Papers by Johannes Müller
The emergence of sedentary farming economies, especially in contexts intensified by plow agricult... more The emergence of sedentary farming economies, especially in contexts intensified by plow agriculture, has been argued to underpin marked increases in economic inequality and its intergenerational transmission across Eurasia. To assess this presumed causal relationship, we examine relational (burials) and material (house sizes) inequalities in the Carpathian Basin, a large region in central Europe, from the time the first farmers arrived in southeastern Europe through the next five millennia to the Bronze Age. We find that although farming did increase the potentials for both relational and material inequalities, the potential was rarely reached and then only for short durations. We identify a series of leveling mechanisms varying over time, including the removal of material wealth from circulation through the placement in graves, community fission, and investments of surplus labor in infrastructural investments. In the Carpathian Basin, only after at least 5000 years were the intergenerational potentials of material wealth transmissions more broadly realized.
RADONRadikarbondaten online. Datenbank mitteleuropäischer 14C-Daten für das Neolithikum und die frühe Bronzezeit
Dieser Artikel fasst alte und neue Daten für die Trichterbecher-Gesellschaften zusammen, um eine ... more Dieser Artikel fasst alte und neue Daten für die Trichterbecher-Gesellschaften zusammen, um eine neue Chronologietabelle, die für einzelne Regionen differenziert werden kann, zu erstellen. Der Vergleich zwischen Skandinavien und Nordmitteleuropa eröffnet die Möglichkeit, unterschiedliche Entwicklungen in einem gemeinsamen Zeitrahmen aufzudecken.
In: J. Müller, M. Hinz, M. Wunderlich (Eds.), Megaliths - Societies - Landscapes. Early Monumentality and Social Differentiation in Neolithic Europe Bonn: Habelt 921–938., 2019
Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliograf... more Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie. Detailliertere Informationen sind im Internet über <http://dnb.d-nb.de> abrufbar.
Haug, A., Käppel, L. and Müller, J. (eds.), Past Landscapes. The Dynamics of Interaction between Society, Landscape and Culture. Leiden: Sidestone Press, 87-106., 2019
The Neolithic and Bronze Age burial ground of Flintbek provides a well-documented case study of a... more The Neolithic and Bronze Age burial ground of Flintbek provides a well-documented case study of a monumental landscape, whose shaping and development through ritual practices of monument building can be studied over the course of centuries. The minute excavation and data analyses (Mischka 2011a) enable a discussion of the interrelations between collective social practices of monument building and modification as well as the practical effects those individual monumental features – and the monumental landscapes as a whole – would have had on those social collectives. We want to explore pragmatic theory as a tool to better understand the dialectic between the creation and recreation of landscapes and the reproduction of social organization in the course of social practices.
This paper aims to highlight how an inquiry into prehistoric social practices based on semiotic pragmatism, as was formulated by Charles Sanders Peirce, provides a theory on how meanings and social relations are created and recreated in the course of social practices, a model explaining how these practices as material and spatially situated phenomena can be used to explore the interrelation of social practices and their material outcomes, which have practical consequences for subsequent practices and social relations. We exemplify this by the reconstruction of building activities on the megalithic long barrow Flintbek LA3, Northern Germany, 3500 3400 BCE. Here, it can be demonstrated how construction activities over the course of a century are both shaped by and actively shape social relations. New developments can be explained by a creative recombination of already existing singular components. A process of complexification and enlargement of building activities is set into motion, including inter-group competition. This development is terminated around 3400 BCE, whereafter grave construction activities are re-directed towards a smaller number of collectively used passage graves, which further enhance the level of complexity of design, but dispense with the unequal, competitive component. This represents a process of social collectivisation paralleled with the establishment of first larger villages in the region.
Nature Humanities Social Sciences Communications, 2024
Marzian, J., Laabs, J., Müller, J. and Requate, T. (2024) 'On the Mounds of Inequality: Prehistor... more Marzian, J., Laabs, J., Müller, J. and Requate, T. (2024) 'On the Mounds of Inequality: Prehistoric Burial Mounds in Northern Central Europe Reveal Increasing Inequality Through Four Millennia', Nature Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11:557 1-12 .
While our understanding of long-term trends in material wealth inequality in prehistoric societies has expanded in recent decades, we know little about long-term trends in other dimensions of wealth and about social developments within particular societal segments. This paper provides the first evidence of inequality in relational wealth within the upper societal segment of a supra-regional network of communities in prehistoric Central Europe over the first four millennia BCE. To this end, we compiled a novel dataset of 5000 single-funeral burial mounds and employed burial mound volume as a proxy for the buried individual's relational wealth. Our analysis reveals a consistently high level of inequality among the buried individuals, showing a wave-like pattern with an increasing trend over time. Additionally, our findings show temporal shifts in the size of the upper societal segment. Based on a review of archeological and paleo-environmental evidence, the temporal change in inequality may be explained by technological progress, climate and population dynamics, trade and social networks, and/or sociopolitical transformations.
PLOS ONE, 2024
Fuchs, K., Hofmann, R., Shatilo, L., Schlütz, F., Kirleis, W., Storch, S., Chabanyuk, V. and Müll... more Fuchs, K., Hofmann, R., Shatilo, L., Schlütz, F., Kirleis, W., Storch, S., Chabanyuk, V. and Müller, J. (2024) 'Life and death in Trypillia times: Interdisciplinary analyses of the exceptional human remains from the settlement of Kosenivka, Ukraine (3700–3600 BCE)', PLoS ONE
19(12), 1-56.
We present an interdisciplinary analysis of finds from the Trypillia settlement of Kosenivka, Ukraine (ca. 3700-3600 BCE, Trypillia C1-2), that links information on human, faunal, and botanical remains with archaeological data to provide exceptionally detailed insights into life and death at a giant Trypillia settlement. We obtained osteological, palaeopathological, morphological and histotaphonomic data from human bone fragments; performed carbon and nitrogen stable isotopic analysis of human and animal bone to calculate food webs; modelled newly generated radiocarbon dates to refine the site's chronology; and contextualised the finds within the phenomenon of a general lack of human remains in Early and Middle Trypillia times through a literature review. Regarding the sphere of life, the biological profile of seven identified individuals reconstructed from the highly fragmented and partially burnt bones represents a demographic cross-section of the population. We documented disease symptoms common in the Chalcolithic and two cases of perimortem cranial trauma. Furthermore, food web calculations demonstrate the large contribution of cereals to the protein component of the human diet, which is supported by dental observations. We suggest that livestock were a major manure producer for crop cultivation, while meat contributed less than 10% to the human diet. Regarding the sphere of death, multidisciplinary data suggest a deadly fire event as one probable scenario for the formation of the Kosenivka find assemblage. This could be a rare example that sheds light on household size in prehistoric times. Furthermore, it adds to the extremely small number of human bone finds in Early and Middle Trypillia sites (A-C1), preceding the shift to extramural burials in its late phase (C2) in some regions. Altogether, our results indicate the huge explanatory potential that has yet to be unlocked in the rare and often poorly preserved bioarchaeological archives of the Cucuteni-Trypillia phenomenon.
PNAS, 2023
The supporting Information for: Schlütz, F., Hofmann, R., Dal Corso, M., Pashkevychd, G., Dreibro... more The supporting Information for: Schlütz, F., Hofmann, R., Dal Corso, M., Pashkevychd, G., Dreibrodt, S., Müller, J., Shatilo, M., Ternaa, A., Fuchs, K., Videiko, M., Rud, V., Mülle, J. and Kirleis, W. (2023) 'Isotopes prove advanced, integral crop production, and stockbreeding strategies nourished Trypillia mega-populations', PNAS, 1-10.
Human social development from
foragers to citizens was linked to
amplified agricultural production
to feed the growing settlement
populations. The first settlements
in Europe with large numbers of
inhabitants (up to 15,000) were
built some 6,100 B.P. by Trypillia
societies in modern-day Moldova
and Ukraine. Each of these
“mega-sites” existed for multiple
generations. The isotopic
composition of bones and plants
tells us that cattle were
intensively pastured to provide
manure for the labor-intensive
growing of pulses and that the
human diet was based mostly on
pulses and cereals. There is no
discernible economic reason for
the demise of these mega-sites.
Developing sociopolitical
inequalities likely caused people
to leave the mega-sites and
re-establish smaller settlements.
PNAS, 2023
Schlütz, F., Hofmann, R., Dal Corso, M., Pashkevychd, G., Dreibrodt, S., Müller, J., Shatilo, M.,... more Schlütz, F., Hofmann, R., Dal Corso, M., Pashkevychd, G., Dreibrodt, S., Müller, J., Shatilo, M., Ternaa, A., Fuchs, K., Videiko, M., Rud, V., Mülle, J. and Kirleis, W. (2023) 'Isotopes prove advanced, integral crop production, and stockbreeding strategies nourished Trypillia mega-populations', PNAS, 1-10.
Human social development from foragers to citizens was linked to amplified agricultural production to feed the growing settlement populations. The first settlements in Europe with large numbers of inhabitants (up to 15,000) were built some 6,100 B.P. by Trypillia societies in modern-day Moldova and Ukraine. Each of these "mega-sites" existed for multiple generations. The isotopic composition of bones and plants tells us that cattle were intensively pastured to provide manure for the labor-intensive growing of pulses and that the human diet was based mostly on pulses and cereals. There is no discernible economic reason for the demise of these mega-sites. Developing sociopolitical inequalities likely caused people to leave the mega-sites and re-establish smaller settlements.
Journal of Neolithic Archaeology, 2023
Müller, J., Kruckenberg, C., Großmann, R. and Luckner, J. (2023) ' A Map of European Megaliths', ... more Müller, J., Kruckenberg, C., Großmann, R. and Luckner, J. (2023) ' A Map of European Megaliths', Journal of Neolithic Archaeology, 25, 165–173.
As part of a request from the “European Megalithic Routes” organization
to its Scientific Advisory Board for a comprehensive map of European
megaliths, an attempt was made to produce the corresponding map using existing publications on megalithic tombs. As a result, 17409 published megalithic tombs were mapped. This endeavour forms the basis for
a continuous and necessary improvement of a map of European megalithic sites, especially regarding the architectural classification of the individual megaliths.
PLOS ONE, 2024
We present an interdisciplinary analysis of finds from the Trypillia settlement of Kosenivka, Ukr... more We present an interdisciplinary analysis of finds from the Trypillia settlement of Kosenivka, Ukraine (ca. 3700-3600 BCE, Trypillia C1-2), that links information on human, faunal, and botanical remains with archaeological data to provide exceptionally detailed insights into life and death at a giant Trypillia settlement. We obtained osteological, palaeopathological, morphological and histotaphonomic data from human bone fragments; performed carbon and nitrogen stable isotopic analysis of human and animal bone to calculate food webs; modelled newly generated radiocarbon dates to refine the site's chronology; and contextualised the finds within the phenomenon of a general lack of human remains in Early and Middle Trypillia times through a literature review. Regarding the sphere of life, the biological profile of seven identified individuals reconstructed from the highly fragmented and partially burnt bones represents a demographic cross-section of the population. We documented disease symptoms common in the Chalcolithic and two cases of perimortem cranial trauma. Furthermore, food web calculations demonstrate the large contribution of cereals to the protein component of the human diet, which is supported by dental observations. We suggest that livestock were a major manure producer for crop cultivation, while meat contributed less than 10% to the human diet. Regarding the sphere of death, multidisciplinary data suggest a deadly fire event as one probable scenario for the formation of the Kosenivka find assemblage. This could be a rare example that sheds light on household size in prehistoric times. Furthermore, it adds to the extremely small number of human bone finds in Early and Middle Trypillia sites (A-C1), preceding the shift to extramural burials in its late phase (C2) in some regions. Altogether, our results indicate the huge explanatory potential that has yet to be unlocked in the rare and often poorly preserved bioarchaeological archives of the Cucuteni-Trypillia phenomenon.
Journal of Neolithic Archaeology, 2023
In the years 2022 and 2023, the Trypillia hilltop settlement of Trinca-La Șanț in northern Moldov... more In the years 2022 and 2023, the Trypillia hilltop settlement of Trinca-La Șanț in northern Moldova was investigated and excavated by the CRC1266 in collaboration with the State University of Moldova. As a result, we unveiled the basic structures of the 25 ha fortified settlement, which, adapted to the topography, combines the principles of linear and concentric rows of houses. Based on the 14 C data available to date, it can be assumed that the settlement dates from 3950 to 3650 BCE. Of the 320 houses discovered, up to 100 existed simultaneously, which corresponds to a maximum number of inhabitants of 250-1000 people. δ 13 C/δ 15 N isotope values of domestic animals indicate an extensive economy that corresponds to that of other, similarly large or mega-sites. Research questions As part of the CRC1266 investigations into transformation processes, we selected the northern Moldovan site of Trinca-La Șanț to investigate specific changes within the late Trypillian society. Several reasons prompted this decision, all of which tie back to three aspects.
Vegetation, History and Archaeobotany, 2023
Kirleis, W., Dal Corso, M., Pashkevyech, G., Schlütz, F., Hofmann, R., Terna, A., Dreibrodt, S., ... more Kirleis, W., Dal Corso, M., Pashkevyech, G., Schlütz, F., Hofmann, R., Terna, A., Dreibrodt, S., Rud, V., Videiko, M. Y. and Müller, J. (2023) 'A complex subsistence regime revealed for Cucuteni-Trypillia sites in Chalcolithic eastern Europe based on new and old macrobotanical data' Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-023-00936-y
We present a comprehensive data-based characterization of the subsistence economy of Chalcolithic Cucuteni-Trypillia societies (CTS) on the Moldovian and Suceava plateaus and the Podolian and the Dnieper uplands. This study is based on a quantitative evaluation of archaeobotanical samples from 34 settlement sites, with a focus on Trypillia mega-sites and on stable isotopic analysis of ancient crop residues. The isotopic analysis allows us to identify specific cultivation strategies, which show a close relationship with animal husbandry for manure. We describe the economy of the Trypillia mega-sites as having been based on an elaborate agricultural system, in which the inhabitants knew how to grow crops that could withstand the ecological constraints of growth, especially along the forest steppe ecotone. We also argue that the agglomeration of greater population densities at these mega-sites contributed to landscape change from woodland and forest to open grassland and steppe. Following on from this, we suggest that cultivation practices of the CTS were important in the establishment of the present-day cultural steppe in this region.
PLOS One, 2023
Brozio, J.P., Stos-Gale, Z., Müller, J., Müller-Scheeßel, N., Schultrich, S., Fritsch, B., Jürgen... more Brozio, J.P., Stos-Gale, Z., Müller, J., Müller-Scheeßel, N., Schultrich, S., Fritsch, B., Jürgens, F. and Skorna, H. (2023) 'The origin of Neolithic copper on the central Northern European plain and in Southern Scandinavia: Connectivities on a European scale' PloS ONE 18(5) https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283007
The production, distribution and use of copper objects and the development of metallurgical skills in Neolithic Northern Central Europe and Southern Scandinavia are linked to early centres of copper metallurgy of South East Central Europe and Southeast Europe. A total of 45 Neolithic copper objects, until now the largest sample of Early Neolithic objects from the Northern Central European Plain and Southern Scandinavia, were selected for new lead isotope analyses. They aided in the identification of the origin of the copper: These new analyses indicate that the copper ore deposits in Southeastern Europe, especially from the Serbian mining areas, were used for the Early Neolithic northern artefacts (ca. 4100-3300 BC). The most likely sources of copper for the few Middle Neolithic artefacts (ca. 3300-2800 BC) seem to be from the Slovak Ore Mountains, the Serbian mining areas and the Eastern Alps, whereas deposits of the Slovak Ore Mountains and the Alpine region were used for the Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2300-1700 BC) artefacts. For the artefacts dated after 2000 BC, the Great Orme mine in Wales also appears to have been the source of copper for the analysed metals. The use of copper from different regions of Europe probably reflects changing social and cultural connectivities on a European scale and the changing chronology of copper exploitation.
Müller, J., Käppel, L., Ricci, A. and Weinelt, M. (2023), 'Social, environmental, and cultural co... more Müller, J., Käppel, L., Ricci, A. and Weinelt, M. (2023), 'Social, environmental, and cultural connectivity: A concept for an understanding of society and the environment', In: Müller, J. (eds.) Connectivity Matters! Social, Environmental and Cultural Connectivity in Past Societies (Leiden 2022) 13-24.
In our daily experiences, we can observe how the existence and the degree of connectivities between society and the environment, as well as between and within societies, determine political, social, cultural, economic and even ecological life. 'Connected' societies appear to enable a more peaceful coexistence, whereas disentangled societies can be the basis for severe conflicts. Thus, connectivity often creates the possibility for resilient reactions, for example, to climate change or pandemics. Decisive in this respect can be the connection between the natural and the cultural environment (Guedes and Crabtree 2016; Müller 2018). Against the background of a more general perspective, various aspects will be discussed here, which represent connectivity as the most important concept for an analysis of the environment and society and their dynamic relationship. The use of knowledge about the past, for instance, the tracking of trends or reflections in distant times, enables a special view of the present.
Megaliths of the world, 2022
In southern Scandinavia and the northern central European lowlands, megalithic graves were erecte... more In southern Scandinavia and the northern central European lowlands, megalithic graves were erected mainly between 3600 and 3100 BCE. These collective tombs shape the cultural landscape of the so-called older and middle Funnel Beaker (TRB) societies. At this time, a ‘megalithic boom’ occurred with the introduction of new agricultural techniques such
as ard ploughing, animal traction, manuring, and land clearance. Recent research projects have considerably increased our knowledge of the builders of the megalithic sites. In Falbygden, Sweden, and in Holstein, northern Germany, projects have informed us about the environmental conditions, economic practices, and burial customs of the builders of the
Nordic megalithic tombs. On the Cimbrian Peninsula, excavations have helped to clarify the relationship between causewayed enclosures and megaliths. It now seems that the megalithic boom was connected both to agricultural innovations and to a peak in ceremonial activities in general.
Tripolye Mega-Sites: "Collective Computational Abilities" of Prehistoric Proto-Urban Societies ?, 2022
J. Müller/R. Hofmann/M. Shatilo, Tripolye Mega-Sites: “Collective Computational Abilities” of Pre... more J. Müller/R. Hofmann/M. Shatilo, Tripolye Mega-Sites: “Collective Computational Abilities” of Prehistoric Proto-Urban Societies? Journal of Social Computing 3, 1, 2022, 75-90, doi: 10.23919/JSC.2021.0034.
In the East European region between Prut and Dnieper, proto-urban mega-sites developed ca. 4100−3600 BCE with population agglomerations of around 10000 inhabitants per site. An outline of complexity categories, based on P. Turchin et al. (2018), illustrates that "computational abilities" are first developed to make the shift from dispersed to agglomerated settlement patterns. The development of an internal decision-making system for a polity that organizes communication via public buildings on different levels, together with a site-specific track system, may be responsible for this shift (or made it possible). However, after generations, this communication pattern was not developed into further collective communication abilities (e. g., into a writing system), while at the same time a tendency toward centralizing decision processes probably destroyed the communication flow. This ultimately led to the collapse of Tripolye mega-sites.
The social organisation of the Vinča culture settlements, 2021
K. Rassmann/M. Furholt/N. Müller-Scheeßel/J. Müller, The social organisation of the Vinča culture... more K. Rassmann/M. Furholt/N. Müller-Scheeßel/J. Müller, The social organisation of the Vinča culture settlements. New evidence from magnetic and archaeological excavation data. In: M. Radivojević/B. W. Roberts/M. Marić/J. Kuzmanović Cvetković/T. Rehren (Hrsg.), The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia (Oxford 2021) 455–459.
New large-scale magnetic surveys of Vinča period settlements can provide fresh insights into the social organisation of Late Neolithic communities. In the following chapter we compare the results of such surveys of a large region of southeastern Europe with
the regional archaeological study conducted in the Bosnian Visoko valley (Müller et al. 2013a) in order to correct previous estimations of settlement sizes and population numbers and to discuss the internal social composition of Vinča period settlements.
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Papers by Johannes Müller
This paper aims to highlight how an inquiry into prehistoric social practices based on semiotic pragmatism, as was formulated by Charles Sanders Peirce, provides a theory on how meanings and social relations are created and recreated in the course of social practices, a model explaining how these practices as material and spatially situated phenomena can be used to explore the interrelation of social practices and their material outcomes, which have practical consequences for subsequent practices and social relations. We exemplify this by the reconstruction of building activities on the megalithic long barrow Flintbek LA3, Northern Germany, 3500 3400 BCE. Here, it can be demonstrated how construction activities over the course of a century are both shaped by and actively shape social relations. New developments can be explained by a creative recombination of already existing singular components. A process of complexification and enlargement of building activities is set into motion, including inter-group competition. This development is terminated around 3400 BCE, whereafter grave construction activities are re-directed towards a smaller number of collectively used passage graves, which further enhance the level of complexity of design, but dispense with the unequal, competitive component. This represents a process of social collectivisation paralleled with the establishment of first larger villages in the region.
While our understanding of long-term trends in material wealth inequality in prehistoric societies has expanded in recent decades, we know little about long-term trends in other dimensions of wealth and about social developments within particular societal segments. This paper provides the first evidence of inequality in relational wealth within the upper societal segment of a supra-regional network of communities in prehistoric Central Europe over the first four millennia BCE. To this end, we compiled a novel dataset of 5000 single-funeral burial mounds and employed burial mound volume as a proxy for the buried individual's relational wealth. Our analysis reveals a consistently high level of inequality among the buried individuals, showing a wave-like pattern with an increasing trend over time. Additionally, our findings show temporal shifts in the size of the upper societal segment. Based on a review of archeological and paleo-environmental evidence, the temporal change in inequality may be explained by technological progress, climate and population dynamics, trade and social networks, and/or sociopolitical transformations.
19(12), 1-56.
We present an interdisciplinary analysis of finds from the Trypillia settlement of Kosenivka, Ukraine (ca. 3700-3600 BCE, Trypillia C1-2), that links information on human, faunal, and botanical remains with archaeological data to provide exceptionally detailed insights into life and death at a giant Trypillia settlement. We obtained osteological, palaeopathological, morphological and histotaphonomic data from human bone fragments; performed carbon and nitrogen stable isotopic analysis of human and animal bone to calculate food webs; modelled newly generated radiocarbon dates to refine the site's chronology; and contextualised the finds within the phenomenon of a general lack of human remains in Early and Middle Trypillia times through a literature review. Regarding the sphere of life, the biological profile of seven identified individuals reconstructed from the highly fragmented and partially burnt bones represents a demographic cross-section of the population. We documented disease symptoms common in the Chalcolithic and two cases of perimortem cranial trauma. Furthermore, food web calculations demonstrate the large contribution of cereals to the protein component of the human diet, which is supported by dental observations. We suggest that livestock were a major manure producer for crop cultivation, while meat contributed less than 10% to the human diet. Regarding the sphere of death, multidisciplinary data suggest a deadly fire event as one probable scenario for the formation of the Kosenivka find assemblage. This could be a rare example that sheds light on household size in prehistoric times. Furthermore, it adds to the extremely small number of human bone finds in Early and Middle Trypillia sites (A-C1), preceding the shift to extramural burials in its late phase (C2) in some regions. Altogether, our results indicate the huge explanatory potential that has yet to be unlocked in the rare and often poorly preserved bioarchaeological archives of the Cucuteni-Trypillia phenomenon.
Human social development from
foragers to citizens was linked to
amplified agricultural production
to feed the growing settlement
populations. The first settlements
in Europe with large numbers of
inhabitants (up to 15,000) were
built some 6,100 B.P. by Trypillia
societies in modern-day Moldova
and Ukraine. Each of these
“mega-sites” existed for multiple
generations. The isotopic
composition of bones and plants
tells us that cattle were
intensively pastured to provide
manure for the labor-intensive
growing of pulses and that the
human diet was based mostly on
pulses and cereals. There is no
discernible economic reason for
the demise of these mega-sites.
Developing sociopolitical
inequalities likely caused people
to leave the mega-sites and
re-establish smaller settlements.
Human social development from foragers to citizens was linked to amplified agricultural production to feed the growing settlement populations. The first settlements in Europe with large numbers of inhabitants (up to 15,000) were built some 6,100 B.P. by Trypillia societies in modern-day Moldova and Ukraine. Each of these "mega-sites" existed for multiple generations. The isotopic composition of bones and plants tells us that cattle were intensively pastured to provide manure for the labor-intensive growing of pulses and that the human diet was based mostly on pulses and cereals. There is no discernible economic reason for the demise of these mega-sites. Developing sociopolitical inequalities likely caused people to leave the mega-sites and re-establish smaller settlements.
As part of a request from the “European Megalithic Routes” organization
to its Scientific Advisory Board for a comprehensive map of European
megaliths, an attempt was made to produce the corresponding map using existing publications on megalithic tombs. As a result, 17409 published megalithic tombs were mapped. This endeavour forms the basis for
a continuous and necessary improvement of a map of European megalithic sites, especially regarding the architectural classification of the individual megaliths.
We present a comprehensive data-based characterization of the subsistence economy of Chalcolithic Cucuteni-Trypillia societies (CTS) on the Moldovian and Suceava plateaus and the Podolian and the Dnieper uplands. This study is based on a quantitative evaluation of archaeobotanical samples from 34 settlement sites, with a focus on Trypillia mega-sites and on stable isotopic analysis of ancient crop residues. The isotopic analysis allows us to identify specific cultivation strategies, which show a close relationship with animal husbandry for manure. We describe the economy of the Trypillia mega-sites as having been based on an elaborate agricultural system, in which the inhabitants knew how to grow crops that could withstand the ecological constraints of growth, especially along the forest steppe ecotone. We also argue that the agglomeration of greater population densities at these mega-sites contributed to landscape change from woodland and forest to open grassland and steppe. Following on from this, we suggest that cultivation practices of the CTS were important in the establishment of the present-day cultural steppe in this region.
The production, distribution and use of copper objects and the development of metallurgical skills in Neolithic Northern Central Europe and Southern Scandinavia are linked to early centres of copper metallurgy of South East Central Europe and Southeast Europe. A total of 45 Neolithic copper objects, until now the largest sample of Early Neolithic objects from the Northern Central European Plain and Southern Scandinavia, were selected for new lead isotope analyses. They aided in the identification of the origin of the copper: These new analyses indicate that the copper ore deposits in Southeastern Europe, especially from the Serbian mining areas, were used for the Early Neolithic northern artefacts (ca. 4100-3300 BC). The most likely sources of copper for the few Middle Neolithic artefacts (ca. 3300-2800 BC) seem to be from the Slovak Ore Mountains, the Serbian mining areas and the Eastern Alps, whereas deposits of the Slovak Ore Mountains and the Alpine region were used for the Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2300-1700 BC) artefacts. For the artefacts dated after 2000 BC, the Great Orme mine in Wales also appears to have been the source of copper for the analysed metals. The use of copper from different regions of Europe probably reflects changing social and cultural connectivities on a European scale and the changing chronology of copper exploitation.
In our daily experiences, we can observe how the existence and the degree of connectivities between society and the environment, as well as between and within societies, determine political, social, cultural, economic and even ecological life. 'Connected' societies appear to enable a more peaceful coexistence, whereas disentangled societies can be the basis for severe conflicts. Thus, connectivity often creates the possibility for resilient reactions, for example, to climate change or pandemics. Decisive in this respect can be the connection between the natural and the cultural environment (Guedes and Crabtree 2016; Müller 2018). Against the background of a more general perspective, various aspects will be discussed here, which represent connectivity as the most important concept for an analysis of the environment and society and their dynamic relationship. The use of knowledge about the past, for instance, the tracking of trends or reflections in distant times, enables a special view of the present.
as ard ploughing, animal traction, manuring, and land clearance. Recent research projects have considerably increased our knowledge of the builders of the megalithic sites. In Falbygden, Sweden, and in Holstein, northern Germany, projects have informed us about the environmental conditions, economic practices, and burial customs of the builders of the
Nordic megalithic tombs. On the Cimbrian Peninsula, excavations have helped to clarify the relationship between causewayed enclosures and megaliths. It now seems that the megalithic boom was connected both to agricultural innovations and to a peak in ceremonial activities in general.
In the East European region between Prut and Dnieper, proto-urban mega-sites developed ca. 4100−3600 BCE with population agglomerations of around 10000 inhabitants per site. An outline of complexity categories, based on P. Turchin et al. (2018), illustrates that "computational abilities" are first developed to make the shift from dispersed to agglomerated settlement patterns. The development of an internal decision-making system for a polity that organizes communication via public buildings on different levels, together with a site-specific track system, may be responsible for this shift (or made it possible). However, after generations, this communication pattern was not developed into further collective communication abilities (e. g., into a writing system), while at the same time a tendency toward centralizing decision processes probably destroyed the communication flow. This ultimately led to the collapse of Tripolye mega-sites.
New large-scale magnetic surveys of Vinča period settlements can provide fresh insights into the social organisation of Late Neolithic communities. In the following chapter we compare the results of such surveys of a large region of southeastern Europe with
the regional archaeological study conducted in the Bosnian Visoko valley (Müller et al. 2013a) in order to correct previous estimations of settlement sizes and population numbers and to discuss the internal social composition of Vinča period settlements.