Papers in English by Dmitry Karelin
Harry van Enckevort, Mark Driessen, Erik Graafstal, Tom Hazenberg, Tatiana Ivleva and Carol van Driel-Murray (eds). Limes XXV. Strategy and Structures Along the Roman Frontier, 2024
There are many examples of fortifications' depictions in Roman art. The goals of this paper are t... more There are many examples of fortifications' depictions in Roman art. The goals of this paper are to classify the examined depictions, to analyze their features and meanings and to reveal the details of the fortresses' architecture, about which there is little information in the archaeological databases. The depictions can be divided into several types according to the branch of visual art and the objects containing the depictions.
Simplified axonometric views of whole cities or frontal elevations of gates depicted on coins, medals and in codices.
Models imitating Roman forts: ceramic incense burner (Egyptian museum, Turin), clay model of a watch-tower (History museum, Regensburg) and two rectangular bronze braziers. The first one looks like a small square castellum with an open courtyard, and the second one is shaped like a round tower or a Roman mausoleum.
Depictions in frescoes and mosaics. There are two main types: the depictions of cities or gates which are close to those on coins and in codices, and floor mosaics with the images of square wall enclosures often connected with labyrinths.
Belt buckles shaped like gates. One of them (middle of III century), which was found near Abritus, is of particular interest.
Sculptural depictions. They are the reliefs in the Trajan's Column and the Column of Marcus Aurelius, the city wall's depiction from Tabula iliaca, the so-called city-gate sarcophagi and early Christian ivory reliefs depicting cities' walls as architectural backgrounds.
The examined examples contain important information about the design of the Roman military architecture. For example, one can see either flat roofs of the towers convenient for artillery, or considerable variations of towers' tops: cone-shaped, small domes etc., even rotundas. There are also some depictions of the galleries on the walls’ and gate's tops and the others peculiar features.
Snežana Golubović et al. (ed.). LIMES XXIIII. Proceedings of the 24th International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, 2nd − 9th September 2018 Viminacium − Belgrade, Serbia, 2023
This paper is dedicated to the virtual reconstruction of the Late Roman fortress of Babylon, loca... more This paper is dedicated to the virtual reconstruction of the Late Roman fortress of Babylon, located in the district now known as Old Cairo. The fortress is mentioned in the Déscription de l’Égypte, and has been explored and recorded since the end of the nineteenth century. From the 1990s onwards archaeological investigations have accompanied conservation work and the lowering of the groundwater level in the area, and the results of this work and its importance to the origins of the city of Cairo have been published.
Babylon was a typical Diocletianic fortress for comitates; Legio tertiadecima gemina may have been quartered here. However, it displayed a number of unique features:
- it was constructed over the earlier Trajanic-era stone harbour at Babylon where the Amnis Trajanus joined the Nile. The entrance to the canal was flanked by the massive round towers of the Diocletianic fortress.
- archaeological and historical evidence indicates that a bridge over the Nile led to the western gate of the fortress.
- the massive size and strength of the fortifications were much more solid than those of any other Diocletianic fortresses in Egypt, which might be explained by the strategically important position of Babylon at the apex of the Nile Delta.
The recent archaeological work has shown that much of the southern part of fortress survives today below ground. Above ground the southern gatehouse is preserved largely intact, with the Coptic ‘Hanging Church’ (Al-Mu’allaqa) built over it. The two round towers also survive, one of them within the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George (Mari Girgis) The aim of the reconstruction is to show the architectural and constructional peculiarities of the southern gatehouse and of the round towers flanking the Amnis Trajanus, and also to present the possible view of the fortress from the Nile.
Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art: Collection of articles. Eds A. V. Zakharova, S. V. Maltseva, E. Iu. Staniukovich-Denisova. ISSN 2312-2129. , 2022
In the second half of the 20th century, archaeological and restoration sciences took a significan... more In the second half of the 20th century, archaeological and restoration sciences took a significant step forward. Furthermore, the museum industry and the way in which monuments should be displayed was also changed. In recent decades, museums that mainly exhibit an immovable archaeological monument emerged. It seems that the creation of such exhibition spaces requires special approaches, methods and planning techniques that enable to display the monument in the most successful way, to ensure its preservation and to organize the immovable archaeology inside the building, the route of its examination and the rest of the exposition harmoniously. We consider a variety of techniques for the reconstruction of the monument unfinished parts and for the reconstruction of its three-dimensional characteristics, ranging from the widely known and used anastylosis to modern unique solutions, which are peculiar ‘scientific installations’. However, the most interesting aspect of the topic under consideration is what the image of architectural space (against which an archaeological monument will be perceived) should look like. The examples of archaeological museums show that their stylistics can be divided into four main directions: development of the heritage, when the archaeological museums’ architecture contains quotes from the cultures that are mainly exhibited inside; creation of neoclassical spaces unrelated to the national color of objects that are displayed in the museum; very simple and functional modernist architecture, which is essentially a neutral background for exhibits; images of the building, formed from postmodernist metaphors, which, in this case, are closely related to the informal redefinition of the museum’s specificities and cultural features. The main purpose of the report is to consider all the ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ of the approaches described above to the architectural solutions of archaeological museums. It seems that all directions are valid and the choice is always relatively subjective and depends on a variety of factors, including the specifics of the museum exposition, the volumetric-spatial characteristics of the monument, the context surrounding the museum building, etc.
Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art: Collection of articles. Vol. 11. Eds A. V. Zakharova, S. V. Maltseva, E. Iu. Staniukovich-Denisova. ISSN 2312-2129, 2021
There are many examples of depictions of city walls, fortresses, and military camps in Roman art.... more There are many examples of depictions of city walls, fortresses, and military camps in Roman art. The goals of the study are to classify the examined depictions, to reveal the peculiarities and architectural details of fortifications, which are little-known according to archaeological data, and to analyze the features of the studied depictions. They can be divided into several types: images on coins, medals, and in codices; frescoes or mosaics; objects of applied art and architectural models; sculptural reliefs. The studied images show many architectural peculiarities of Roman military architecture unknown to archaeology and have common features. For example, the masonry is usually shown in the same manner: it is monumental and made of huge rectangular blocks. The article singles out three main meanings of the examined images: the architectural landscape, the idea of a city (urbs) and the depiction of sacral borders (the pomerium and others).
Piotr Kuroczyński, Mieke Pfarr-Harfst und Sander Münster (Hrsg), Der Modelle Tugend 2.0. Digitale 3D-Rekonstruktion als virtueller Raum der architekturhistorischen Forschung, 2019
The paper is dedicated to the methods of presentation of 3D-reconstructions from the human viewpo... more The paper is dedicated to the methods of presentation of 3D-reconstructions from the human viewpoint. Due to the type of presentation its methods have to change. Several peculiarities of presentation and visualization are discussed in the paper. First of all it is the angle of view which depends on the type of presentation and the features of the reconstructed monument ( its size and configuration ). This point is strongly connected with peculiarities of perspective’s construction: different surfaces of image projection and usage of the third focal point. Secondly it is the character of a viewpoint, argumentation of its position. In this case the historical knowledge about the monument is very important. Furthermore the creation of viewpoints’ system which shows the argumented trajectory of movement is also possible and could show the historical character of the monument and its perception by the viewer. Thirdly it is important to examine the characteristics of visualization’s composition — direction of its development, the interaction between the background, the midground and the foreground which creates the depth of composition. All the features are important for the perception of the reconstructions’ depiction from the human viewpoint and it is advisable to note them in the reconstructions of historical heritage.
Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art: Collection of articles. Ed: A. V. Zakharova, S. V. Maltseva, E. Iu. Staniukovich-Denisova. ISSN 2312-2129, 2019
This paper is dedicated to the virtual reconstruction and the study of architectural ornaments an... more This paper is dedicated to the virtual reconstruction and the study of architectural ornaments and details of the Late Roman fortress of Babylon. This monument was located in the district now known as Old Cairo. The fortress has been explored and recorded since the end of the 19th century. From the 1990s onwards archaeological investigations have accompanied conservation works and the lowering of groundwater level in the area, and the results of these works were published in 2010.
Babylon was a typical Diocletianic fortress for the field army, however it also possessed a number of unique features. First, it was constructed over the earlier Trajanic-era stone harbour at Babylon where the Amnis Trajanus joined the Nile. The entrance to the canal was flanked by massive round towers. Second, archaeological and historical evidence indicates that the bridge over the Nile led to the western gate of the fortress. Third, the size and strength of the fortifications were much more solid than those of any other Diocletianic fortress in Egypt.
The recent archaeological work has shown that much of the southern part of fortress survives today under the ground. The southern gatehouse on the ground is largely intact, with the Coptic “Hanging Church” (Al-Mu’allaqa) built over it. The two round towers also survived, one of them within the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George (Mari Girgis).
The aim of the reconstruction was to show the architectural and constructional features of the southern gatehouse and of the round towers flanking the Amnis Trajanus, and also to present the possible view of the fortress from the Nile. Another special aim was to classify the corpus of the sources of information and to show the connection between each source, as well as to visually present the arguments for the reconstruction.
The aim of this paper is to examine and to give arguments for the reconstruction of the architectural decoration of the fortress, and to show their stylistic peculiarities. There are some details and decorations of special interest: the partly surviving cornice of the pediment of the southern gate, the capitals and cornices of the inner atriums in the round towers, the lion-headed mooring stones and the items which could be located in the apses of the round towers.
in: C. Sebastian Sommer, Suzana Matešić (eds.) Limes XXIII: Proceedings of the 23rd International Limes Congress Ingolstadt 2015 Akten Des 23. Internationalen Limeskongresses in Ingolstadt 2015. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag, 2018
The main aim of the paper is to study the architectural features of late Roman fortresses in Egyp... more The main aim of the paper is to study the architectural features of late Roman fortresses in Egypt and to discuss several problems concerning their peculiarities on the examples of the authors’ 3D reconstructions. The preservation of the Roman fortresses in Egypt in whole is worse than in other provinces of the Empire. The most of them preserved only at the level of foundation and the large part of their territories is covered by modern Egyptian cities and villages. The best way to imagine how they could look is to carefully examine the ruins, to compare them with the better preserved fortresses in the other parts of the Roman world and to make their 3D reconstruction.
The paper includes the authors' 3D reconstructions of several fortresses (or their structures) of different types: Luxor, Babylon, Nag el-Hagar, Dionysias and some smaller late forts at Kharga oasis. We think that these examples give the opportunity to discuss several important problems concerning their architecture and construction methods. One of them is a supposition about the walls height in the fortresses for comitates. The question is why some of them could have lower walls (Luxor, Nag el-Hagar) than others (Babylon) and than several smaller forts for auxiliary troops (for example Umm el-Dabadib). Another point is the search of analogies for some architectural elements (arrow slits, parapets) and fortress structures (walls, towers, barracks etc). Next interesting question concerns the gates construction and using the special courts and portcullis in them. Traces of such courts were found in many fortresses in Egypt, while portcullis for sure was used at Babylon fortress and possibly at the Nag el-Hagar western gate. The traces of different building stages with their own architectural peculiarities in some forts are also of particular interest. The discussion on these points and problems gives opportunity to understand the Roman military architecture in Egypt better.
VIRTUAL ARCHAEOLOGY (from Air, on Earth, under Water and at Museum) Proceedings of the International Forum held at the State Hermitage Museum 28–30 May 2018, 2018
This paper is dedicated to the virtual reconstruction of the Late Roman fortress of Babylon, loca... more This paper is dedicated to the virtual reconstruction of the Late Roman fortress of Babylon, located in the district now known as Old Cairo. The fortress has been explored and recorded since the end of the nineteenth century. From the 1990s onwards archaeological investigations have accompanied conservation work and the lowering of the groundwater level in the area, and the results of this work have been published.
Babylon was a typical Diocletianic fortress for Field Army, however it displayed a number of unique features:
• it was constructed over the earlier Trajanic-era stone harbour at Babylon where the Amnis Trajanus joined the Nile. The entrance to the canal was flanked by the massive round towers of the Diocletianic fortress.
• archaeological and historical evidence indicates that a bridge over the Nile led to the western gate of the fortress.
• the massive size and strength of the fortifications were much more solid than those of any other Diocletianic fortresses in Egypt.
The recent archaeological work has shown that much of the southern part of fortress survives today below ground. Above ground the southern gatehouse is preserved largely intact, with the Coptic ‘Hanging Church’ (Al-Mu’allaqa) built over it. The two round towers also survive, one of them within the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George (Mari Girgis).
The aim of the reconstruction is to show the architectural and constructional peculiarities of the southern gatehouse and of the round towers flanking the Amnis Trajanus, and also to present the possible view of the fortress from the Nile. Another special aim is both to classify the corpus of the sources and to show the connection between each source and the reconstruction’s argumentation is visually shown.
Proceedings of the XI International Congress of Egyptologists Florence Egyptian Museum Florence, 23-30 August 2015
The poster was dedicated to the analysis of some architectural features of the Roman imperial cul... more The poster was dedicated to the analysis of some architectural features of the Roman imperial cult temple at Luxor and facts which could show the connection between the temple’s architecture and ancient Egyptian culture. This temple was founded inside the principia of the fortress built around the ancient Egyptian temple at Luxor. The architects used the principles which were common in the architecture of the Tetrarchy. However, they had to solve complex tasks to integrate the new temple into the ancient one with maximal efficiency. Furthermore they were able to use some principles of Ancient Egyptian architecture in this. A 3D reconstruction of the Roman temple is also presented.
Proceedings of the XI International Congress of Egyptologists Florence Egyptian Museum Florence, 23-30 August 2015
The main aim of this contribution is to study architectural features of Late Roman fortresses in ... more The main aim of this contribution is to study architectural features of Late Roman fortresses in Egypt and several problems concerning their peculiarities which are important in terms of their reconstruction. On the whole, preservation of Roman fortresses in Egypt is worse than in other provinces of the Empire. The best way to imagine how they might look is to examine the ruins carefully, compare them with examples that are better preserved, and to make 3D-reconstructions of them. Reconstructions of several fortresses or their structures are presented and these examples provide an opportunity to discuss several important problems concerning their architecture and construction methods.
4th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on Social Sciences and Arts, 2017
The aim of this article is to demonstrate the significance and theoretical aspects of 3D-reconstr... more The aim of this article is to demonstrate the significance and theoretical aspects of 3D-reconstructions of badly preserved ancient architectural masterpieces for architectural theory and modern architectural practice. The contemporary interpretation of classical architecture is mainly based on the foundation which was created by architects and art historians in the XVIII-XIX centuries. The archaeological discoveries in the first half of the XX century were also important for neoclassic architecture. However modern architectural history is rested on the progress of archaeology which gives new information about badly preserved antique architectural masterpieces. 3D-reconstructions of such monuments based on the modern computer technologies have to increase our conception of ancient architecture and discover the new stratum of Greek and Roman architectural monuments both for architects and for the general public. In the Moscow Institute of Architecture the creation of such reconstructions is a part of educational process and scientific research. The article is accompanied by the author's reconstructions and also with several examples of 3D-reconstructions made by foreign scholars.
Two key points of scientific computer-based 3D reconstructions are the methods of their making an... more Two key points of scientific computer-based 3D reconstructions are the methods of their making and the principles of its visualisation. The discussion about the latter ones is the main aim of the paper. The attention is paid to the modelling methods, aesthetic and didactic demands of such reconstructions. These methods are strongly connected with monuments' features, typology of the reconstructions and their purposes. For example, it could be a reconstruction from specific point of view, a visualisation showing the difference between building stages, a presentation of the important architectural peculiarities of the monument or the type of an architectural object, a visualization of some typical urban or rural environment and so on. The two main points are the selection of view types (from main axonometric or orthographic to particular points of view) and the options of visualization (from hyper realistic renders to schematic views). On the one hand the axonometric view could be the best way to presented main features of a monument by one view. On the other hand the particular point of view could be important to demonstrate the specific peculiarities of a monument and show the real viewpoints seen by the people of that time. The choice between natural, schematic or stylized renders is also connected with the purposes of reconstruction. Furthermore they could give the opportunity to make the graphical visualisation of the reconstruction's argumentation and the degree of its hypothetical character. It enables to use the reconstruction in scientific discussions and as an instrument of verification. The special attention should be paid to the tendency of using the unreal viewpoints unconnected with the architectural peculiarities of the monument as well as in hyperrealism and concentration of the entourage unimportant for presentation of the features of chosen architectural objects.
Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Cultural Heritage and New Technologies 2015 (CHNT 20, 2015), 2016
The paper is devoted to the experience of scientific architectural 3D-reconstructions creation wh... more The paper is devoted to the experience of scientific architectural 3D-reconstructions creation which was accumulated in the Moscow Institute of Architecture. The main aim is to demonstrate the reconstruction's typology on the examples of the works made by the authors or under their supervision. It connected with different methods and approaches due to the various tasks. The main method is the historical and architectural analysis of the survived data. This method has been playing the key role in such investigations at the Architecture and Urban History Department more than half a century. During the second half of XX century the traditional instruments for these reconstructions were hand graphics and models of paper. However last 15 years the role of digital technologies for this scientific area was considerably increased and now the making of 3D computer reconstructions is a part of students' yearly essays and theoretical and restoration works of the research fellows as well. The presented reconstructions were made for different scientific tasks. Thereupon the special attention is paid to the necessity of the explanation of the studying object selection. The definition of the criteria of such selection is also very important. The main types of the scientific reconstructions are defined: 1. reconstruction of the original look of a rebuilt edifice, 2. reconstruction of a lost or badly preserved architectural monument, 3. reconstruction of an unrealized project, 4. reconstruction of building stages of an edifice or an ensemble, 5. the reconstruction of architectural and constructional peculiarities of a building or building technology. All these types require the different methodology, approaches and visualization methods.
The architectural decoration of Roman fortresses in Egypt based on the examples of Nag el-Hagar, ... more The architectural decoration of Roman fortresses in Egypt based on the examples of Nag el-Hagar, Luxor, Dionysias and Babylon in Old Cairo is studied in the article. The particular attention in the study is paid to the peculiarities of the orders' compositions and details, its stylistic features and possible prototypes.
The paper is devoted to the supposed image of future Space architecture and analysis of factors w... more The paper is devoted to the supposed image of future Space architecture and analysis of factors which could influence it. In the paper the several examples of new concepts of Space architecture are examined. The main part of futurological concepts which we usually see in movies and TV shows isn't realistic. However there are two clear exceptions - "Interstellar" and "The Martian". The last astronomical discoveries show that there is no chance to visit planets in the other star systems in foreseeable future. However there is the concept by Stephen Hawking to send tiny satellites with weight of around 1 gram to the other star systems using laser as a moving force. On the one hand, even if it will be possible the task to organize human travel to such a distance is much more difficult. On the other hand, there are great dangers for these satellites and larger objects - fast moving small space objects, space radiation from which the Solar system protected by heliosphere etc. All these facts prove that in the foreseeable future mankind will be able to colonize only the Solar system. Several factors are very important for the concepts of Space architecture in the Solar system both in the open space and planets such as Mars, Moon and Europa: the absence of gravitation in the open space and it's another character on the other planets, the necessity to protect the objects from solar radiation and other aggressive factors, the difficulty of the materials delivery and problem of friendliness and comfort of environment for people. We suppose that all of challenges mentioned above will bring to the creating of image of Space architecture. Thousand years ago the human reaction on several challenges formed current face of architecture. For example the necessity to support the weight of tiling roof was one of the factors of order appearance. Now it is possible imagine hypothetically the features of architecture in the space.
This paper is devoted to the study of some architectural principles and types of spatial organisa... more This paper is devoted to the study of some architectural principles and types of spatial organisation that were characteristic of late Roman architecture and expressed some authoritative concepts and later had a great impact on early Christian architecture. A famous art historian A. Grabar proved that many motifs used in late Roman art were influenced by the culture of Near East, which, in turn, influenced early Christian iconography. Before lately the architectural theory was based on the idea by R. Krautheimer and J.B. Ward-Perkins. They thought that the early Christian architecture had no connection at all with late Roman pagan building practice. There are at least three points. Firstly, appearance of halls with apses, typical both for pagan and Christian religious buildings of the 3rd-4th centuries and luxurious palaces and villas of late Roman aristocracy. This tendency could be linked to new political and religious concepts of tetrarchic period. And if we look back, it might also be based on the ideas of ancient Near Eastern kingship. Moreover, the new hierarchical organization of the ruling class that mainly consisted of former military officers was also based on the same ideas. Secondly it is important to examine such an architectural element as the tetrastyle (a four-columned monument usually located on the crossing of the streets of a town or a fortress). It was widely used during the first tetrarchy and was possibly rooted in the idea of concordia – harmony between the four joint rulers. There is a later Christian example of a similar monument built under Justinian with the statues of Evangelists on four triumphal columns. One could suggest that Christians used the tetrarchic iconographical idea for the representation of Evangelists’ figures. It is interesting to note that J. Bogdanovich suggested that this architectural element might have become a prototype for the Christian ciborium. The origin of the latter is of a special interest, and this is the third point of our study. Thanks to a lot of numismatic evidence and numerous masterpieces of Roman art we now know that the baldachin rested on four supports and was covered by a flat roof, a barrel vault or a cupola, and it was one of the symbols of representation of god or a divine ruler. This element might come to Roman culture from architecture of Ancient Egypt or Ancient Near East. The study of these motifs that influenced some peculiarities of early Christian architecture together with authoritative and religious concepts they expressed can be very productive and significant for architectural theory.
The paper is devoted to architectural pequliarities of late Roman principia in Egypt and their po... more The paper is devoted to architectural pequliarities of late Roman principia in Egypt and their possible prototypes.
This work is dedicated to the computer reconstruction of Roman fortress Nag el-Hagar in Egypt. Th... more This work is dedicated to the computer reconstruction of Roman fortress Nag el-Hagar in Egypt. This fortification was situated to the south of Luxor (ancient Thebes), not far from Kom Ombo (ancient Ombos). Apparently the fortress was built during Diocletian’s rule. Its architectural features are similar to other examples of Roman military architecture of the period of tetrarchy in Egypt. We chose Nag el-Hagar for the reconstruction because this fortress is a specimen of the classical Roman castrum which belongs to the period of Diocletian and at the same time it has some original architectural features. The remains of the palace of the Governor or a military commander which we can find inside the fortress are of a great interest to specialists in late Roman architecture. In this work we consider similar examples of late Roman military architecture both in Egypt and throughout the Roman Empire. Their architectural peculiarities give us the idea how the fortress and the palace in Nag el-Hagar could look like. Beside that, we have made an attempt to examine some problems of computer 3D reconstructions in general. This computer reconstruction of Nag el-Hagar shows that a late Roman fortress in Egypt was a majestic ensemble and its architectural and planning features were influenced not only by its military function, but also by the artistic concepts of the late Roman architects who built it.
Papers in Russian by Dmitry Karelin
Аrchitecture and modern information technologies, May 15, 2018
The article is devoted to methods and approaches of the visualization and presentation of 3Drecon... more The article is devoted to methods and approaches of the visualization and presentation of 3Dreconstructions of architectural monuments. Its characteristics versus the aims of the reconstruction are the object of this study. Main theoretical basis of this topic created by Boris Rauschenbach in his research works devoted to visual perception in art. The results of the research is the selection of two different on principle types of visualization images and several
criteria for each type.
Наука, образование и экспериментальное проектирование. Труды МАРХИ: Материалы международной научно-практической конференции 3–7 апреля 2017 г, 2017
The exhibition "Virtual excursion into the past architecture" is described in the paper. The exhi... more The exhibition "Virtual excursion into the past architecture" is described in the paper. The exhibition was prepared as a part of project 15-04-00349 "From a maquette to a virtual model. Scientific reconstruction in the architectural history considering the newest technologies (on the example of "classical" architectural monuments)".
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Papers in English by Dmitry Karelin
Simplified axonometric views of whole cities or frontal elevations of gates depicted on coins, medals and in codices.
Models imitating Roman forts: ceramic incense burner (Egyptian museum, Turin), clay model of a watch-tower (History museum, Regensburg) and two rectangular bronze braziers. The first one looks like a small square castellum with an open courtyard, and the second one is shaped like a round tower or a Roman mausoleum.
Depictions in frescoes and mosaics. There are two main types: the depictions of cities or gates which are close to those on coins and in codices, and floor mosaics with the images of square wall enclosures often connected with labyrinths.
Belt buckles shaped like gates. One of them (middle of III century), which was found near Abritus, is of particular interest.
Sculptural depictions. They are the reliefs in the Trajan's Column and the Column of Marcus Aurelius, the city wall's depiction from Tabula iliaca, the so-called city-gate sarcophagi and early Christian ivory reliefs depicting cities' walls as architectural backgrounds.
The examined examples contain important information about the design of the Roman military architecture. For example, one can see either flat roofs of the towers convenient for artillery, or considerable variations of towers' tops: cone-shaped, small domes etc., even rotundas. There are also some depictions of the galleries on the walls’ and gate's tops and the others peculiar features.
Babylon was a typical Diocletianic fortress for comitates; Legio tertiadecima gemina may have been quartered here. However, it displayed a number of unique features:
- it was constructed over the earlier Trajanic-era stone harbour at Babylon where the Amnis Trajanus joined the Nile. The entrance to the canal was flanked by the massive round towers of the Diocletianic fortress.
- archaeological and historical evidence indicates that a bridge over the Nile led to the western gate of the fortress.
- the massive size and strength of the fortifications were much more solid than those of any other Diocletianic fortresses in Egypt, which might be explained by the strategically important position of Babylon at the apex of the Nile Delta.
The recent archaeological work has shown that much of the southern part of fortress survives today below ground. Above ground the southern gatehouse is preserved largely intact, with the Coptic ‘Hanging Church’ (Al-Mu’allaqa) built over it. The two round towers also survive, one of them within the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George (Mari Girgis) The aim of the reconstruction is to show the architectural and constructional peculiarities of the southern gatehouse and of the round towers flanking the Amnis Trajanus, and also to present the possible view of the fortress from the Nile.
Babylon was a typical Diocletianic fortress for the field army, however it also possessed a number of unique features. First, it was constructed over the earlier Trajanic-era stone harbour at Babylon where the Amnis Trajanus joined the Nile. The entrance to the canal was flanked by massive round towers. Second, archaeological and historical evidence indicates that the bridge over the Nile led to the western gate of the fortress. Third, the size and strength of the fortifications were much more solid than those of any other Diocletianic fortress in Egypt.
The recent archaeological work has shown that much of the southern part of fortress survives today under the ground. The southern gatehouse on the ground is largely intact, with the Coptic “Hanging Church” (Al-Mu’allaqa) built over it. The two round towers also survived, one of them within the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George (Mari Girgis).
The aim of the reconstruction was to show the architectural and constructional features of the southern gatehouse and of the round towers flanking the Amnis Trajanus, and also to present the possible view of the fortress from the Nile. Another special aim was to classify the corpus of the sources of information and to show the connection between each source, as well as to visually present the arguments for the reconstruction.
The aim of this paper is to examine and to give arguments for the reconstruction of the architectural decoration of the fortress, and to show their stylistic peculiarities. There are some details and decorations of special interest: the partly surviving cornice of the pediment of the southern gate, the capitals and cornices of the inner atriums in the round towers, the lion-headed mooring stones and the items which could be located in the apses of the round towers.
The paper includes the authors' 3D reconstructions of several fortresses (or their structures) of different types: Luxor, Babylon, Nag el-Hagar, Dionysias and some smaller late forts at Kharga oasis. We think that these examples give the opportunity to discuss several important problems concerning their architecture and construction methods. One of them is a supposition about the walls height in the fortresses for comitates. The question is why some of them could have lower walls (Luxor, Nag el-Hagar) than others (Babylon) and than several smaller forts for auxiliary troops (for example Umm el-Dabadib). Another point is the search of analogies for some architectural elements (arrow slits, parapets) and fortress structures (walls, towers, barracks etc). Next interesting question concerns the gates construction and using the special courts and portcullis in them. Traces of such courts were found in many fortresses in Egypt, while portcullis for sure was used at Babylon fortress and possibly at the Nag el-Hagar western gate. The traces of different building stages with their own architectural peculiarities in some forts are also of particular interest. The discussion on these points and problems gives opportunity to understand the Roman military architecture in Egypt better.
Babylon was a typical Diocletianic fortress for Field Army, however it displayed a number of unique features:
• it was constructed over the earlier Trajanic-era stone harbour at Babylon where the Amnis Trajanus joined the Nile. The entrance to the canal was flanked by the massive round towers of the Diocletianic fortress.
• archaeological and historical evidence indicates that a bridge over the Nile led to the western gate of the fortress.
• the massive size and strength of the fortifications were much more solid than those of any other Diocletianic fortresses in Egypt.
The recent archaeological work has shown that much of the southern part of fortress survives today below ground. Above ground the southern gatehouse is preserved largely intact, with the Coptic ‘Hanging Church’ (Al-Mu’allaqa) built over it. The two round towers also survive, one of them within the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George (Mari Girgis).
The aim of the reconstruction is to show the architectural and constructional peculiarities of the southern gatehouse and of the round towers flanking the Amnis Trajanus, and also to present the possible view of the fortress from the Nile. Another special aim is both to classify the corpus of the sources and to show the connection between each source and the reconstruction’s argumentation is visually shown.
Papers in Russian by Dmitry Karelin
criteria for each type.