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Erica Hepper

University of Surrey, Psychology, Faculty Member

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Papers by Erica Hepper

Strategies for Maintaining a Positive Body Image in the Face of Stigma

Journal of Health Psychology, 2025

This study aimed to explore how individuals with obesity, who have a positive body image (an acce... more This study aimed to explore how individuals with obesity, who have a positive body image (an accepting and favourable view of the body), maintain this positive image in the face of weight stigma. A qualitative methodology was used to explore the experiences of 16 individuals (11 women; 5 men) using one-to-one semi-structured interviews. Four themes were developed using Thematic Analysis: Experiences of stigma, Self-evaluative cognitive strategies, Social Behavioural strategies, and What Helps? Themes included strategies that reflect self-affirmation, defensive self-protection, and social support. The results also included strategies not found in previous research, such as confronting the source of the stigmatization. Moreover, no negative strategies, such as eating or self-harm, were reported. In addition, the participants spoke of the positive effect of social support but did not report seeking this support, which suggests that perceived social support may be more useful than enacted support.

Examining The Dynamic Impact of Emotional Apologies on Forgiveness

Emotion, 2025

Expressing emotions within apologies can be important in facilitating forgiveness. We reviewed cu... more Expressing emotions within apologies can be important in facilitating forgiveness. We reviewed current evidence to uncover what types of emotional apologies have been studied, in terms of specific emotions expressed in apologies and in what contexts they have been examined. From this wider literature, we then conducted a meta-analysis (k = 22 studies) on the effect of emotional apologies compared to no emotion expression or neutral states on levels of forgiveness. We found that expressing emotions can generally facilitate higher levels of forgiveness. However, it was evident that there has been a narrow range of emotions manipulated in past apology contexts, and very little research comparing the impact of emotional apologies from differing perspectives (i.e., victims, perpetrators, and bystanders). The findings highlighted the need to expand and improve on how emotional apologies are studied and eventually delivered in reaction to societal events.

From Rosy Past to Happy and Flourishing Present: Nostalgia as a Resource for Hedonic and Eudaimonic Wellbeing

Current Opinion in Psychology, 2023

We review recent evidence of nostalgia’s ability to enhance and buffer different types of wellbei... more We review recent evidence of nostalgia’s ability to enhance and buffer different types of wellbeing. Nostalgia has been associated with increased hedonic wellbeing (e.g., life satisfaction, happiness) in various contexts. Nostalgia is triggered by and can mitigate against threats to hedonic wellbeing. Nostalgia also increases eudaimonic wellbeing (e.g., perceptions of vitality, environmental mastery, positive relationships) and mitigates threats to eudaimonic wellbeing through varying mechanisms. Two applications of these wellbeing benefits are being explored in recent research: nostalgia can help understand how people buffer negative psychological effects of the COVID-19 pandemic; and is being harnessed for wellbeing interventions. More experimental and longitudinal research is needed to establish and maximize the potential of nostalgia for bolstering resilience.

Understanding the underestimation of self-report weight: The roles of narcissism and accountability

PLOS One, 2024

Self-reported height and weight is widely used to calculate Body Mass Index (BMI) and yet little ... more Self-reported height and weight is widely used to calculate Body Mass Index (BMI) and yet
little is known about factors that affect accuracy. This study investigated the motivational
characteristics–narcissism and social desirability—that influence the accuracy of selfreported
weight and how they interact with accountability (telling participants that their
weight will be verified). A two-way between-subjects design was used (accountable vs not
accountable) with motivational moderators (narcissism and social desirability). Participants
(N = 80; Mean Age = 34.63; 58.8% Female) were randomly allocated to accountable (told
that their weight would be verified in a follow-up lab session) or not-accountable (no information
given) conditions. In Session 1, participants self-reported motivational (social desirability
and narcissism) and anthropometric (height and weight) measures online. In Session 2
(24 hours later), objective measures of height and weight were taken in the lab. There was a
significant interaction between condition and maladaptive narcissism level. Being told that
weight would be later verified improved accuracy of self-reported weight, but only for those
low in maladaptive narcissism. Accountability improves the accuracy of self-report weight
data, but not for individuals high in narcissism. Though based on a modest sample, these
findings suggest that the under-estimation of self- report weight serves a self-protective
function and maladaptive narcissism may be a useful covariate to include in research using
self-report weight estimates.

Pancultural Nostalgia in Action: Prevalence, Triggers, and Psychological Functions of Nostalgia Across Cultures

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 2024

Nostalgia is a social, self-relevant, and bittersweet (although mostly positive) emotion that ari... more Nostalgia is a social, self-relevant, and bittersweet (although mostly positive) emotion that arises when reflecting on fond past memories and serves key psychological functions. The majority of evidence concerning the prevalence, triggers, and functions of nostalgia has been amassed in samples from a handful of largely Western cultures. If nostalgia is a fundamental psychological resource, it should perform similar functions across cultures, although its operational dynamics may be shaped by culture. This study (N = 2606) examined dispositional nostalgia, self-reported triggers of nostalgia, and functions of experimentally-induced nostalgia in young adults across 28 countries and a special administrative region of China (i.e., Hong Kong). Results indicated that nostalgia is frequently experienced across cultures, albeit better valued in more-developed countries (i.e., higher national wealth and life-expectancy). Nostalgia is triggered by psychological threats (especially in warmer countries), sensory stimuli (especially in more-developed countries), and social gatherings (especially in less-developed countries). The positive or negative affect prompted by experimentally-induced nostalgia varied by country, but was mild overall. More importantly, recalling a nostalgic (vs. ordinary) memory increased social connectedness, self-continuity, and meaning in life across cultures. In less-developed countries, recalling an ordinary memory also conferred some of these functions, reducing the effect size of nostalgia. Finally, recalling a nostalgic (vs. ordinary) memory augmented state satisfaction with life in countries with lower quality of living (i.e., lower life-expectancy and life-satisfaction). Overall, findings confirm the relevance of nostalgia across a wide range of cultures and indicate cultural nuances in its functioning.

Are They Out to Get Me? Individual Differences in Nonclinical Paranoia as a Function of Narcissism and Defensive Self-Protection

Journal of Personality, 2022

Objective: Three studies tested a novel model of the narcissism-paranoia link, whereby narcissism... more Objective: Three studies tested a novel model of the narcissism-paranoia link, whereby narcissism (primarily its socially maladaptive facets) is associated with paranoia via over-use of defensive self-protection and/or under-use of self-affirmation.
Methods: In Study 1, 245 online volunteers (87% female; MAGE=20.92; 44% White-British) completed trait measures of narcissism, self-enhancement/protection strategies and paranoia. In Study 2, 116 students (82% female; MAGE=20.23; 70% White-British) completed baseline measures, then reported state reactions and paranoia following two difficult and two pleasant interpersonal events after 3-10 days. In Study 3, 517 online volunteers (64% female; MAGE=22.76; 77% White/Caucasian) completed baseline measures, experienced a standardised social exclusion (vs. neutral) manipulation (Cyberball), then reported state reactions and paranoia.
Results: In Study 1, narcissism was associated with higher paranoia via defensiveness. In Study 2, this was replicated in difficult but not pleasant events, and was driven by the Entitlement/Exploitativeness facet of narcissism. In Study 3, narcissistic rivalry and vulnerable narcissism, but not admiration, were associated with Cyberball-related paranoia via general defensiveness and denigration of others.
Conclusions: Individuals high in narcissism—especially its socially maladaptive facets—who over-rely on defensive self-protection strategies in response to threat, are particularly vulnerable to paranoia. Findings help to understand individual differences in paranoia.

Romantic Nostalgia as a Resource for Healthy Relationships

Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 2022

Nostalgia is an emotion that confers psychological benefits. The literature has neglected romanti... more Nostalgia is an emotion that confers psychological benefits. The literature has neglected romantic nostalgia—that is, nostalgia specifically for past experiences shared with one’s partner—and its potential advantages for relationships. We examined romantic nostalgia in one correlational study, two experiments, and one daily diary study (N = 638). Romantic nostalgia was positively associated with greater relationship commitment, satisfaction, and closeness (Study 1). Additionally, inducing romantic nostalgia via a writing task (Study 2) or music (Study 3) strengthened relational benefits. Finally, participants reported more positive relationship-specific experiences on days when they felt greater romantic nostalgia (Study 4). We discuss contributions to the nostalgia and relationships literatures.

Anticipated Nostalgia: Looking Forward to Looking Back

Cognition and Emotion, 2020

Anticipated nostalgia is a new construct that has received limited empirical attention. It concer... more Anticipated nostalgia is a new construct that has received limited empirical attention. It concerns the anticipation of having nostalgic feelings for one's present and future experiences. In three studies, we assessed its prevalence, content, emotional profile, and implications for self-regulation and psychological functioning. Study 1 revealed that anticipated nostalgia most typically concerns interpersonal relationships, and also concerns goals, plans, current life, and culture. Further, it is affectively laden with happiness, sadness, bittersweetness, and sociality. Studies 2 and 3 assessed the implications of anticipated nostalgia for self-regulation and psychological functioning. In both studies, positive evaluation of a personal experience was linked to stronger anticipated nostalgia, and anticipated nostalgia was linked to savoring of the experience. In Study 3, anticipated nostalgia measured prior to an important life transition predicted nostalgia a few months after the transition, and post-transition nostalgia predicted heightened self-esteem, social connectedness, and meaning in life.

When is narcissism associated with low empathy? A meta-analytic review

Journal of Research in Personality, 2020

Narcissism is commonly associated with low empathy, but empirical studies have used diverse metho... more Narcissism is commonly associated with low empathy, but empirical studies have used diverse methods, yielding mixed findings. The present meta-analysis examined the overall magnitude of the association between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism and affective and cognitive empathy (N = 32200). Grandiose narcissism was significantly negatively associated with self-reported cognitive (r = −0.085) and affective (r = −0.145) empathy. When empathy was measured behaviourally, grandiose narcissism was significantly associated only with affective empathy (r = −0.251) but not cognitive empathy (r = −0.052). Vulnerable narcissism was significantly negatively associated with self-reported cognitive and affective empathy (r = −0.179 and r = −0.105 respectively). The association between vulnerable narcissism and cognitive empathy measured behaviourally was not significant (r = −0.069). The association between narcissism and empathy is nuanced and depends on various conceptual and methodological factors.

Time capsule: Nostalgia shields psychological wellbeing from limited time horizons

Emotion, 2021

Nostalgia is a bittersweet—albeit predominantly positive—self-relevant and social emotion that ar... more Nostalgia is a bittersweet—albeit predominantly positive—self-relevant and social emotion that arises from reflecting on fond and meaningful autobiographical memories. Nostalgia might facilitate successful aging by serving as a socioemotional selectivity strategy in the face of limited time horizons. Four studies tested the role of nostalgia in maintaining psychological wellbeing across the adult lifespan and across differing time perspectives. In Study 1, community adults (N = 443, age 18-91) completed measures of nostalgia proneness and six psychological wellbeing dimensions. Age was more positively related to wellbeing for those high than low on nostalgia proneness: High-nostalgic individuals showed a maintenance or increase in psychological wellbeing with age, whereas low-nostalgic individuals did not. In Study 2 (N = 35, age 18-25), experimentally inducing a limited time perspective—a core trigger of socioemotional selectivity—in young adults prompted greater nostalgia. In Study 3 (N = 93, age 18-33) and Study 4 (N = 376, age 18-55), experimentally inducing a limited time perspective reduced some aspects of wellbeing among those who recalled an ordinary (Study 3) or lucky (Study 4) autobiographical memory, but this effect was eliminated among those who recalled a nostalgic memory. Nostalgia buffers perceptions of limited time and facilitates the maintenance of psychological wellbeing across the adult lifespan.

Individual differences in self-reported use of assessment feedback: The mediating role of feedback beliefs

Educational Psychology, 2019

Feedback can rarely enhance learning unless it is used; however, few studies have examined indivi... more Feedback can rarely enhance learning unless it is used; however, few studies have examined individual differences in students’ engagement with feedback. The present study explored a) the extent to which personality variables and achievement goal orientation are associated with students’ self-reported use of feedback; and b) whether beliefs about feedback (utility, accountability, self-efficacy, and volition to implement feedback) mediate these associations. Students aged 16-18 (N = 746) completed self-report measures assessing each of these constructs. Self-reported feedback use was greater among students who scored high in mastery approach goals, performance approach goals, and conscientiousness. Controlling for academic achievement (which correlated weakly with self-reported feedback use), all of these associations were mediated by self-efficacy, and a subset of the associations were also mediated by the perceived utility of feedback and volition to implement feedback. Supporting students to feel competent in using feedback should be a key priority for interventions.

Attachment Dimensions and Forgiveness of Others: A Meta-Analysis

Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 2019

Forgiveness, as a response to interpersonal transgressions, has multiple societal and individual ... more Forgiveness, as a response to interpersonal transgressions, has multiple societal and individual benefits. Individual differences in attachment have been identified as a predictor not only of forgiveness, but of state responses frequently associated with forgiveness. The current meta-analysis is the first systematic analysis of the effect of attachment dimensions (i.e., anxiety and avoidance) on forgiveness of others. Analysis of published and unpublished studies (k=26) identified significant, small to medium effects of attachment anxiety (r= -.25) and attachment avoidance (r= -.18) on forgiveness of others. No significant difference was obtained between measures of state and trait forgiveness. The moderating effects of study paradigm, attachment measure, publication type, and sample population were also investigated. The findings of a stable negative effect of insecure attachment dimensions on forgiveness of others provide a base for future research that may focus on reducing attachment anxiety and avoidance to support forgiveness.

Beyond heteronormativity: Toward equality in theory in the psychology of romantic love

Theory and Psychology, 2019

Since 1970, research on romantic relationships has burgeoned, but its theories and methods were s... more Since 1970, research on romantic relationships has burgeoned, but its theories and methods were shaped by a heteronormative cultural context. Heteronormativity is an ideology that implicitly holds that heterosexuality is, and should be, the only, dominant, or taken-for-granted sexuality for all. The movement towards sexual equality, particularly legal recognition of equal marriage, now allows psychologists to investigate romantic love in a more equal manner than ever before. To orient psychology towards less heteronormative theories of love, we make explicit how researchers in the past have (1) defined love and relationships as heterosexual; (2) presumed heterosexual patterns of love to generalize to all; (3) used methodologies that introduce heterosexual bias; and (4) located differences in same-sex couples rather than between same-sex and opposite-sex couples. We conclude with recommendations of how critical thinking at all stages of research can make the difference between heteronormative and inclusive research on romantic love and relationships.

A Prologue to Nostalgia: Savoring Creates Nostalgic Memories that Foster Optimism

Cognition and Emotion, 2018

How are nostalgic memories created? We considered savoring as one process involved in the genesis... more How are nostalgic memories created? We considered savoring as one process involved in the genesis of nostalgia. Whereas nostalgia refers to an emotional reflection upon past experiences, savoring is a process in which individuals deeply attend to and consciously capture a present experience for subsequent reflection. Thus, having savored an experience may increase the likelihood that it will later be reflected upon nostalgically. Additionally, to examine how cognitive and emotional processes are linked across time, we tested whether nostalgia for a previously savored experience predicts optimism for the future. Retrospective reports of having savored a positive event were associated with greater nostalgia for the event (Study 1). Retrospective reports of savoring a time period (college) were associated with greater nostalgia for that time period when participants were in a setting (alumni reunion event) that prompted thoughts of the time period (Study 2). Savoring an experience predicted nostalgia for the experience 4-9 months later (Study 3). Additionally, nostalgia was associated with greater optimism (Studies 2-3). Thus, savoring provides a foundation for nostalgic memories and an ensuing optimism.

Nostalgia Motivates Pursuit of Important Goals by Increasing Meaning in Life

by Wing Yee Cheung and Erica Hepper

European Journal of Social Psychology, 2017

This research focused on existential and motivational implications of the emotion of nostalgia. N... more This research focused on existential and motivational implications of the emotion of nostalgia. Nostalgia (relative to control) increased meaning in life, which, in turn, galvanised intentions to pursue one’s most important goal (Experiment 1) and to pursue one’s most important, but not least important, goal (Experiment 2). The basic pattern held in two cultures (British and Danish) independently of positive affect. This is first evidence that nostalgia has specific motivational consequences (i.e., pursuit of more, but not less, important goals) and transmits these consequences via meaning in life. Also, this is first evidence that meaning is associated with specific motivational consequences. Discussion considers the relevance of the findings for the emotion and motivation literatures.

The Children of Narcissus: Insights into Narcissists' Parenting Styles.

by Reece Bush-Evans, Claire Hart, and Erica Hepper

Individuals scoring high on trait narcissism are characterised by grandiosity, self-centredness, ... more Individuals scoring high on trait narcissism are characterised by grandiosity, self-centredness, and lack of empathy, resulting in troubled interpersonal relationships (e.g., with acquaintances and relationship partners). Do these troubled relationships extend to their own children? In this online study of 368 parents, we examined whether grandiose narcissists are less likely to adopt optimal parenting styles (authoritative) and more likely to adopt non-optimal parenting styles (authoritarian and permissive) and began to explore underlying mechanisms in terms of low empathy and unresponsive-caregiving. Narcissism was negatively associated with optimal parenting, and positively associated with non-optimal parenting, controlling for Big Five personality and attachment dimensions. Sequential mediation revealed that narcissists’ low empathy predicts unresponsive-caregiving towards their child(ren), which in turn predicts low optimal and high non-optimal parenting practices. These effects are driven by narcissists’ maladaptive traits. Exploring links between parental personality and parenting allows researchers to identify individuals at risk of poor parenting. Understanding the mechanisms that explain this relationship will assist in the development of effective interventions.

Enhancing feedback and improving feedback: Subjective perceptions, psychological consequences, behavioral outcomes

Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2016

Three experiments examined subjective perceptions, psychological consequences, and behavioral out... more Three experiments examined subjective perceptions, psychological consequences, and behavioral outcomes of enhancing versus improving feedback. Across experiments, feedback delivery and assessment were sequential (i.e., at each testing juncture) or cumulative (i.e., at the end of the testing session). Although enhancing feedback was seen as more satisfying than useful, and improving feedback was not seen as more useful than satisfying, perceptions differed as a function of short-term versus long-term feedback delivery and assessment. Overall, however, enhancing feedback was more impactful psychologically and behaviorally. Enhancing feedback engendered greater success consistency, overall satisfaction and usefulness, optimism, state self-esteem, perceived ability, and test persistence intentions; improving feedback, on the other hand, engendered greater state improvement. The findings provide fodder for theory development and applications.

Nostalgia fosters self-continuity: Uncovering the mechanism (social connectedness) and consequence (eudaimonic wellbeing)

Nostalgia, a sentimental longing for one’s past, is an emotion that arises from self-relevant and... more Nostalgia, a sentimental longing for one’s past, is an emotion that arises from self-relevant and social memories. Nostalgia functions, in part, to foster self-continuity, that is, a sense of connection between one’s past and one’s present. This article examined, in six experiments, how nostalgia fosters self-continuity and the implications of that process for wellbeing. Nostalgia fosters self-continuity by augmenting social connectedness, that is, a sense of closeness, belongingness, and acceptance (Experiments 1-4). Nostalgia-induced self-continuity, in turn, confers eudaimonic wellbeing, operationalized as subjective vitality (i.e., a feeling of aliveness and energy; Experiments 5-6). The findings clarify and expand the benefits of nostalgia for both the self-system and psychological adjustment.

Holding Back the Tears: Individual Differences in Adult Crying Proneness Reflect Attachment Orientation and Attitudes to Crying

by Erica Hepper and Abigail Millings

Despite being a universal human attachment behavior, little is known about individual differences... more Despite being a universal human attachment behavior, little is known about individual differences in crying. To facilitate such examination we first recommend shortened versions of the attitudes and proneness sections of the Adult Crying Inventory using two independent samples. Importantly, we examine attachment orientation differences in crying proneness and test the mediating role of attitudes toward crying in this relationship. Participants (Sample 1 N = 623, Sample 2 N = 781), completed online measures of adult attachment dimensions (avoidance and anxiety), attitudes toward crying, and crying proneness. Exploratory factor analyses in Sample 1 revealed four factors for crying attitudes: crying helps one feel better; crying is healthy; hatred of crying; and crying is controllable; and three factors for crying proneness: threat to self; sadness; and joy. Confirmatory factor analyses in Sample 2 replicated these structures. Theoretically and statistically justified short forms of each scale were created. Multiple mediation analyses revealed similar patterns of results across the two samples, with the attitudes " crying is healthy " and " crying is controllable " consistently mediating the positive links between attachment anxiety and crying proneness, and the negative links between attachment avoidance and crying proneness. Results are discussed in relation to attachment and emotion regulation literature.

The Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding Short Form (BIDR-16)

Self-report studies often call for assessment of socially desirable responding. Many researchers ... more Self-report studies often call for assessment of socially desirable responding. Many researchers use the Marlowe–Crowne Scale for its brief versions; however, this scale is outdated, and contemporary models of social desirability emphasize its multi-dimensional nature. The 40-item Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR) incorporates Self-Deceptive Enhancement (honest but overly positive responding) and Impression Management (bias toward pleasing others). However, its length limits its practicality. This article introduces the BIDR-16. In four studies, we shorten the BIDR from 40 items to 16 items, while retaining its two-factor structure, reliability, and validity. This short form will be invaluable to researchers wanting to assess social desirability when time is limited.