכיפורים, מתוך פירושו המקיף לתורה. הרס"ג מפרט שבעה היבטים של התשובה: ארבעה יסודות הכרחיים - עזיבת החטא, חרטה, בקשת מחילה, והתחייבות שלא לשוב לחטוא; ושלושה היבטים נלווים - הגברת תפילה ומעשים טובים, והדרכת אחרים לתשובה.

בנוסף, הרס"ג מונה שמונה טעמים לקשר בין הצום לתשובה, ביניהם: חיזוק החרטה, מקבילות לחטא הראשון שהיה באכילה, שבירת התאוות, התעלות לדרגת מלאכים, כמיהה לעולם הבא, זכירת תוצאות החטא, השגת קדושה מיוחדת, והקרבת שומן ודם האדם עצמו במקום קרבנות בהמה.

גישתו של רס"ג השפיעה על הוגים יהודיים מאוחרים יותר, כולל הרמב"ם, אף שחלק מהיבטיה נדונו בביקורתיות על ידי רב שמואל בן חפני גאון.

Dr Daniel Millet, editor of Buddhistdoor en Español (BDE), discussed the profound impact of the platform on Spanish-speaking Buddhist communities at Buddhistdoor's 30th anniversary. BDE addresses the historical scarcity of authentic Buddhist content in Spanish, a vital need given that Spanish is the world's second most spoken native language. Launched in 2018, BDE offers reliable, culturally nuanced teachings across diverse Buddhist traditions, connecting them with contemporary issues such as art and ecology. Featuring 40 writers from 16 countries, it has published over 900 articles and 130 videos/podcasts, inspiring many and even fostering communities, such as one in Cuba. The platform's digital presence effectively overcomes geographical barriers, cultivating online communities and collaborating with various Buddhist and academic groups. BDE serves as a trustworthy introduction for beginners and a valuable resource for more experienced practitioners. It also demystifies Buddhism for the public, making it relevant for modern challenges. Future efforts will focus on engaging younger generations with fresh content formats and striking a balance between accessibility and the depth of the Dharma. BDE is an indispensable platform, significantly contributing to the growth and understanding of Buddhism in the Hispanophone world. Its influence ensures the Dharma's light continues to shine brightly for Spanish speakers.

This paper examines the coins of Sanghol, an archaeological site in Punjab, which provide key evidence of the region's economic and cultural prosperity during the Kushāṇa period. The discovery of coins, seals, sealings, and terracotta highlights Sanghol's role as an important mint site with local coin production. The variety of coins reflects its significance as a centre of trade and craftsmanship, contributing to our understanding of Kushāṇa monetary practices and the broader historical context of ancient India.

Jörg Heimbel. 2025. “Visually Recording the Ngor Tradition’s Spiritual Heritage: A Lamdre Lineage Painting of Jetsün Drakpa Gyeltsen and Its Set.” In Bonhams (ed.), Reverence: Important Himalayan Art from the Collection of Ulrich von Schroeder. Hong Kong: Bonhams, pp. 96–105.

Somapura Mahavihara, located in Paharpur, Bangladesh, is a remarkable Early Medieval Buddhist monastery and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was established by the Pala ruler Dharmapal Dev and boasts 177 monastic cells, a central shrine shaped like a cross, stupas, and various auxiliary structures. This study delves into its inward-focused spatial hierarchy, which beautifully integrates living quarters, ritual spaces, and service areas, all of which reflect the essence of monastic life and the rich symbolism of the religion.

The Shan Hai Jing catalog of Mountains and Seas was considered as a source for studying ancient Chinese mythology and folk beliefs with layers of various knowledge of geography, botany, zoology, and traditional medicine. Undoubtedly, the first Russian translation and research work by E. Yanshina was the basis. She noted the following that the presented elements of various branches of science, art and religion require the study of scholars of various specialties. Consideration of this monument has not yet been considered by anyone except for a narrow circle of sinologists. This article will be the first to present a version to analyze the Ancient Chinese monument Catalog of Mountains and Seas "Shan Hai Jing" from the standpoint of astronomy and linguistics.

The ruins of Nalanda Mahavihara. From bbc.com Buddhism emerged in India two-and-a-half millennia ago and thrived during its first thousand years. Its growth and development were influenced by a range of internal and external factors. Within the developing tradition, the compelling personality of the Buddha, the charisma and missionary enthusiasm of his disciples, the unprecedented organization of the sangha, and Buddhism's coalescing teachings (particularly those that challenged certain ideas within the broader tradition of Brahmanism) played crucial roles in the consolidation of Buddhism as a distinct movement. Notably, Buddhism's advocacy for a casteless society, its ideological affinity to the wealthy and mobile merchant class, and the elevation of the social status of women (at least until the onset of the medieval period) set it apart. Institutionally, the construction of Buddhist monasteries, the circulation of Buddhist texts, and the financial support of monks by powerful laypeople was critical. Primarily, the three treasures enjoyed the patronage of a constellation of Indic and Indo-Greek rulers and the aforementioned wealthy merchants that dominated the north of the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and the overland "silk routes." Buddhism especially flourished during the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE. Historians and devotees alike ascribe the age of the Mauryan dynasty to India taking Buddhism across Asia, including to the bastion of Sri Lanka, to Southeast Asia, and eastward to China.

In Birthing Romans, Anna Bonnell Freidin offers an expansive interpretation of birthing in imperial Rome, demonstrating convincingly that the 'fleshy' process of giving birth was not a singular activity but was instead deeply intertwined with networks of personal relationships, birth attendants, medical professionals, local communities, the empire, and the gods. Forming the organizational framework for Birthing Romans, networks are the mechanism for exploring how value was ascribed, risk was mitigated and hope was secured. The book makes central the question of how birthing people 'matter' , a twofold concept that addresses both the physical (material) act of birthing and the birthing person's value 'culturally, politically, and cosmically' (2). Over the course of five chapters, her narrative reveals that birthing is a connective and explanatory force that not only provides an opportunity to perceive the lives of individuals but also invites another way of thinking about life in Rome on a larger scale. Adopting an innovative approach, Birthing Romans is an exploration of the way Romans coped with the enigmatic nature of birth rather than an attempt to explain birth as such. This approach opens avenues of study that would otherwise not be accessible to a scholar of childbirth, which is so often treated in isolation. Key to Bonnell Freidin's interpretation of birth are the twinned concepts of risk and hope. Risk articulates the dangers of an unknowable future while hope awaits it and seeks a positive outcome. Common to both is anticipation of the unknown. By exploring the ways Romans mitigated risk, she contextualizes birth in both human and non-human networks, demonstrating that birthing was a matter of personal, communal, imperial, and divine concern. Opening with a singular funerary inscription dedicated to Veturia, who died after giving birth to six children at the age of 27, Chapter 1 establishes Bonnell Freidin's kaleidoscopic exploration of birthing in Rome. As Veturia was the wife of a soldier in Aquincum (Budapest), her tombstone becomes a window into military life in the western provinces, cultural integration, family organization, and the ideal of a matrona.

The paper discusses the geographical factors and the historical geography of western India and proliferation of the Buddhist caves in the early centuries of Christian era where the Buddhist monastic establishments in the area negotiated the sustaining factors like water conservation and how monsoon showers forced them to adopt certain architectural format in the excavation of the Buddhist caves and how there was strategic shifts of Buddhist excavation activities only in the region of Mulaka and Aparanta by discussing briefly the developments in historical regions of Mulaka and impacts from neighboring Vidarbha, which played an important role along with dynamics of patronage and politics of preference at certain site in the later Mahāyāna developments.

The paper examines primary sources, including both archaeological and textual evidence, as well as studies conducted to date on the nature of Kaushambi and its role in the development and dissemination of early Buddhist art. It also assesses the impact on the spread of Buddhist doctrine, religious practices, and cultural norms throughout the middle Ganga Valley and into north India. Careful consideration is given to trade routes and interconnected networks to enhance understanding of the spatial relationships between Kaushambi and other significant ancient Indian Buddhist sites. The study investigates the diversity of Buddhist art evidence found at the site, the challenges of interpreting it, and the interplay between sociopolitical factors, patronage, and art innovation, emphasizing their influence on the evolution of Buddhist art. Furthermore, it focuses on the reasons for the cultural reliance on local terracotta production for artistic sustainability, which has shaped the broader canon of stone art, particularly in the case of Kaushambi.

Esta entrevista explora la trayectoria de Edward A. Burger, un aclamado cineasta estadounidense reconocido por sus profundos documentales sobre el budismo chan chino. Su viaje personal y profesional se inició con estudios religiosos, que lo llevaron a residir durante 12 años en China, donde tuvo la oportunidad de formarse bajo la tutela de un «monje de montaña». Las obras cinematográficas de Burger, entre las que destacan Amongst White Clouds y The Mountain Path, ofrecen una exploración íntima de las prácticas budistas chan, ganando reconocimiento internacional. En su proceso creativo, Burger integra principios budistas fundamentales como la mirada contemplativa y el concepto de «no-saber», concibiendo su arte como una expresión moderna del budismo. Actualmente, se encuentra inmerso en la producción de Waking Up - Tea and Zen in China y ya perfila un futuro proyecto centrado en el budismo chan en Estados Unidos.

Buddhistdoor Global celebra 30 años compartiendo el Dharma, destacando su reciente simposio en Vancouver, organizado por la Sociedad Tung Lin Kok Yuen de Canadá, donde columnistas de diversas partes del mundo reflexionaron sobre el futuro de la enseñanza budista. Desde su lanzamiento en 1995 como revista mensual en línea, ha evolucionado hacia una plataforma inclusiva que abarca diversas tradiciones y culturas. La organización ha establecido alianzas con múltiples entidades budistas y culturales, promoviendo un periodismo no sectario y comprometido con la diversidad. Con el lanzamiento de Buddhistdoor en Español en 2019, ha ampliado su alcance a la comunidad hispanohablante. De cara al futuro, Buddhistdoor se compromete a seguir siendo un recurso valioso para la comunidad budista y a fomentar un diálogo constructivo entre diferentes tradiciones y culturas.

This is a reply to the article by Amy Heller “The Silver Jug of the Lhasa Jokhang: Some Observations on Silver Objects and Costumes from the Tibetan Empire (7th-9th century)”, Silk Road Art and Archaeology, No. 9, (2003), pp. 213–237, 28 figs. A version of this article appeared earlier as “The Silver Jug of the Lhasa Jokhang” in Asianart.com, published July 18 2002: http://asianart.com/articles/heller/index.html. Amy Heller postulates that this silver jug of the Lhasa Jokhang was manufactured by Tibetan artists. Ulrich von Schroeder and Joachim G. Karsten. It is the opinion of the two authors of this reply that the Jokhang jar has not been made by Tibetans but rather by Sogdian or another foreign silversmith from Western Central Asia about in the 8th century. The silver jug of the Lhasa Jokhang was first time published in 2001 by Ulrich von Schroeder, Ulrich. 2001. Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet. Volume Two: Tibet & China, pp. 747, 792–795, pls. 190A–D.

This article firstly introduces the panoramic view of the ’Bri gung mthil Monastery on the west wall of the Dukang Hall of the dGung ’Phur Temple, sPu Rang in mNga' Ris, Tibet, and the current situation of preservation and research of the ’Bri gung mthil Monastery. Then, the architecture, human activities, natural landscapes of the painting of ’Bri gung mthil Monastery are introduced. By comparison with historical records, it can be determined that the murals are the depictions of the ’Bri gung mthil Monastery, the ancestral home of ’Bri gung bka’brgyud Sect. Then the author discusses the development of temple images in Tibetan paintings, then speculates on how the painting of the ’Bri gung mthil Monastery was spread to sPu Rang, and also discusses the significance of the murals. The painting is one of the best existing temple panoramas in western Tibet, reflecting the spread of the ’Bri gung mthil Monastery in Central Tibet to mNga’ Ris around 16th century. Influenced by the concept of holy places, remote branch temples express their religious affiliation and pride by depicting the central mother temple, in addition, it also reflects the special phenomenon of depicting architectures in Tibetan paintings.

His primary research interests include Indian Buddhist rock-cut architecture. He has published his research in English and Marathi including works on Kanheri caves, urban archaeology of Mumbai metropolitan region, epigraphy, numismatics and folk literature and oral traditions in early medieval period. He has nine books published in his name as author and co-author.

Dans le bouddhisme chinois, les nonnes ont accès à l’ordination plénière, mais restent confrontées à des situations d’asymétrie et de sous-représentation dans les sphères religieuses et institutionnelles. L’exemple de l’Institut des Nonnes du Mont Wutai, ainsi que la figure influente de Rurui, montrent pourtant qu’un investissement dans l’éducation bouddhiste institutionnelle peut leur ouvrir un accès aux instances décisionnaires et leur permettre de prendre part à la construction du bouddhisme de demain.

Drawing I-4: The Buddha sermons the parable of water basin, Kizil, Cave 224, main chamber, barrel vault, right side, 5 th register, 6 th lozenge; in situ. Drawing I-5: Narrative of Dharmakāma, Kizil, Cave 17, main chamber, barrel vault, right side, 3 rd register, 3 rd lozenge; in situ. Drawing I-6: Narrative of Sutasoma and Saudāsa, Kizil, Cave 17, main chamber, barrel vault, right side, 2 nd register, 3 rd lozenge; in situ. Drawing I-7: Narrative of Rūpyāvatī / Rūpāvatī, Kizil, Cave 114, main chamber, barrel vault, left side, 5 th register, 2 nd lozenge; in situ. Drawing I-8: Narrative of a lion who has been entrusted with the care of two monkey cubs, Kizil, Cave 17, main chamber, barrel vault, right side, 6 th register, 2 nd lozenge; in situ.

以山西高平开化寺北宋壁画中所绘圣游居山图景为研究对象，从风景园林学视角探讨宋代历史背景下图内景观的场所特征与设计策略。运用多重材料互 证、视觉形式分析、三维空间还原等方法，从“物象描绘”“空间叙事”“圣境营造”3个方面展开分析，揭示其围绕神圣性、游赏性、居住性三重空间属性，构 筑了一处融合佛教宗旨与宋人审美的理想景观，同时营造出契合经文情节的叙事性空间。研究旨在补充历史知识、发掘传统设计智慧，并强调寺观壁画作为设计 性视觉证据在景观史研究中的重要价值，拓展中国古代园林景观研究的知识体系，为当代建筑与景观设计实践提供启示。
This study examines the landscape of Shengyouju Shan (“Sacred Mountain of the Holy Dwelling”) depicted in the Northern Song mural at Kaihua Temple in Gaoping, Shanxi—the largest and best-preserved Buddhist mural ensemble of its time. Centered on the imagined Shengyouju Shan—a fictional immortal dwelling and the Lunü narrative setting—the mural presents a dual spatial character as both narrative scenography and idealized construct. While prior research has emphasized iconography and symbolism, its spatial and design dimensions remain underexplored. From a landscape-architecture lens, this study asks: what spatial characteristics the mural depicts; what design strategies and compositional logics shape them; and what design philosophies and cultural imaginaries are embedded, and how they are situated within the broader historical context of the Song dynasty. To address these questions, the study adopts a three-part framework. First, iconographic and formal analysis shows how landscape features—such as circular hermitages, mountain-and-rock formations, layered cloud strata, and sacred flora—drive storytelling, articulate a hierophanic topography, and establish a distinct genius loci. Comparative reading against Dunhuang murals and Song garden records traces a shift from earlier ascetic motifs toward literati-inflected Song aesthetics, clarifying continuities and ruptures across media. Second, spatial-narrative analysis shows how architectural and landscape arrangements choreograph the storyline across four sequenced zones—a ritual threshold, an S-shaped lotus path, a vertical climax, and an earthly transition—structuring a sacred-tomundane progression. Architectural thresholds and axial alignments coordinate view and movement, while kinetic cues—processions and directional clouds guide embodied immersion. Together these techniques exemplify a sophisticated mode of narrative landscape design operating within a painted medium yet oriented toward spatial experience. Third, through spatial reconstruction and virtual restoration, the study examines the mural’s idealizing strategies, showing how the imagined mountain recasts ordinary features as symbolic forms to construct an archetypal sacred geography. It synthesizes Buddhist cosmology (a pentagonal Wutai schema), Daoist dongtian archetypes (gourd-shaped grotto-heavens), and literati garden aesthetics, abstracting natural features into geometric essences to form a realm where religious sanctity converges with philosophical and artistic ideals. These findings illuminate how pictorial composition doubles as design reasoning, translating doctrinal visions into portable rules of spatial ordering. Methodologically, the study integrates multievidential verification (textual/material), formal–iconographic examination, spatial reconstruction of topography, hermeneutic readings of sutras and Song garden treatises, and cross-comparison with Dunhuang murals and contemporaneous gardens. This framework bridges art history, architectural theory, and landscape studies, repositioning temple murals not merely as pictorial artifacts but as encoded blueprints of designed landscape. It also contributes a transferable analytical model and vocabulary for reading premodern images as spatial scripts, coupling architectural rationality with landscape thinking. The findings show how the mural fuses sacred, scenic, and inhabitable dimensions into a sheng–you–ju triad—merging Buddhist cosmology, Daoist grotto-heaven imaginaries, and literati garden aesthetics—that embodies Song-era syncretism among Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. The alignment of space and narrative underscores religious art’s dual role as doctrinal medium and catalyst for spatial imagination and design. More broadly, the study positions temple murals as essential design-oriented visual evidence in Chinese landscape history, especially given the near-total loss of pre-Ming gardens, where credible landscape imagery becomes invaluable. They visualize ancient spatial concepts and intentions, embodying a transhistorical design language linking religious, philosophical, and aesthetic ideals. By decoding the image’s design rationality and spatial logic, the study uncovers historical design intelligence that deepens understanding of Chinese landscape-making and offers durable insights for both historical scholarship and contemporary design.

This case study explores the influence of a global health crisis on contemporary Chinese Buddhism in Mainland China. As prevention and control measures for Covid-19 enforced by the Chinese government constitute challenges and opportunities for religious communities, this paper examines how Buddhist actors react, adapt, re-create, and rationalise the transformation of their religious practice under these special conditions as well as what role Buddhism assumes during the fight against the pandemic. I will therefore focus on how pandemic prevention measures have been communicated through various channels, such as academic journals, newspapers, social media, and websites of Buddhist temples. Regarding journals, I will collect and analyse information published online in ‘The Voice of Dharma’ and in ‘China Religion’. Both journals provide information not only on religion in China in general but also on Buddhism and how the Covid-19 pandemic has affected the configuration of the Chinese religious field. To complement redacted and officially sanctioned articles, I will further conduct digital ethnography on the microblogging website Sina Weibo and instant messaging app WeChat, for it allows us to understand the behaviour of practitioners and organisations of Chinese Buddhism through video diaries, photo uploads, live streams, blog entries, online communities, etc. Without being physically there, we have access to the lives of practitioners, enabling us to capture and assess ritual practices as they happen, thus inviting us to pay attention to the humans behind the screen and reflect on the important question of what it means to ‘do’ religion and even ‘be’ religious in a wired world.

In Tibetan Buddhism, behind every image there is a text. A thangka is not merely a pictorial work; it is a visual transcription of a ritual text—usually a tantra. This is why iconography is an integral part of liturgy: the text prescribes not only gestures and formulas, but also the precise description of the image to be visualized.
An iconographic error is not trivial: as in vedic liturgy, where ritual error can compromise the efficacy of the rite, in esoteric Buddhism incorrect visualization can "ruin the soul," transforming medicine into poison.

Text adapted from the transcript of the conference "Introduction to the Symbolic Meanings of Sacred Images in the Gönpa of the Lama Tzong Khapa Center" held on June 10, 2023.

It is believed that Fazang, the great master of the Huayan school during the Tang Dynasty, authored a text titled Cultivation of Contemplation of the Inner Meaning of the Huayen: The Ending of Delusion and Return to the Source (Xiuhuayan Aozhi Wangjin Huanyuan Guan 修華嚴奧旨妄盡還源觀；hereafter Cultivation), in which he organized the following sequence: one essence, two functions, three universals, four virtues, five cessations, and six contemplations. This work established a theoretical framework for practice centered on the Huayan Sutra and introduced the Huayan school’'s unique contemplation method, which had a significant impact on the development of Zen and Buddhist practice during the post-Tang period. By comparing the scriptural sources cited in the Cultivation, it becomes evident that this text was developed by incorporating the central concepts of the ‘Trueness of Mind’ chapter from the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna大乘起信論 and integrating key ideas from the Huayan Sutra. Subsequently, this article attempts to interpret the Cultivation from a psychological perspective to elucidate the psychological implications found in texts on Buddhist practice. The term “Buddhist practice psychology” in this context refers to empirically exploring the content within Buddhist practice texts and explaining how this content guides transforming psychological structures or states of consciousness through practical means, rather than relying solely on philosophical deduction. Building on this, the paper examines the commonality between the optimistic humanism of Carl R. Rogers (1902- 1987), who advocates a “person-centered” psychotherapy in On Becoming a Person, and the concept of the True Mind in the Cultivation. It aims to demonstrate that the Cultivation holds not only significance for Buddhist practitioners but also possesses broader value and meaning as a source of spiritual growth and as a reference for self-improvement among mental health professionals.

In Sri Lanka, the Malaiyaha (Upcountry) Tamils are a community facing continuous erasure of their experiences. As descendants of Indian Tamil laborers brought to Ceylon under the kangani system, Malaiyaha women in particular have long formed the invisible backbone of the plantation economy, sustaining it through their productive and reproductive labour. This paper foregrounds poetry and labour songs as a vital archive of resistance, memory, and identity for Malaiyaha (Upcountry) Tamil women. Often reduced to picturesque emblems of the highlands in colonial photography or as dispensable domestic workers in neoliberal urban discourses, Malaiyaha women have nevertheless etched their histories through oral and written traditions of poetry and song. The article pays attention to a feminist archive rooted in the "bardic heritage" of the community. It highlights the role of labour activist Meenatchi Ammal's labour songs in mobilizing collective consciousness and examines contemporary poetic and political interventions by Malaiyaha women activists in contemporary mobilizations. Drawing on poems from a contemporary anthology written by Malaiyaha women dedicated to Tamil labour activist Meenakshi Ammal, the paper explores how laboring women articulate the tensions of place, identity, and labour across generations. In doing so, it redefines the contours of the political agency of women in one of South Asia's most enduring postcolonial labour formations.

The use of experimentation within studies of early distillation technology has largely taken a methodological approach which aims to demonstrate how suggested technical evolutions and apparatus configurations operate. This paper examines the viability of the ‘Gandhāra still’ reconstruction for distillation within a unified campaign of comparative and exploratory
experimentation, acting as a framework for critical evaluation. First generated from interpretations on the function of predominately 2nd c. BCE– 4th c. CE ceramic vessels found across South-Central Asia, the Gandhāra still has been a central component in the conceptualisation of an “ancient Indian distillation hypothesis” that has received considerable attention in the historiography of science. This uptake in interest has led to researchers from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds to reinforce the still’s existence and distilling capacity, including through the use of experimentation. In response, this paper details a new campaign of experimental trials which identified functional reasons as to why the apparatus does not operate. Crucially, trials demonstrated how the interpreted set of apparatus components together cannot sufficiently condense produced distilling vapour due to their morphology. In tandem, the campaign revealed practical issues associated
with internal reflux actions and pressurisation in the still that had not been identified previously. Further analysing such a pervasive dialogue on technical innovation invites wider re-evaluations of distillation technology chartings and introduces a nuanced suite of considerations in discussing the inception of early distillation.

This study examines the evolution and integration of Buddhist architecture in East Asia and emphasizes the preservation of indigenous building traditions by adapting pre-Buddhist architectural typologies, vernacular construction techniques, and localized worship practices. In addition, this study highlights the adaptive transformation of Indian Buddhist structures as they incorporate regional architectural forms, resulting in distinct monumental styles that had a profound symbolic significance. By introducing the concept of a cosmopolitan attitude, it underscores the dynamic coexistence and reciprocal influence of universalized and vernacular architectural traditions. The findings highlight the interplay between cultural universality and particularity, illustrating how architectural meaning and intention define the uniqueness of structures beyond their stylistic similarities. This study demonstrates that even when architectural forms appear similar, their function and underlying intent must be considered to fully comprehend their historical and cultural significance.

「曼荼羅」（mandala）是一種源自古印度的中心對稱同心圈層圖式，在亞洲藝術與建築設計中成為一種經典圖形，出現了多種物質表達形式。本文回顧「曼荼羅」概念在亞洲各地區與文化中的建築表達，並特別梳理了清代（1644—1911）皇家建築案例；其後討論了不同意義系統中的同心圈層圖式，從而在「曼荼羅」和其他相似圖形之間建立區分。本文認為，在藝術與建築中，形式與意義的分離是常見現象，要將某種物質形式歸入特定概念或意義，需要更強的論證邏輯。同心圈層是一種常見的簡明圖式，在其與「曼荼羅」概念間建立關係，需要對功能和象徵意涵加以謹慎限定。

This paper studies the Tai Buddhist manuscripts of Assam by contextualizing them in relation to the larger Tai history and the Tai Buddhist religious culture. The study is based on primary and secondary data. Primary data includes first-hand exploration, on-site documentation, and personal conversation with the community members. The discussion is performed in three sections. The first section problematizes the inclusion of the Tai Buddhist illustrated manuscript in the ‘Tai-Ahom School of Painting’ through a historical analysis of the Indian Tai community. The second part studies the significance of these manuscripts in Tai Buddhist religious culture. The third section traces and studies the illustrated Tai Buddhist manuscripts found to date in Assam and brings front a previously undocumented manuscript.

Alumni students of archaeology in Myanmar established the Myanmar Archaeology Association (MAA) in 2013 as an independent non-governmental organization for the wider public now and for generations in the future. The MAA aims to promote heritage awareness with young people and the elderly in the many villages and the cities of Myanmar. We hope to show how archaeological resources are valuable among familiar things like livelihood, and part of our culture and economy. MAA reaches out to beginners and ordinary people, many of whom had not been able to as devote themselves to a higher formal education. The independent organization of MAA provides all people with public participatory programmes and capacity building activities. We encourage archaeological participation among the ordinary people and prepare for the future challenges of preservation of cultural resources through public participation. We are open to all and hope to contribute to grassroots levels, and all cultural and academic institutions working to safeguard our cultural heritage.

Ladakh's climatic conditions have preserved some of the most impressive monuments in the Himalaya. These temples trace the spread of Buddhism in the Western Himalaya and the development of artistic and architectural styles. However, they are increasingly under threat due to the introduction of modern construction materials and methods, as well as the intensification of climate change induced events. In 1999, Achi Association was formed to conserve temples belonging to the Drikung Kagyu sect of Tibetan Buddhism, one of the oldest orders in Ladakh, and one under which many of the earliest temples in the region were built. In 2010, the establishment of Achi Association India (AAI) expanded this to any Buddhist heritage in precarity throughout Ladakh, regardless of sect. With a quarter of a century of experience in the region, the two organizations collectively produced an impressive fountain of documents that chart and record all aspects of conservation work done across nine sites that date from the late 13 th century to the 19 th century. In this paper I scaffold an interdisciplinary approach to access these archives, which range from architectural surveys to community engagement reports, accentuating that conservation is a dialectic between stakeholders, where decisions made by conservators-shaped by their training and available technology-are interpreted by other stakeholders, namely locals and the clergy, through their own epistemic frameworks. Mapping the entirety of conservation and restoration, this paper covers multiple aspects of the process, including documentation, community engagement, technical procedures, and the ritual ramifications of decisions.

The prototype of Maitreya legend is only mentioned briefly in passing by early Buddhist texts of various schools. The legend was adapted and reshaped again and again over a long period of time. In this study I compare seven closely related stories deriving from the proto-legend of Maitreya and propose some indicators that show the process of “Mahāyānization” of the proto-legend. The proto-legend was converted into an avadāna tale in an early phase as found in the Divyāvadāna and the Mūla-Sarvāstivāda Vinaya. Judging from its ambivalent features, EĀ48.3(T453) in the Ekottarika Āgama (T125) exemplifies a transition from an avadāna text to a Mahāyāna sūtra. T125 is a collection of early Buddhist sūtras mixed with numerous avadāna tales  and Mahāyāna elements.  The Mile chengfo jing, or the Sūtra on Maitreya Becoming a Buddha (T456), can be reckoned a mature Mahāyāna work, which transforms Kāśyapa into a Mahāyāna paradigm modelled on a great bodhisattva in the Lotus Sūtra. In conclusion, this research provides a sketch of the relative chronology of the seven closely related Maitreya stories, and Kāśyapa emerges as an increasingly significant figure in later versions.

The studies on the art of Don ca tai tu in the South of Vietnam from the middle of the 20th century to the present were gathered for a review, and the achievements and limitations of studying the traditional art of Don ca tai tu of Southern Vietnam over time have been collected. The results show that the studies have contributed to identifying the origin, properties and characterisTrường Cao đẳng Nghề Trà Vinh, Nghiên cứu sinh Trường Đại học Trà Vinh Ngày nhận bài: 20/3/2020; Ngày nhận kết quả bình duyệt: 18/5/2020; Ngày chấp nhận đăng: 6/6/2020 Email: chinhcdntravinh@gmail.com Tra Vinh Vocational College, PhD Student of Tra Vinh University Received date: 20 March 2020; Revised date: 18 May 2020; Accepted date: 6 June 2020 tics of this traditional music form, and have assessed the current reality and proposed solutions to preserve and promote the art of Don ca tai tu. Due to that basis, this paper proposes further research which contribute to the sustainable conservation and promoti...

This inventory report is a supplementary academic contribution to the author’s research monograph “Buddhist Goddesses of South-East Bengal: An Iconographic Study (From the Earliest Time up to 1205 A.D.)”. The report systematically documents and catalogues sculptural representations of Buddhist goddesses preserved in the museums of Bangladesh, particularly the Bangladesh National Museum, Varendra Research Museum, and Mainamati Site Museum.

The inventory provides detailed entries for each image, including object numbers, measurements, provenance, material, iconographic features, and relevant observations. This documentation serves as a comprehensive database of Buddhist goddess imagery from South-East Bengal, facilitating further iconographic, stylistic, and comparative studies in the fields of archaeology, art history, and Buddhist studies.

By preserving primary data in an accessible format, this report aims to support future researchers in the study of Buddhist art, religious history, and cultural heritage of Bengal up to the early medieval period (1205 A.D.).

Respected dignitaries, esteemed scholars, and dear friends, Good afternoon! It is an honor to address you all at this One-day National Seminar, where we gather to celebrate and reflect upon the profound significance of Pali, one of India's classical languages, and its inseparable connection to the timeless legacy and heritage of Bhagawan Buddha.

Samatata and Vanga were two prominent regions of ancient South-Eastern Bengal, corresponding to present-day Comilla, Noakhali, Chandpur, Feni, and Brahmanbaria (Samatata), and Dhaka, Munshiganj, Faridpur, and Madaripur (Vanga). Mainamati in Samatata and Bikrampur in Vanga developed as important political and cultural centres under the Chandra, Varman, Deva, Rata, Khadga, and Sena dynasties. A palm-leaf manuscript, Pañcarakṣā, refers to a monastery in Bikrampur, also cited in manuscripts preserved at the Nāgar Vihāra of Tibet (Rahman, 2015). The region is further distinguished as the birthplace of the eminent Buddhist scholar Atiśa Dīpaṅkara Śrījñāna (Bhattacharya, 1958). Present-day Munshiganj, identified with ancient Bikrampur, has yielded numerous sculptures, inscriptions, coins, terracotta plaques, and architectural remains. The Lalmai-Mainamati area of Samatata is among the richest archaeological sites in Bangladesh, with excavations at Śālban Vihāra since 1955 uncovering viharas, stupas, temples, and a wealth of artifacts preserved in the Mainamati Site Museum. These discoveries include Buddhist and Brahmanical sculptures, terracotta plaques, inscriptions, and coins, reflecting the region’s religious and cultural dynamism. This study undertakes a comprehensive iconographic analysis of Buddhist goddess sculptures from Samatata and Vanga, preserved in the Bangladesh National Museum, Mainamati Site Museum, and Varendra Research Museum. While earlier research has addressed Buddhist imagery in Bengal, no independent work has focused exclusively on the goddesses of South-Eastern Bengal. This monograph fills that gap through systematic documentation and analysis, highlighting their iconographic traits, stylistic variations, and cultural significance within the broader Buddhist artistic tradition.
Keywords: Buddhism, Iconography, Vanga, Samatata, Buddhist Goddess, Vajrayana, Tantrism, Bangladesh National Museum, Mainamati Museum, Varendra Research Museum.