Edith G . Smit

University of Amsterdam, Communication Science (ASCoR), Persuasive Communication, Faculty Member

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Papers by Edith G . Smit

Packaging design as an implicit communicator: Effects on product quality inferences in the presence of explicit quality cues

Food Quality and Preference, 2017

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Framing in Entertainment-Education: Effects on Processes of Narrative Persuasion

Health Communication, 2016

Nowadays, entertainment-education (E-E) is often used as a persuasive strategy to stimulate proso... more Nowadays, entertainment-education (E-E) is often used as a persuasive strategy to stimulate prosocial behavior. Although E-E is mostly regarded as a persuasive strategy in itself, in an increasing number of E-E programs several persuasive strategies are used to communicate the educational message to the audience. This study investigates the effects of a strategy widely used in health communication, but not previously studied in the field of E-E: framing. To this means we examined the effect of two different ways an E-E message can be framed: by emphasizing either the losses of not performing the behavior in question or the gains of performing this behavior. A serial multiple mediation model showed that framing affected intention to refrain from drunk cycling via counterarguing and attitude toward drunk cycling; the use of a gain frame decreased counterarguing, which decreased the attitude toward drunk cycling. This subsequently resulted in a higher intention to refrain from this behavior. Implications of these results are discussed.

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Atypical food packaging affects the persuasive impact of product claims

Food Quality and Preference, 2016

Atypical food packaging draws attention in the retail environment, and therefore increases produc... more Atypical food packaging draws attention in the retail environment, and therefore increases product salience. However, until now, no research has focused on how atypical packaging affects the persuasive impact of other food information. In the present study, we propose that atypical packaging enhances processing of product information, affecting product claim recall and product evaluation in turn. Specifically, we argue that atypical packaging may have detrimental consequences for the evaluation of food products that are presented with so-called weak product claims. Participants (N=102) were presented with an online shopping environment, showing a food product with either a typical or an atypical package, and product claims that were either weak or strong. Results showed that atypical shaped packaging design enhanced cognitive processing, which in turn decreased the persuasive impact of weak claims on willingness to pay, and increased the persuasive impact of strong product claims on quality judgment. Furthermore, product knowledge improved when packaging design was atypical, through increased processing.

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Should you spill the beans? The effect of disclosures in narrative persuasion

PsycEXTRA Dataset

The Underlying Mechanisms of Multiscreening Effects

Journal of Advertising, 2016

Multiscreening, a relatively new form of media multitasking in which people use multiple screens ... more Multiscreening, a relatively new form of media multitasking in which people use multiple screens simultaneously, has implications for the effects of persuasive messages due to limited cognitive capacities of people and concurrent modalities of the screens (i.e., both visual). The aim of the study is to examine underlying mechanisms (i.e., recognition, counterarguing, and enjoyment) of the effect of multiscreening on evaluative outcomes (i.e., brand attitude, message attitude, and purchase intention). The experiment (N D 182) showed that both recognition and counterarguing are underlying mechanisms of the effect of multiscreening on evaluative outcomes. Multiscreening has a negative effect on evaluative outcomes by recognition and a positive effect on evaluative outcomes by counterarguing. Media multitasking, the simultaneous use of multiple media (e.g., Jeong and Hwang 2015; Voorveld 2011), is a pervasive phenomenon (e.g., Rideout, Foehr, and Roberts 2010; Voorveld et al. 2014). A recent report about media use showed that 28% of the time that people spend on media consists of media multitasking (MediaTijd 2014). The rise of this phenomenon has led to an increasing concern among advertisers, because relatively little is known about advertising effectiveness under

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Visual Attention: The Interplay Between Ad Characteristics and Context Factors

Using eye-tracking data, we tested what elements of the ad are able to catch the eye and whether ... more Using eye-tracking data, we tested what elements of the ad are able to catch the eye and whether the context of the ad can draw visual attention away. Characteristics of 183 magazine ads and their direct context were systematically coded and linked to eye-tracking data. Results showed that indeed ad characteristics can attract visual attention, while context characteristics are able to divert visual attention. Especially ad size and the use of color in the context affect attention. In addition, it was shown that ad characteristics do have a much larger influence than context characteristics. Finally, results showed the differential effect of brand, visual and text elements. This study clearly indicates which "bottom-up characteristics" can drive subconscious or passive attention, which makes it a valuable addition to earlier attention research and processing theory.

Attention Battle; the Abilities of Brand, Visual, and Text Characteristics of the Ad to Draw Attention versus the Diverting Power of the Direct Magazine Context

Advances in Advertising Research (Vol. 2), 2011

In the contemporary information jungle, it keeps getting harder for advertisers to be noticed. Ad... more In the contemporary information jungle, it keeps getting harder for advertisers to be noticed. Advertisements that fail to attract even the lowest levels of the attention cannot be effective. Therefore, advertisers try to find clever ways to catch the eye of the consumer. Especially in magazines, advertisers need to come up with new ideas as the clutter of brands is high and advertisements have to compete with the editorial content surrounding them.

The March to Reliable Metrics: A Half-Century of Coming Closer to the Truth

Journal of Advertising Research, 2011

ABSTRACT Reach and frequency are key concepts advertisers face when selecting media for their cam... more ABSTRACT Reach and frequency are key concepts advertisers face when selecting media for their campaigns. Around the world, the advertising industry relies on audience research for insights into how different media outlets perform on these key concepts. In this contribution, the authors discuss the developments in audience research in three themes: (syndicated) audience research into readership of print media, ratings of television, and Internet, studies on the reach of individual advertisements, studies on the quality of reach, in particular the influence of the media context. The authors conclude with some suggestions: the need for cross-media data, the need for hybrid data collection that includes electronic and passive measurement of media use and the need for new metrics, such as measures of implicit processing of sponsored media content and measures of consumer generated brand communications.

Strategies and motives for resistance to persuasion: an integrative framework

Frontiers in Psychology, 2015

Persuasion is an important element of human communication. But in many situations, we resist rath... more Persuasion is an important element of human communication. But in many situations, we resist rather than embrace persuasive attempts. Resistance to persuasion has been studied in many different disciplines, including communication science, psychology, and marketing. The present paper reviews and connects these diverse literatures, and provides an organizing framework for understanding and studying resistance. Four clusters of resistance strategies are defined (avoidance, contesting, biased processing, and empowerment), and these clusters are related to different motivations for resisting persuasion (threat to freedom, reluctance to change, and concerns of deception). We propose that, while avoidance strategies may be triggered by any of these motivations, contesting strategies are linked primarily to concerns of deception, while empowerment and biased processing strategies are most common when people are reluctant to change.

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De relatie tussen objectieve en gepercipieerde interactiviteit van websites

Tijdschrift voor Communicatiewetenschap

The relationship between actual and perceived interactivity The relationship between actual and p... more The relationship between actual and perceived interactivity The relationship between actual and perceived interactivity The aim of this study is twofold. The first aim is to investigate two forms of interactivity on websites of the top global brands: actual and perceived interactivity. The second aim is to study the relationship between actual and perceived interactivity. By means of a content analysis and survey we mapped the level of actual and perceived interactivity of a large number of brand websites. The content analysis showed that functions within the active control dimension were more present than functions within the two-way communication dimension and the synchronicity dimensions. These differences were not found for perceived interactivity in the survey. Results also showed that there is a large incongruence between the level of actual and perceived interactivity, and that adding interactive functions to a website does not guarantee strong interactivity perceptions.

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Insight into everyday media use with multiple screens

International Journal of Advertising, 2017

Multiscreening has been shown to affect consumers' brand attitudes and their memory of advertisem... more Multiscreening has been shown to affect consumers' brand attitudes and their memory of advertisements. However, little is known about the prevalence of using multiple screens simultaneously. The aim of this study is to provide insight into multiscreening by examining its prevalence, the composition of screens, and who is likely to multiscreen. A diary study with a representative sample of the Dutch population (n = 2,399) was conducted. First, the results showed that almost 60% of the participants multiscreened at least once. They multiscreened on average three days a week, mostly on Sundays, and on average more than 80 minutes per day. Second, the most prevalent screen combinations were TV-smartphone, TV-laptop, and TV-tablet. Third, multiscreeners were on average 41 years old, predominantly female, have a higher than average education, and own on average more than four screens. Finally, it was found that, in general, younger participants multiscreened longer than older participants.

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Dissociating explicit and implicit effects of cross-media advertising

International Journal of Advertising, 2015

Knowledge of cross-media advertising effects is mainly based on explicit psychological measures, ... more Knowledge of cross-media advertising effects is mainly based on explicit psychological measures, such as self-reports. To fully understand the mechanisms responsible for the success of cross-media advertising, it is important to also use implicit measures. We used both types of measures to assess whether exposure to different media combinations affects the cognitive and evaluative impact of advertising. Results show that participants performed better on all explicit and implicit measures of memory and brand preference after exposure (versus no exposure) to target ads, which validated the use of these measures. Comparison of cross-media versus single medium exposure showed differences on the explicit level, but not on the implicit level. This suggests (1) that cross-media advantages may be driven by explicit rather than implicit memory mechanisms, and (2) that implicit advertising effects may require more drastic manipulations than context changes, such as varying the combination of media used for exposure to advertising.

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In ads we trust. Religiousness as a predictor of advertising trustworthiness and avoidance

Journal of Consumer Marketing, 2015

Purpose – This paper aims to provide insight into the relationship between religiousness, trust i... more Purpose – This paper aims to provide insight into the relationship between religiousness, trust in advertising and advertisement avoidance. Design/methodology/approach – A survey of 4,984 participants from the USA, the UK, Germany, Spain and France was conducted. Findings – This paper shows that religiousness is a (negative) predictor of avoidance of advertisements in traditional and digital media and that advertisement trustworthiness mediates this effect. Higher perceived trustworthiness of advertising among the more religious people leads to less advertisement avoidance. Less religious people trust advertising less and, consequently, show higher advertisement avoidance. The role of religiousness is explained by a positive relationship between religiousness and perceived advertisement trustworthiness because of religious people’s general conformity to authority and because of religion’s emphasis on the good of fellow human beings. Research limitations/implications – One limitation...

Media Guiding Consumers Across Different Stages of the Purchase Process

Marketing Dynamism & Sustainability: Things Change, Things Stay the Same…, 2015

Recent developments in the media landscape have fundamentally changed the way consumers search an... more Recent developments in the media landscape have fundamentally changed the way consumers search and use information to guide their purchase decisions. Insight into consumers' search for and use of information across media is still in its infancy. This paper aims to answer the question: which media are used in what stage of the purchase process for what type of products? A representative sample of 347 Dutch consumers was asked about recent purchases and the role of different media in the purchase process of this specific product. Results showed that media were most important in the stages of the purchase process before the actual purchase was made. Media that were most influential across the total purchase process were the Internet, TV and free door-to-door newspapers. Non-advertising media that were important were conventional shops and Word of Mouth. Consumers indicated that cinema, mail and outdoor advertising were least important in influencing their purchase decision. Various small differences were found between the role of specific media in the various stages of the purchase process. Interesting differences were found between high and low involvement products, between males and females and between younger and older consumers. The paper gives insights into the optimal choice of media and combinations of media for advertising campaigns.

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The Perceived Interactivity of Top Global Brand Websites and its Determinants

Advances in Advertising Research (Vol. 1), 2010

... 222 Hilde AM Voorveld, Peter C. Neijens, Edith G. Smit independent variables were the demogra... more

Investigating the prevalence and predictors of media multitasking across countries

International Journal of Communication

This study provides insight into the prevalence and predictors of different forms of media multit... more This study provides insight into the prevalence and predictors of different forms of media multitasking across different countries. Results of a survey of 5,973 participants from six countries (the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and France) demonstrated that media multitasking is most common in the United States and is least common in the Netherlands. The study demonstrates that the type of media multitasking differs across countries. Whereas media multitasking with combinations of new media is most prevalent in countries characterized as polychronic, media multitasking with traditional media is most prevalent in countries that can be characterized as monochronic. Demographics predict media multitasking differently across countries, with the exception of age, which is a universal predictor.

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Readers' Reactions to Mixtures of Advertising and Editorial Content in Magazines

Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 2005

This article focuses on reactions toward two mixtures of advertising and editorial content in mag... more This article focuses on reactions toward two mixtures of advertising and editorial content in magazines, namely theme features and advertorials. A survey among subscribers (n=316) to five different magazines showed that the most editorial mixture generated the most attention, appreciation, and acceptance. Furthermore, audience reactions toward mixtures were influenced by the perceived authority and informational value of the magazines. The findings did not substantiate concerns that have been expressed in the literature about the misleading character of these subtle forms of advertising. Intertwining of advertising and editorial content appears to be a promising format for advertisers and publishers.

Customer Magazines: Effects of Commerciality on Readers' Reactions

Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 2010

ABSTRACT This study is the first to focus on effects of commerciality of customer magazines on re... more ABSTRACT This study is the first to focus on effects of commerciality of customer magazines on readers&#39; reactions. The experiment (N=349 students) involves six versions of the same customer magazine that vary along two dimensions of commerciality: the amount of brand integration (0%, 50%, or 100%) and the source (neutral or commercial). The findings show that the more commercial the customer magazine, the more frequently it is perceived as having a persuasive intent and as being less credible. Furthermore, the magazine&#39;s commerciality negatively affects readers&#39; attitudes toward the magazine, via perceptions of credibility and the magazine&#39;s persuasive intent. Source credibility and persuasion knowledge theory support these indirect effects.

Cross-media Advertising: Brand Promotion in an Age of Media Convergence

Media and Convergence Management, 2013

Cross-media advertising, in which more than one medium platform is used to communicate related br... more Cross-media advertising, in which more than one medium platform is used to communicate related brand content, has become widespread. Several reasons for cross-media strategies can be distinguished: target group extension, complementary effects, repetition, and synergy. Media synergy—the added value of a medium as a result of the presence of another medium—is considered a possible main advantage of cross-media advertising. Four processes which may underlie cross-media synergy effects are described in this chapter: encoding variability, multiple source credibility, forward encoding, and backward retrieval. This chapter also discusses factors that influence the effects of cross-media advertising, such as fit, sequence, and the multitasking consumer.

The role of media sequence and involvement in cross-media campaigns

Edith G . Smit

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