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Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality

Fundamentals of Process Safety Engineering

Profile image of Samar BiswasSamar BiswasProfile image of Swapan Kumar HazraSwapan Kumar Hazra

2021

https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003107873
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62 pages

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Abstract
sparkles

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This textbook serves as a crucial resource for understanding Process Safety Engineering (PSE) in chemical and petrochemical industries, addressing common failures and lessons from major industrial disasters, such as Bhopal. It emphasizes the importance of engineers being well-versed in hazard management and risk assessment to prevent accidents through proper design, operation, and maintenance of safety barriers. The authors aim to fill the educational gap in engineering curricula related to PSE, providing both a technical foundation and practical guidance for future professionals in the field.

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References (426)

  1. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ............... 17
  2. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................ 17
  3. Flixborough, UK ..................................................................... 18 2.3.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process .................. 18 2.3.2 The Accident .............................................................. 19
  4. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............20
  5. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................ 21
  6. Seveso, Italy ............................................................................. 22 2.4.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process .................. 22 2.4.2 The Accident ..............................................................24
  7. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............24
  8. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................25
  9. Qatar, Persian Gulf ..................................................................26 2.5.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process ..................26 2.5.2 The Accident ..............................................................26 2.5.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............26 2.5.4 Lessons/Recommendations ........................................ 27
  10. Caracas, Venezuela .................................................................. 27 2.6.1 Brief Description of Facilities and Process ................ 27 2.6.2 The Accident .............................................................. 27
  11. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............28
  12. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................28
  13. Mexico City ............................................................................. 29 2.7.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process .................. 29 2.7.2 The Accident .............................................................. 29
  14. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ............... 30
  15. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................ 31
  16. 8 Bhopal, India ........................................................................... 32 2.8.1 Brief Description of Facilities and Process ................ 32 2.8.2 The Accident ..............................................................34
  17. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............34
  18. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................ 35
  19. 9 Offshore Oil Rig Piper Alpha, North Sea ............................... 37 2.9.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process .................. 38 2.9.2 The Accident ..............................................................40
  20. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ............... 41
  21. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................ 42
  22. Bharat Petroleum Refinery, Bombay, India ............................. 43 2.10.1 Description of Facility and Process ........................... 43 2.10.2 The Accident ..............................................................44 2.10.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............44 2.10.4 Lessons/Recommendations ........................................ 45
  23. 11 Petrochemical Complex, Phillips Petroleum, Pasadena, USA ....46 2.11.1 Brief Description of Facility and Processes ...............46 2.11.2 The Accident ..............................................................46 2.11.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............46
  24. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................ 48 vii Contents 2.12 LPG Import Terminal Hindustan Petroleum, Vishakhapatnam, India .........................................
  25. 12.1 Brief Description of the Facility and the Process ......
  26. 12.2 The Accident ..............................................................
  27. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............
  28. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................
  29. Grande Paroisse, Ammonium Nitrate Facility Toulouse, France ......................................................................
  30. 13.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process ..................
  31. 13.2 The Accident ..............................................................
  32. 13.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences of the Accident ................................................................
  33. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................
  34. 14 Space Shuttle Columbia, NASA Florida ................................. 2.14.1 Brief Description of Space Program and the Shuttle .....
  35. 14.2 The Accident ..............................................................
  36. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............
  37. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................
  38. 15 LNG Liquefaction Facility, Skikda, Algeria ........................... 2.15.1 Brief Description of Facility and the Process ............
  39. 15.2 The Accident ..............................................................
  40. 15.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............
  41. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................
  42. 16 BP Refinery, Texas City, Texas, USA ......................................
  43. 16.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process ..................
  44. 16.2 The Accident ..............................................................60 2.16.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences of the Accident ................................................................60
  45. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................
  46. 17 Imperial Sugar, Port Wentworth, Georgia, USA .....................
  47. 17.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process ..................
  48. 17.2 The Accident ..............................................................
  49. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............
  50. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................64
  51. Indian Oil Corporation Product Tank Farm, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India ...........................................................
  52. 18.1 Description of Facility and Process ...........................
  53. 18.2 The Accident ..............................................................
  54. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............
  55. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................
  56. 19 BP Deepwater Horizon Offshore Rig ......................................
  57. 19.1 Description of Facility and Process ...........................
  58. 19.2 The Accident ..............................................................
  59. Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences ...............
  60. Lessons/Recommendations ........................................
  61. 20 Summary and Conclusions ...................................................... References .......................................................................................... viii Contents Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Fire Processes ......................................................... 77 3.1 How Fire Starts ........................................................................ 77 3.1.1 Flammability Limits .................................................. 79
  62. 1.1.1 Pure Fuels ................................................... 79 3.1.1.2 Dependence of LFL and UFL on Pressure and Temperature ..........................80
  63. 1.1.3 Mixture of Fuels in Air ................................ 81
  64. 1.1.4 Flammability Range in Oxygen .................. 83
  65. 1.1.5 Effect of Addition of Inert Gases ................ 83
  66. 1.2 Flash Point .................................................................. 86
  67. 1.3 Fire Point .................................................................... 88
  68. 2 Heat Balance in Flames ........................................................... 88
  69. 3 Types of Flames ....................................................................... 88 3.3.1 Premixed and Diffusion Flames ................................ 88
  70. 3.2 Pool Fire ..................................................................... 89
  71. 3.3 Jet Fire ........................................................................ 89 3.3.4 Vapor Cloud Fire ........................................................ 89
  72. 3.5 Fireball .......................................................................90
  73. 4 Ignition ....................................................................................90 3.4.1 Requirements and Characteristics of Ignition Sources ..........................................................90
  74. 4.2 Hot Work .................................................................... 91
  75. 4.3 Electrical Equipment ..................................................92
  76. Static Electricity .........................................................92
  77. 5 Effect of Thermal Radiation .................................................... 93 3.5.1 Effect on the Human Body ......................................... 93
  78. 5.2 Effect on Plant and Machinery................................... 95
  79. 6 Fire Prevention Systems ..........................................................96 3.6.1 Good Housekeeping ...................................................96
  80. 6.2 Control of Flammable Materials ................................96
  81. 6.3 Control of Sources of Ignition ....................................96 3.6.4 Fire Hazards Awareness .............................................97
  82. 6.5 Monitoring ..................................................................97
  83. 7 Fire Protection Systems ...........................................................97 3.7.1 Passive Fire Protection ...............................................97
  84. 7.2 Active Fire Protection ................................................97 3.7.2.1 Detection of Flammable Material .............. 98
  85. 7.2.2 Detection of Fire .........................................99
  86. 7.2.3 Cooling by Water ...................................... 100
  87. 7.2.4 Fire Extinguishing .................................... 100
  88. Firefighting Plan ....................................... 103
  89. References ........................................................................................ 103
  90. Chapter 4 Static Electricity ............................................................................... 105 4.1 Historical Background of Static Electricity .......................... 105
  91. 2 Basic Concepts of Static Electricity ...................................... 106 ix Contents 4.3 Conductors and Insulators .....................................................
  92. 3.1 Liquids ......................................................................
  93. 3.2 Solids ........................................................................
  94. 4 Generation of Electrostatic Charge .......................................
  95. 4.1 Mechanisms of Charge Generation ..........................
  96. 4.1.1 Relative Movement at Material Interfaces ...
  97. 4.1.2 Induction ...................................................
  98. 4.1.3 Charge Transfer ........................................
  99. 4.2 Quantitative Relationships for Charge Generation ......
  100. 4.2.1 Charge Generation on Liquids ..................
  101. 4.2.2 Charge Generation in Powders .................
  102. 5 Accumulation of Electrostatic Charge ..................................
  103. 5.1 Accumulation in Liquids ..........................................
  104. 5.2 Accumulation on Insulated Conductors ...................
  105. 5.3 Accumulation on Lined/Coated Containers .............
  106. 5.4 Accumulation on Powders ........................................
  107. 6 Electrostatic Discharge ..........................................................
  108. 6.1 Spark Discharge .......................................................
  109. Corona Discharge .....................................................
  110. 6.3 Brush Discharge .......................................................
  111. 6.4 Propagating Brush Discharge ...................................
  112. 6.5 Bulking Brush Discharge .........................................
  113. 7 Ignition of Flammable Vapors and Dusts by Electrostatic Discharge ..........................................................
  114. 7.1 Hybrid Mixtures .......................................................
  115. 8 Hazards from People and Clothing .......................................
  116. 9 Earthing and Bonding ...........................................................
  117. 10 Examples of Static Ignition ...................................................
  118. 10.1 Draining Flammable Liquids into Buckets ..............
  119. 10.2 Removing Synthetic Clothing from Body ................
  120. 10.3 Charging High-Resistivity Flakes/Powders .............
  121. 10.4 Filling Polyethylene Granules into a Silo .................
  122. 11 Summary of Common Precautionary Measures for Static Hazards ........................................................................
  123. References ........................................................................................ Chapter 5 Pool Fire ........................................................................................... 5.1 Size and Shape of Flames ......................................................
  124. 1.1 Confined Pool Fire on Land .....................................
  125. 1.1.1 Pool Diameter ...........................................
  126. 1.1.2 Burning Rate .............................................
  127. 1.1.3 Flame Height ............................................
  128. Unconfined Pool Fire on Land .................................
  129. 1.3 Pool Fire on Water ....................................................
  130. Tank Fire ..................................................................
  131. 2 Modeling for Radiation Intensity ..........................................
  132. x Contents 5.2.
  133. Surface Emissive Power of Flames ..........................
  134. 2.2 View Factor between a Flame and a Target .............
  135. 2.2.1 Case 1: Pool Fire and Target at Ground Level ............................................
  136. 2.2.2 Case 2: Tank Fire with Target at Ground Level/Elevated Position ...............
  137. Atmospheric Transmissivity .....................................
  138. 2.4 Assessment of Safety Distance ................................ References ........................................................................................ Chapter 6 Jet Fire ..............................................................................................
  139. 1 Flow through a Hole (Free Expansion) .................................
  140. 1.1 Theoretical Basis ......................................................
  141. 1.2 Compressibility Factor and Enthalpy for Real Gases....172
  142. 1.3 Release Rate Calculation ..........................................
  143. 1.3.1 Bernoulli's Equation .................................
  144. 1.3.2 Sonic Velocity ...........................................
  145. 1.3.3 C p , C v , and γ = C p /C v Ratio .......................
  146. 1.3.4 Density ......................................................
  147. 1.3.5 Velocity .....................................................
  148. 1.4 Additional Examples ................................................
  149. 1.5 Flashing of Liquids ..................................................
  150. 1.6 Flashing of Pure Components ..................................
  151. 2 Thermodynamics of Fluid Phase Equilibria .........................
  152. 2.1 Phase Equilibria in Hydrocarbon Mixtures .............
  153. 2.2 Phase Equilibria in Chemical Mixtures ...................
  154. 2.3 Flash Calculations for Mixtures ...............................
  155. 2.4 Laboratory Measurements Versus Estimation Methods in Phase Equilibria ..................
  156. 2.5 Commercial Process Simulators ..............................
  157. 2.6 Release of a Liquefied Gas: Two-Phase Flashing Flow ...........................................................
  158. 2.7 Concluding Remarks for Release Rate Calculations ....
  159. 3 Calculations for Jet Fires .......................................................200 6.3.1 Size and Shape of Flames ........................................
  160. Hawthorn, Weddell, and Hottel Model ........
  161. 3.1.2 API Model ................................................202
  162. Shell Model ...............................................207
  163. 4 Estimation of Radiation Intensity ..........................................
  164. 4.1 Fractional Radiation .................................................
  165. 4.2 Radiation Intensity by the API method ....................
  166. 4.3 Radiation Intensity by the Shell Method ..................
  167. References ........................................................................................ xi Contents Chapter 7 Vapor Cloud Fire .............................................................................. 7.1 Flash Fire Accidents and Experiments ..................................
  168. 2 Flame Speed ..........................................................................224 7.2.1 Premixed Flame .......................................................
  169. 2.2 Nonpremixed Flame .................................................
  170. 3 Flame Dimensions .................................................................
  171. 4 Effect of Flame Exposure ...................................................... References ........................................................................................
  172. 8 Fireball .............................................................................................
  173. 1 BLEVE ..................................................................................
  174. 2 Diameter and Duration of Fireball ........................................
  175. 3 Intensity of Thermal Radiation .............................................
  176. 3.1 Fractional Radiation .................................................
  177. 3.2 Surface Emissive Power ...........................................
  178. 3.3 View Factor ..............................................................
  179. Atmospheric Transmissivity .....................................
  180. 4 Measures to Prevent BLEVE .................................................
  181. 4.1 Cooling the Vessel by Water Deluge or Spray .........
  182. 4.2 Insulation of the Vessel ............................................
  183. 4.3 Providing an Earth Mound around the Vessel .........
  184. 5 Measures in Case of Imminent BLEVE ................................ References ........................................................................................
  185. 9 Explosion ..........................................................................................
  186. 1 Kinds and Types of Explosions .............................................
  187. 2 Explosion Mechanisms ..........................................................
  188. 2.1 Deflagration ..............................................................
  189. 2.2 Detonation ................................................................
  190. 2.3 DDT ..........................................................................244
  191. VCE .......................................................................................244 9.3.1 TNT Equivalent Model ............................................
  192. 3.2 TNO Correlation Model ...........................................248
  193. 9.3.3 TNO Multienergy Model ..........................................
  194. Baker-Strehlow-Tang (BST) Method .......................
  195. 3.5 Congestion Assessment Method ...............................
  196. 3.6 CFD Models .............................................................
  197. 3.6.1 FLACS (FLame ACceleration Simulator) ...
  198. 3.6.2 EXSIM ™ (EXplosion SIMulator) .............
  199. 3.6.3 AutoReaGas Model ...................................
  200. 3.7 Comparison of Various Models................................
  201. xii Contents
  202. 3.8 Precautionary Measures to Prevent and Minimize Damage in VCEs .....................................
  203. 9 Damage Caused by VCE ..........................................
  204. 3.9.1 Damage to Structures -TNO ...................
  205. 3.9.2 Damage to Structures -Major Hazard Assessment Panel (IChemE, U.K.) ...........
  206. 3.9.3 Damage to Storage Tanks -TNO .............
  207. 3.9.4 Effect on People -Major Hazard Assessment Panel (IChemE U.K.) ............
  208. 4 Condensed Phase Explosion ..................................................
  209. 4.1 Precautionary Measures to Minimize Damage in Condensed Phase Explosion .....................................280
  210. 4.2 Formation of Explosive Mixture -Ammonium Nitrate (AN) .............................................................
  211. 4.3 Effect of Mechanical or Electrical Shock ................
  212. 5 Explosions in a Chemical Reactor .........................................
  213. 6 Dust Explosion .......................................................................
  214. 7 Physical Explosion ................................................................. References ........................................................................................ Chapter 10 Toxic Releases .................................................................................. 10.1 Process Safety Concerns -Acute Effects/Emergency Exposure Limits .................................................................... 10.1.1 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines ..............
  215. 1.2 Toxic Endpoints ........................................................
  216. 1.3 Acute Exposure Guideline Levels ............................
  217. 1.3.1 Level 1 ......................................................
  218. 1.3.2 Level 2 ......................................................
  219. 1.3.3 Level 3 ......................................................
  220. 2 Occupational Safety Concerns -Toxicity Measures and Assessment ............................................................................
  221. 2.1 Median Lethal Dose (LD 50 ) ......................................
  222. 2.2 Median Lethal Concentration (LC 50 ) .......................
  223. 2.2.1 Toxic Load ................................................290
  224. 2.3 Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health .............
  225. 3 Regulatory Controls .............................................................. 10.3.1 Occupational Exposure Standards ...........................
  226. 4 Emergency Planning .............................................................. References ........................................................................................ Chapter 11 Dispersion of Gases and Vapors ....................................................... 11.1 Purpose of Dispersion Studies ............................................... 11.2 Emission Source Models .......................................................
  227. 2.1 Liquid Releases ........................................................
  228. 2.2 Gas Jet Releases ....................................................... 298 11.2.3 Two-Phase Releases ................................................. 298 11.2.4 Evaporation from Liquid Pools ................................300 11.2.4.1 Evaporation of Cryogenic Liquids ............ 301 11.2.4.2 Evaporation of High Boiling Liquids .......302
  229. 3 Dispersion Models .................................................................304 11.3.1 Passive Dispersion ....................................................304 11.3.1.1 Factors Affecting Passive Dispersion .......304 11.3.1.2 Dispersion Calculations ............................307
  230. 3.2 Dense Gas Dispersion .............................................. 314
  231. 3.3 Jet Dispersion ........................................................... 321 11.3.3.1 Dense Gas Jet Dispersion ......................... 321 11.3.3.2 Positively Buoyant Jet Dispersion ............. 323
  232. 4 Computational Fluid Dynamics Modelling ........................... 325
  233. References ........................................................................................ 325 Chapter 12 Hazard Identification ........................................................................ 327 12.1 Framework for Hazard Management ..................................... 327 12.2 Hazard Identification Methods .............................................. 328 12.2.1 Safety Audit .............................................................. 328 12.2.2 What-If Checklist ..................................................... 329 12.2.3 HAZOP Study .......................................................... 331 12.2.3.1 Basic Concepts of the Study ......................331 12.2.3.2 Study Procedure.........................................336 12.2.
  234. Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA).......... 338
  235. 2.5 Fault Tree and Event Tree Analysis..........................348 12.3 Comments on Choice of the Method .....................................348
  236. References ........................................................................................ 349 Chapter 13 Risk Assessment and Control ........................................................... 351 13.1 Methods of Expressing Risks ................................................ 351 13.1.1 Fatal Accident Rate .................................................. 351 13.1.2 Individual Risk ......................................................... 352 13.1.3 Average Individual Risk ........................................... 352 13.1.4 Societal Risk ............................................................. 353
  237. 2 Layer of Protection Analysis ................................................. 353 13.2.1 LOPA Process .......................................................... 355 13.2.2 Select Criteria for Consequence Screening .............. 355 13.2.3 Select Consequence Analysis Scenarios for LOPA. .. 355 13.2.4. Identify Initiating Events and Frequencies............... 356 13.2.5 Identify IPLs ............................................................. 358 13.2.6 Risk Estimation ........................................................ 359 13.2.7 Risk Evaluation ........................................................ 363
  238. xiv Contents 13.2.8 LOPA Summary Sheet: An Example .......................364
  239. 9 Advantages of LOPA ................................................364
  240. 3 Barrier Analysis ..................................................................... 366 13.3.1 Barrier failure and Catastrophic Accidents .............. 367 13.3.2 Important Definitions Related to Barrier Management ............................................................. 367
  241. 3.3 Independence of Barriers ......................................... 371 13.3.
  242. Barrier Management Process ................................... 373
  243. 4 QRA ....................................................................................... 377 13.4.1 Estimation of Frequency of a Hazardous Event ....... 378 13.4.1.1 Fault Tree Methodology ............................ 380 13.4.1.2 Event Tree Methodology ........................... 390
  244. 4.2 Estimation of Risk .................................................... 392 13.4.2.1 Individual Risk ......................................... 394 13.4.2.2 Societal Risk (F-N Curve) ........................ 395
  245. Risk Determination .................................................. 396
  246. Risk Acceptability .................................................... 396 13.4.4.1 Individual Risk -Acceptability Criteria .... 397 13.4.4.2 Societal Risk -Acceptability Criteria ...... 397
  247. 4.5 Risk Reduction and ALARP .................................... 398
  248. 5 Functional Safety ...................................................................400 13.5.1 SIS ............................................................................400 13.5.2 SRS -Safety Requirement Specification ................. 401
  249. 5.3 SIL ............................................................................402 13.5.3.1 SIL Verification ........................................402 13.5.3.2 SIL Validation ...........................................402
  250. 6 Database for Failure Frequencies and Probabilities ..............403 13.6.1 Failure Frequencies for Tanks and Vessels ..............403 13.6.2 Failure Frequencies of Process Pipework ................403 13.6.3 Failure Frequencies of Cross-Country Pipelines .....404 13.6.4 Failure Rates of Loading Arms ................................404 13.6.5 Failure Frequencies for Valves .................................404 13.6.6 Failure Probabilities for Protective Equipment ........404 13.6.7 Probabilities of Human Error ...................................406 13.6.8 Ignition Probability of Flammable Liquid Releases ........................................................406
  251. 9 Ignition of Gas Clouds .............................................406 13.7 Application of LOPA, Barrier Analysis, and QRA ...............406
  252. References ........................................................................................407 Chapter 14 Human Factors in Process Safety .....................................................409 14.1 Accidents and Human failures .............................................. 410 14.2 Human Role in Hazard Control ............................................. 411 14.3 Types of Human Errors ......................................................... 411 14.4 Human Factors in Safety (HFs) ............................................. 412 xv Contents 14.5 Human Error Identification ................................................... 14.6 HFs -A Core Element ........................................................... 14.7 Human Reliability Analysis (HRA) ...................................... 14.8 HRA Adoption....................................................................... 14.
  253. 9 Human Development ............................................................. 14.10 Industry Response ................................................................. References ........................................................................................ Chapter 15 Process Safety and Manufacturing Excellence ................................ 15.1 Process Safety Leadership ..................................................... 15.2 Process Safety Laws and Regulations ................................... 15.3 Process Safety vis-à-vis Personnel Safety ............................. 15.4 The Role of Process and Equipment Design in Ensuring Process Safety ........................................................
  254. 5 Strategies for Implementation of Process Safety Programs ... 15.5.1 Sensor Validation ..................................................... 15.5.2 Sample Time Recording ........................................... 15.5.3 Control System Hardware and Configuration .......... 15.5.4 Control Valves .......................................................... 15.5.5 Control System Configuration .................................. 15.5.6 Regulatory Control Tuning ......................................
  255. 6 Higher-Level Multivariable Control and Optimization Applications ....................................................
  256. 7 Online Calculations/Equipment Health Monitoring ............. 15.7.1 Fired Heater Radiant Section Duty .......................... 15.7.2 Heat Exchanger Duty ............................................... 15.7.2.1 No Phase Change ...................................... 15.7.2.2 Condensing or Boiling ..............................
  257. 7.3 Distillation Column Pressure-Compensated Temperature ..............................................................
  258. 7.4 Distillation Column Approach to Flooding .............
  259. 7.5 Pump/Compressor/Turbine Efficiency and Vibration ...................................................................
  260. Compressor Efficiency .............................................
  261. 7.7 Turbine Efficiency ....................................................
  262. Pump Efficiency .......................................................
  263. 8 Smart Sensors/Inferential Calculations .................................
  264. 9 Multivariable, Optimal Predictive Control (MPC) ...............440 15.9.1 Using Dynamic Simulation for Developing MPC Models ............................................................
  265. 9.2 Closing Remarks on Model-Predictive Control (MPC) .........................................................
  266. Closed-Loop, Real-Time, Optimization (CLRTO) ................ 15.10.1 Open-Equation Modeling for a Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger ................................. Hazards in the Process Industries
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