Nepalese Journal of Agricultural Sciences

A research was conducted in the Rupa Lake area in Lekhnath Municipality of Kaski district, Nepal in 2012-13 with the objective of exploring the impacts of climate change (CC) on crop production and food security (FS) of local people. Twenty percent of the wetland dependent communities constituted the sampled households (HHs). It was found that majority of population (87%) of Lake basin was dependent on agriculture for FS and livelihoods. About 74 percent of households were aware of the effect of CC, and therefore had adopted different strategies to adapt to its effect.  Most of them were adopting mixed cropping; were using short duration crops; organic manure / compost and bio-pesticide. The status of community forest and lake environment has improved in the period of last 10 years because of conservation practices initiated by local communities including the Rupa Lake Restoration and Fishery Cooperative. There was a year-round FS for 50 percent of sampled HHs (it was 57% by HFIAS method), with 22 percent of those HHs having surplus food. Five percent of HHs had FS for less than three months while 19 percent of the HHs had FS for more than six months. Over 90 percent HHs responded to CC variously: i. e in the form of rise in temperature (by 74% of the respondents); unpredictable rainfall (by 77%); shift in rainfall (by 64%); and phonological changes in plants (by 51%). Of the total sampled households (50), 92 percent shared their experiences regarding the change and impacts of climatic parameters, wetland ecosystem, agriculture system, FS and livelihoods. Rise in temperature, unpredictable rainfall, shift in rainfall pattern and phenological changes in plants were the indicators of CC. Meteorological data supported these observations and showed that during the last 30 years average temperature rose by 20 C while fluctuation of annual rainfall had abrupt pattern with only 5000 mm/year during the year 2005 to 2010 except in the year 2007 (6000 mm/year) and 2010 (5800 mm/year).

Climate change has become a serious global challenge that has attracted attention of food producers, policy makers and researchers worldwide. Studies on anthropogenic climate change performed by many researchers in the last decade show consistent projections of increases in temperature and different patterns of precipitation. In many countries and in recent years there is a tendency towards cereal grain yield stagnation and increased yield variability. Some of those trends may have been influenced by the recent climatic changes. Farmers across the globe are currently adapting to climate change, in particular in terms of changing timing of cultivation and selecting other crop species and cultivars for ensuring their food security or to improve their livelihoods situation. This book therefore attempts to present a summarized version of research findings on interrelationship of crop production, food security and climate change taking the recent research findings. This book consists of six chapters dealing with issues, challenges, plans and practices at global, national and local levels with special reference to Nepal.

It has been anticipated that the book will be useful for the students and researchers and policy makers, NGOs, CBOs, and wider readership interested in the sectors of crop production and food security in the context of climate change.

Foreword

Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (HICAST) has been conducting academic programmes in affiliation with Purbanchal University since 2000. Both the bachelor and master degree students must conduct field- and/or laboratory-based research, write and submit thesis based on research findings as partial requirement for obtaining the degree the student is enrolled to. Without being properly and timely published, these research findings cannot reach to wider readership, and continue to remain as decorative materials in the book shelves of the library. Realizing the importance of widely circulating at least the abstracts of those researches an attempt was initiated by us to publish the thesis research abstracts annually.

This publication is a collection of abstracts of thesis researches conducted in 2013. This is the fourth volume of this journal. Relevant thesis can be consulted at HICAST Library for more information.

This publication has four chapters, viz. horticulture, plant protection, agri-economics and business management, and veterinary sciences. This division is based on the departments the papers fall within.

It is hoped that the publication will be useful for the students, researchers, teachers, policy makers and development workers. It is the publication that each student of agriculture and veterinary science should possess and read.





Binayak P Rajbhandari, PhD
Executive Chairperson

As an agrarian country, Nepal depends primarily on agricultural development to solve the persistently increasing problems of unemployment, hunger, poverty, food insecurity and livelihoods of its population, particularly residing in rural areas. Furthermore, it has to increase its agricultural production because this is the major sector contributing to GDP substantially (one third) and earning some foreign currency. As the possibility of expanding crop area has already been explored, growth in the production of agricultural crops is possible only through the extensive use of improved varieties well-adapted to local conditions, and proper implementation of the modern integrated crop-, soil-, nutrient- and pest- management agro-techniques comprehensively paying due consideration to the fragile ecological conditions of our ecosystems, and our richness in water resources as well as plant/animal genetic resources. Nepal has been experiencing serious set-backs in this field owing to inappropriate or otherwise inadequate emphasis by the government in policy formulation as well as program development and implementation. The growers and entrepreneurs deserve special policies and programs for increasing the acreage and production of buckwheat that has yet been ignored in the national agricultural and development policies and programmes. This book is an attempt to facilitate in addressing this challenge.   
This book has been compiled based on the researches conducted by the author during the last twenty five years and lectures delivered by him during 1986 to 2009 at Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), Tribhuvan University, Chitwan and Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (HICAST), Kathmandu. Research findings and reviews published in various forms have been extensively used in the text.
This book consists of seven chapters. The first chapter presents some insights on the role and scope of buckwheat in reducing hunger, and improving livelihoods and national economy. Attempt has also been made there to highlight buckwheat research works conducted in Nepal. The second chapter is devoted for the botanical peculiarities including origin, taxonomy and distribution. Description of the species and forms of buckwheat prevalent in Nepal is also included in that chapter. The third chapter deals with the biological characteristics of Nepali buckwheat, while the fourth chapter presents information about agro-ecological peculiarities of common buckwheat. The fifth chapter presents new information about eco-physiology of Nepali buckwheat in relation to altitude and crop geometry; and the sixth chapter presents a comprehensive scientific information about yield formation in common buckwheat in relation to genotype and environment. The last one, i.e. the seventh chapter, presents information about buckwheat production technology with special reference to Nepal. The bibliography section has a list of latest, authoritative literatures on all aspects covered in this book.
This monograph is the first book of its kind written on buckwheat and published in Nepal being primarily based on the author's original research and observations as well as relevant scientific information available in the literature. 
It is hoped that the book will be useful for the researchers, students, teachers, and extension workers as well as buckwheat growers, entrepreneurs, and development workers.



7 July 2010       Binayak P Rajbhandari

The author demonstrates effect of crop geometry on fractional interception of photosynthetically active
radiation (PAR), and its effect on fertility of flowers and productivity ofcommon buckwheat in different
ecological conditions in Nepal, a mountainous south Asian country. Fertility of flowers is a complex ecophysiological
parameter. The author has attempted using this parameter to assess the yield potential of
common Nepali buckwheat ecotypes. The experimental results revealed that the assimilation area per
flower is highest in determinate ecotype, irrespective of altitudinal effect; and it is lowest in indeterminate
vigorous ecotypes , although the assimilation area per plant is the highest in this group of ecotype. The
effect of altitude in assimilation area per flower is insignificant. It was observed that genotypic difference
is there in the fractional interception ofPAR in all altitudinal ranges . The fractional interception ofPAR
ranging from 0.6 to 0.7 micro-mol per sq.m. per s. in the canopies of determinate ecotypes was found to
be the highest. The indeterminate vigorous ecotypes had the lowest fractional interception of PAR in
lower elevations. The vigorous giant plant architecture of Indeterminate Vigorous Form was responsible
for lower interception of PAR in canopies. Measurement of fractional interception of PAR in the crop
canopies with different geometry revealed that it increased in the canopies with higher plant density.
Highly positive and significant relationship between LAI and interception of PAR was estimated in both
genotypes. Both ofthese traits were found to have highly significant and positive correlation with number
of seeds per sq.m. and kernel yields in both genotypes, locations and year. He has also presented fmdigs
regarding resistance to lodging and cold tolerance of common Nepali buckwheat. It has been found that
some of the common buckwheat ecotypes might be used in breeding program for lodging resistance, cold
tolerance and higher fertility or productivity. The author has also estimated simple correlations among
various important traits.

As an agrarian country, Nepal has to depend primarily on agricultural development to solve the persistently increasing problems of unemployment, hunger, poverty, food security and livelihoods of its population, particularly residing in rural areas. Furthermore, it has to increase its agricultural production also because this is the major sector contributing to GDP substantially and earning some foreign currency. The possibility of expanding crop area has already been explored. Obviously, growth in food crops production is possible only through the extensive use of improved varieties and proper implementation of the modern integrated crop-, soil-, nutrient- and pest- management techniques comprehensively paying due consideration to the fragile ecological conditions of our agro-ecosystems, and our richness in water resources as well as plant/animal genetic resources and biodiversity. It is in this background that grain legume crops have been playing and have to play very important role in addressing the issues of food security or nutrition, soil fertility and structure maintenance and income generation.
This book consists of six chapters. The first chapter presents some insights on the role of grain legume crops in human nutrition and agriculture. Attempt has also been made there to highlight the environmental concerns as well as relevant research and development needs and prospects. The second chapter is devoted for the general botany of grain legume crops. The third chapter deals with the aspects of biological nitrogen fixation. The fourth chapter highlights aspects of yield formation in grain legume crops. The fifth chapter deals with the place of grain legumes in cropping system, while the last chapter presents the importance, origin and distribution, botany (morphology, taxonomy and varieties), agro-ecology and agro-technical aspects of grain legume crops grown in Nepal. The bibliography section has a list of above 100 authoritative literatures on all crops and aspects covered. I would like to acknowledge all the authors listed in the bibliography whose publications helped to bring the book in light in this shape and contents.

The issues about food and nutrition security, poverty reduction, equality, social justice, sustainable livelihoods, and sustainable rural development have resumed good space in the national, regional and global discussions. Case studies from various countries show that over time sustainable agriculture and rural development (SARD) approach based on agro-ecological principles has exhibited more stable levels of total production per unit area than high-input systems; has produced economically favorable rates of return; has provided a return to labor and other inputs sufficient for a livelihood acceptable to small farmers and their families; and has ensured soil protection and conservation; and has enhanced agro-biodiversity. With increasing evidence and awareness of the advantages of SARD, why hasn’t it spread more rapidly and how can it be multiplied and adopted or scaled up more widely? In Nepalese context, technological or ecological inventions and intentions are not enough. That requires changes in policies, institutions, and research and development in order to ensure that agro-ecological alternatives are adopted, made equitably and broadly accessible, and multiplied so that their full benefit for sustainable food and nutrition security can be realized. Existing subsidies and policy incentives for conventional chemical approaches must be dismantled and institutional structures, partnerships, and educational processes must be changed to enable the agro-ecological approach to blossom. In addition, participatory farmer-to-farmer methods of technology development and scaling up through Model Demonstration Farms must be incorporated. The challenge today is to increase investment and promulgate education-research-extension activities in regard to agro-ecology; and scale up the innovations that have already proven successful elsewhere. That will generate a meaningful impact on the income, food and nutrition security, and environmental well-being of the population, especially millions of resource-poor farmers who are yet untouched by modern agricultural technology and innovations. These concept and understandings served to be the basis of incorporating SARD as a core course in the curriculum at HICAST in affiliation with Purbanchal University, Nepal.

This book is compiled based on my research, teaching and development activities during the last 15 years. This is the first book of its kind which consists of 6 chapters.  The first chapter presents insights on sustainable livelihoods. The second chapter briefly discusses on food security and climate change with reference to Nepal. The third chapter presents historical account of Nepalese agriculture. The fourth chapter is about the concept, approach, strategies and various aspects of SARD. The fifth chapter deals with the concept, principles and processes of conversion of conventional farms into agro-ecological farm while the sixth chapter discusses about structures and procedures of evaluation of sustainable agriculture. Relevant research findings, case studies and reviews published in various forms have been extensively used in the text. I would like to acknowledge all the authors listed in the bibliography and references whose publications and contributions in the field of SARD and agro-ecology helped to bring this book in light in this shape and contents.

This book is recommended for the students, researchers, teachers, development workers and policy makers to understand and make use of the knowledge of sustainable livelihoods, food security, sustainable agriculture and rural development from resource-poor farmers and micro-entrepreneurs’ perspectives.

The study was carried-out from May to August 2013 on the topic major insect pests and diseases of cucurbits and their management practices under BIFS. Samples of 60 households were taken randomly from Triyuga municipality (Chaukibari and Uttraitole) and Hadiya VDC to identify the crop pests and diseases and their management practices in cucurbits adopted by farmers. Fruit fly and Red Pumpkin beetles were the most important insect of cucurbits except in bitter gourd. Epilachna beetle was found most in the bitter gourd to be attracted mostly by mealy bug. Similarly Powdery mildew and the Downey mildew, Cucurbit Mosaic Virus were the most common diseases. Local farmers were largely aware about the major insect pests of the cucurbitaceous crops. It was found that farmers were aware of the botanical pesticides and its preparation method. Application of the botanical pesticides and other indigenous materials like cattle urine and wood ash were the most common pest management tool adopted by the farmers. A field study using the different traps against fruit flies in pumpkin was conducted in Hadiya, 6. Four treatments with four replications were used in the experiment. The treatments were: a) Cue lure with Malathion (1ml), b) Molasses with Malathion (1ml), c) Pumpkin with Malathion (1ml), and d) last one was untreated control. All the treatments were replicated for 4 times. Among all treatments Cue-lure treatment trapped the maximum number of fruit flies as compared to other treatments. It was found more effective in fruit flies management in the study area.

Key word: Fruit flies, red pumpkin beetle, mealy bug, powdery mildew, pest management,

The present study was conducted in four locations of Surkhet district viz. Chhinchu-7, Sanoharre, Mehalkuna-6, Satmule, Dasaratpur-4, Goramare, Sahare-5, Baghkhor and Gadhi -5 and 6, Baelkada from June to September 2014. The experiment had two treatments viz. IPM practice and Farmer’s conventional practice. Data on plant growth and yield were recorded every week. Higher plant height was observed in the IPM practice in each week (91.04 cm on 45 Days after transplanting which was in increasing trend. The plants subjected to IPM practice showed early flowering (average 27 DAT) and fruiting (7 DAF). Number of fruit per cluster was found to be higher in IPM practice field (n=8.6) as compare of Farmers practice field (n=7). Sample weight of the fruit collected from IPM practice was found higher (49.54 g) as compared to Farmer’s practice (43.07g). Organoleptic test revealed that tomato fruits obtained from IPM practice were tastier than those from Farmer’s practice and the ripen fruit from IPM practice had attractive color dark red than that of dull yellow color fruits produced in the Farmer’s practice. On an average B:C ratio of IPM  was found higher (1.67) than that of conventional practices (1.2). On an average per unit cost of cultivation of tomato in IPM practice was found less as compared to conventional practice. Analysis of gross return showed that it was higher in IPM practice (33%) than in conventional practice.

Key Words: Organoleptic test, Trichoderma viride, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Metarhizium ssp, Bacillus thuringensis, Sex Pheromone Traps

This paper presents some insight and analysis based on 8-year participatory action
research conducted in Udayapur district of Nepal. The study has revealed positive impact
of bio-intensive farming system approach in increasing crop diversity and yield efficiency
of the farm, improving food/nutritional security and rural livelihoods. Replication of biointensive
farming system has been recommended as an effective participatory approach
to address the issues of land degradation, ecological degradation, food production, food
security and livelihoods dimensions in developing countries like Nepal.
Key word: Sustainability, Participatory approach, Cropping intensity, Soil fertility,
Yield efficiency, Poverty, Livelihoods

Eco-village addresses the social, cultural, ecological and techno-economic discrepancies and instabilities through sustainable community based structures, practices and concepts from holistic right based perspectives. This study was conducted in Dang district during June to September 2014 to assess the changes in the livelihood of local people in Paddha, Urahari and Hekuli villages undergoing transformation. A total of 90 households were selected for the study from three eco-villages namely: Paddha, Urahari and Hekuli. Random sampling method was followed for selecting samples from the study areas. In all three eco-villages most of the people were Janjaati. About 81 percent of respondents spoke Chaudhari (Tharu). Out of total respondents 93 percent of the respondents were literate with 58 percent and 31 percent of the respondents having primary and secondary level education respectively. Only 3 percent of the respondents had higher secondary level education and 1 percent of the respondents had university level education. It was found that 90 percent of the respondents were engaged in agriculture. Rests of the respondents were engaged in wages, foreign employment and in other services. The major changes of eco-village in the study areas were awareness of sanitation and hygiene in the eco-village, construction of improved shed, use of improved cooking stove, involvement in groups, use of energy sources (bio gas) was found in increasing trend as compared to previous conditions. The changes in access to health services, women’s decision making power was found increasing. Almost all households were found engaged in bio-intensive vegetable farming, use of IPM approach and organic recycling. Changes in food security and livelihoods situations were remarkable.

Key words: Eco-village, livelihood, bio-intensive farming, food security, health, sanitation, energy

soil samples were collected from 3 different nutrient management practices (T 1-with chemical fertilizers only; T 2-with IPNM; and T 3-with organic manure only) for soil analysis. The comparative study of soil physical parameters i.e. soil texture, soil chemical parameters i.e. pH, OM, N, P and K content of all soil samples was done. The mean soil texture of all soil samples was found to be sandy loam. The value of N, P, K and OM was found higher in T 3 thanT 1. The mean pH value of T 1 was 6.3, T 2 was 6.65 and T 3 was 6.7 where, differences in pH value between T 1 & T 2 as well as T 1 & T 3 were statistically significant at p≤ 0.05. Similarly, the mean value of OM was found to be 4.66% in T 1 , 4.25% in T 2 and 6.62% in T 3. Differences in OM content between T1 & T3 as well as between T2 & T3 were significant at p≤ 0.05. The mean value of total N was found to be 0.052% in T 1 , 0.071% in T 2 and 0.092% in T 3. Difference in N content between T 1 & T 3 was statistically significant at p≤ 0.05. Similarly, the mean value of available P was found to be 22.48 kg ha-1 P 2 O 5 in T 1 , 38.42 kg ha-1 P 2 O 5 T 2 and 37.446 kg ha-1 P 2 O 5 in T 3. Differences in P content between treatments were not significant statistically. Mean value of K was found to be 286.83 kg ha-1 K 2 O in T 1 , 286.83 kg ha-1 K 2 O in T 2 and 554.74 kg ha-1 K 2 O in T 3. Differences in K2O content between T1 & T2 as well as between T1 & T3 were significant at p≤ 0.05. The study was found that fertility status of organic field was found to be better in term of fertility and OM content than inorganic fields.