Identifying and explaining the end of long-lived practices is a major challenge for anthropologic... more Identifying and explaining the end of long-lived practices is a major challenge for anthropological archaeology. We present a high-precision uranium series dating (230Th/U) chronology of an undocumented aspect of Hawaiian religion: the use of corals as offerings in gardens. Our results from the upland gardens of Kealakekua (Kona District, Hawai`i Island) document the onset of religious offerings at the same time as farming in the area at around AD 1400, with no samples dating to after around AD 1635. There are similar conspicuous endings to coral offerings in temple sites on the small, isolated island of Nihoa and in the uplands of Maui. On Nihoa, the lack of coral offerings after AD 1606 can be reasonably linked to the abandonment of permanent settlement on the island. In upland Maui temple sites, as is the case in the upland gardens of Kealakekua, the end of coral offerings around AD 1600–1700 suggests a disruption to a long-lived ritual tradition at a time when other metrics point to the rise of state authority over religion.
Poverty (‘ilihune) is a commonplace social problem rarely discussed by anthropological archaeolog... more Poverty (‘ilihune) is a commonplace social problem rarely discussed by anthropological archaeology. The purpose of this editorial is to demonstrate how metrics of food abundance/scarcity, status, and exchanged goods can achieve a fuller picture of the political economy and address the roots of poverty. In the case, historical evidence from Hawaiian language newspapers suggests the mid-19th century is when we can expect to find more people began to experience poverty.
The invention of radiocarbon dating transformed how time was approached by archaeology. It has be... more The invention of radiocarbon dating transformed how time was approached by archaeology. It has been argued that the adoption of geospatial technology – e.g., GIS, high-definition remote sensing, laser scanning – has had equally important consequences constituting a geospatial revolution in archaeology. In contrast to the radiocarbon revolution, which turned on the development of a single technology, the geospatial revolution involves a suite of different innovations, and as such, remains poorly defined. In this paper I present a meta-analysis of more than 11,000 literature references to better define precisely when, where, and how these technologies have been applied, and, to a limited degree, explore with text mining tools trends in topics discussed. Results suggest that after an experimental period in the 1990s, there was a rapid uptake of geospatial technology beginning around 2005. While the geospatial revolution has impacted archaeology on a global scale there appears to be a consistent, and concerning, geographic bias toward studies centered on Europe. Today, the proportion of the archaeological literature concerning some aspect of geospatial technology is equal to radiocarbon and is on track to continue to grow.
While the site concept continues to be fundamental to archaeology there are a number of known pra... more While the site concept continues to be fundamental to archaeology there are a number of known practical and theoretical problems with sites as units of observation. In the digital age, geospatial technologies give us the capacity to detect, record, index, and analyze sites at scales impossible in the analog age when the notion of a site entered our lexicon. Using examples from recent research, I present a critical review of how geospatial technologies have complicated how we think about sites, specifically centering on three trends: 1) increasing application of remote sensing; 2) the new ways we make field observations with high resolution recording techniques, like 3D scanning; and 3) site indices that must balance the inherent conflict between obscuring site locations to protect them from unwanted visitation and damage, and displaying site location as a necessary prerequisite of advocating for their protection.
In the landmark book Māori Warfare, Vayda (1960) used oral traditions and historical documents to... more In the landmark book Māori Warfare, Vayda (1960) used oral traditions and historical documents to characterize conflict in New Zealand as a cycle of fights over prime agricultural lands driven by population pressure. We examine the archaeological evidence for when Māori warfare took on the character described by Vayda, specifically when were there fortifications across the landscape leaving few opportunities for expansion to un-fortified lands to counter food-shortages. We present a critical review of research relevant to the nature and motivations of conflict and the results of excavations we conducted in the Bay of Islands region. We find that Vayda's cycle of warfare is first evident around AD 1650, more than a century after the first fortifications were constructed in AD 1500. Explaining the origins of conflict requires a more nuanced model of environmental, cultural, and historical factors that shaped the degree and frequency of conflict.
Environmentally transformative human use of land accelerated with the emergence of agriculture, b... more Environmentally transformative human use of land accelerated with the emergence of agriculture, but the extent, trajectory, and implications of these early changes are not well understood. An empirical global assessment of land use from 10,000 years before the present (yr B.P.) to 1850 CE reveals a planet largely transformed by hunter-gatherers, farmers, and pastoralists by 3000 years ago, considerably earlier than the dates in the land-use reconstructions commonly used by Earth scientists. Synthesis of knowledge contributed by more than 250 archaeologists highlighted gaps in archaeological expertise and data quality, which peaked for 2000 yr B.P. and in traditionally studied and wealthier regions. Archaeological reconstruction of global land-use history illuminates the deep roots of Earth’s transformation and challenges the emerging Anthropocene paradigm that large-scale anthropogenic global environmental change is mostly a recent phenomenon.
Environmentally transformative human use of land accelerated with the emergence of agriculture, b... more Environmentally transformative human use of land accelerated with the emergence of agriculture, but the extent, trajectory, and implications of these early changes are not well understood. An empirical global assessment of land use from 10,000 years before the present (yr B.P.) to 1850 CE reveals a planet largely transformed by hunter-gatherers, farmers, and pastoralists by 3000 years ago, considerably earlier than the dates in the land-use reconstructions commonly used by Earth scientists. Synthesis of knowledge contributed by more than 250 archaeologists highlighted gaps in archaeological expertise and data quality, which peaked for 2000 yr B.P. and in traditionally studied and wealthier regions. Archaeological reconstruction of global land-use history illuminates the deep roots of Earth’s transformation and challenges the emerging Anthropocene paradigm that large-scale anthropogenic global environmental change is mostly a recent phenomenon.
Powerful hurricanes in 2017—Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria—were stark examples of how these p... more Powerful hurricanes in 2017—Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria—were stark examples of how these previously rare catastrophes are becoming increasingly normal due to climate change, with dire consequences for cultural resources. These storms, sometimes called megastorms or superstorms, were the first in which high-resolution satellite imagery was available in the immediate aftermath, providing a new tool for rapidly evaluating damage to archaeological sites. Using Hurricane Harvey as a case study, we examined two recent spatial models of archaeological site vulnerability to long-term climate change to determine whether these models are also adequate for predicting the impacts of short-term climate catastrophes.We further examined a number of individual variables that we expected to be useful in predicting which sites would be most vulnerable to flooding, such as proximity to rivers, the coast, or the floodplain. Neither the models nor the individual variables correlated well to increased risk to archaeological sites, with the exception of land use. Sites located within developed areas benefited from measures to protect property and were less often flooded. We suggest that strategies for responding to megastorms would be most effective through a combination of preparedness, analysis of remote sensing data, and existing field research methods.
Large celebrations in ancient societies, when viewed through the lens of political economy theory... more Large celebrations in ancient societies, when viewed through the lens of political economy theory, were opportunities for economic redistribution, elite rivalry and social integration. Metrics to evaluate celebratory behaviour – such as festive gatherings, offerings at temples and shrines, games and memorials – remain underdeveloped. Here the author examines the archaeological and historical evidence for the Makahiki festival in the Hawaiian Islands. He takes a direct historical approach combining independent datasets to classify settings of celebrations and evaluate claims that the Makahiki festival originated, and was most elaborate, on Hawai'i Island, as well as that the festival was practised differently across the archipelago. The author finds that the relevant data collected over more than a century of archaeology are not sufficient to support these claims and that the distribution of tracks for the sledding sport (hōlua) might be a fruitful avenue for future research, especially when investigating elite rivalry. More speculatively, the author argues that it is possible to decipher choices in architectural design and location at royal centres that speak to attempts by the elite to artificially increase the density of crowds at low turnout events while at the same time leaving enough room to accommodate high turnout events. When viewed through the lens of political economy theory large celebrations involving hundreds or thousands of people provided the ruling class of pre-modern states with a host of opportunities to create and maintain power. Gatherings could be used to shape the economy, publicly demonstrate personal power, and capitalize on shared experiences in games, sports and performances as an avenue to promote social integration. Cross-cultural examples of celebrations in pre-modern states and chiefdoms involving tribute and redistribution, elite competition and elite-sponsored sports suggest celebrations were, at different times and places, a remarkable and important source of power (see Flannery and Marcus [2012] for a summary). Metrics to evaluate celebratory behaviour – such as festive gatherings, offerings at temples and shrines, games and memorials – remain underdeveloped, in part, as they often require a great deal of historically particular knowledge that is not always possible based on material evidence in isolation from documentary and ethnohistoric information.
Marine environments are rich in natural resources, and therefore, have been targeted for human oc... more Marine environments are rich in natural resources, and therefore, have been targeted for human occupation from at least the Pleistocene. In the modern day, the preservation and documentation of the physical archaeological evidence of human occupation and use of coasts, islands, and the ocean must now include mitigating the impacts of global climate change. Here, I review recent efforts to document archaeological sites across the islands of Polynesia using geospatial technology, specifically remote sensing, high-resolution documentation, and the creation of archaeological site geodatabases. I discuss these geospatial technologies in terms of planning for likely future impacts from sea level rise; a problem that will be felt across the region, and based on current evidence, will affect more than 12% of all known sites in New Zealand (Aotearoa). " In coastal regions around the world, we need to accelerate our own efforts to inventory, investigate, and interpret the history of endangered coastal sites. .. We must pull our heads from the proverbial sand for we are literally racing a rising tide. " [1]
Integration of archaeology, modern genetics, and ancient DNA holds promise for the reconstruction... more Integration of archaeology, modern genetics, and ancient DNA holds promise for the reconstruction of the human past. We examine the advances in research on the indigenous peoples of Polynesia to determine: (1) what do archaeological and genetic data (ancient and modern DNA) tell us about the origins of Polynesians; and, (2) what evidence is there for long-distance travel and contacts between Polynesians and indigenous populations of the Americas? We note that the general dispersal pattern of founding human populations in the remote islands of the Pacific and long-distance interaction spheres continue to reflect well-established models. New research suggests that the formation of an Ancestral Polynesia Culture in Western Polynesia may have involved differential patterns of dispersal followed by significant later migrations. It has also been suggested that the pause between the settlement of Western and Eastern Polynesia was centuries longer than currently thought, followed by a remarkably rapid pulse of island colonization. Long-distance travel between islands of the Pacific is currently best documented through the sourcing of artifacts, while the discovery of admixture of Native American DNA within the genome of the people from Easter Island (Rapa Nui) is strong new evidence for sustained contacts between Polynesia and the Americas.
As spatial technology has evolved and become integrated in to archaeology, we face a new set of c... more As spatial technology has evolved and become integrated in to archaeology, we face a new set of challenges posed by the sheer size and complexity of data we use and produce. In this paper I discuss the prospects and problems of Geospatial Big Data (GBD) e broadly defined as data sets with locational information that exceed the capacity of widely available hardware, software, and/or human resources. While the datasets we create today remain within available resources, we nonetheless face the same challenges as many other fields that use and create GBD, especially in apprehensions over data quality and privacy. After reviewing the kinds of archaeological geospatial data currently available I discuss the near future of GBD in writing culture histories, making decisions, and visualizing the past. I use a case study from New Zealand to argue for the value of taking a data quantity-in-use approach to GBD and requiring applications of GBD in archaeology be regularly accompanied by a Standalone Quality Report.
We report on the excavation of an upland habitation site in Kahikinui, Maui, interpreted as the r... more We report on the excavation of an upland habitation site in Kahikinui, Maui, interpreted as the residence of a priest (kahuna) in the traditional Hawaiian religious system. The site, consisting of a large stone terrace and walled house foundation, lies within a ceremonial precinct incorporating several temple (heiau) structures. Six radiocarbon dates bracket the period of occupation between AD 1650 and 1820, although the duration of use was probably shorter. Lithic analysis indicates that the house occupants worked both local and imported basalt; retouching of fine-grained basalt adzes within the house suggests wood-working activities. Some of the fine-grained basalt has an off-island origin traced to O'ahu Island. A cache of black and white pebbles may be either gaming pieces or stones used by a priest in divination and disease diagnosis. The faunal assemblage reveals access to a wide variety of status foods, including the prized black-foot limpet, a variety of fishes, wild birds, and domestic pigs, dogs, and chickens. Some of the birds may have been taken for their black or yellow feathers, these colours being associated with Hawaiian deities. In total, the cultural assemblage from site KIP-117 provides a window into the daily life of a Hawaiian priestly household.
The Kona Field System, located on the leeward side of Hawai'i Island, is comprised of a network o... more The Kona Field System, located on the leeward side of Hawai'i Island, is comprised of a network of stone field walls, terraces, mounds and other agricultural, residential and religious features stretched over an estimated 163 km2. Previous research indicates a construction history of the fields that could have begun as early as the Foundation Period (AD 1000–1200), followed by a shift in agricultural strategies from those that reduce variance in yield (AD 1450–1600) to a strategy of production maximisation (after AD 1600) attributed to the growing political economy. However, these propositions are based on radiocarbon dates, many of which do not meet minimal standards for acceptable sample selection. We report the results of new excavations at the Amy Greenwell Ethnobotanical Garden in Kealakekua that suggest (1) that agricultural infrastructural improvements were being made by AD 1400, and (2) that agronomic infrastructure continued to be added to optimal lands and elsewhere after AD 1700 as decisions regarding agricultural strategies became coopted by political elites. There remains a great deal about the Kona Field System that is still poorly documented through archaeology. R ´ ESUMÉ Le système de champ Kona, situé sur le côté sous le vent de l'ˆ ıle de Hawaii, est composé d'un réseau de murs de terrain en pierre, des terrasses, des monticules et d'autres caractéristiques agricoles, résidentielles et religieuses tendues sur environ 163 km 2. Des recherches antérieures indiquent une histoire de la construction des champs qui auraient commencé d` es la période de la Fondation (AD 1000–1200), suivie par un changement dans les stratégies agricoles de ceux qui réduisent la variance du rendement (AD 1450–1600) ` a une stratégie de production maximisation (après AD 1600) attribuéà l'´ economie politique croissante. Cependant, ces propositions sont fondées sur des dates de radiocarbone, dont beaucoup ne répondent pas aux normes minimales pour la sélection de l'´ echantillon acceptable. Nous rapportons les résultats de nouvelles fouilles sur le jardin ethnobotanique Amy Greenwelì a Kealakekua qui suggèrent (1) l'amélioration des infrastructures agricoles ontété réalisés par AD 1400, et (2) l'infrastructure agronomique continuéà ajouter aux terres optimales et ailleurs après l'an 1700 que les décisions concernant l'agriculture stratégies se sont cooptées par lesélites politiques. Il reste beaucoup de choses sur le système Kona champ qui est encore mal documentée par l'archéologie. Mots Clés: stratégies agricoles, la gestion des risques, bet-couverture, l'´ economie politique, l'ˆ ıles de Hawaii, le système Kona
Archaeologists commonly use the onset of the construction of large burial monuments as a material... more Archaeologists commonly use the onset of the construction of large burial monuments as a material indicator of a fundamental shift in authority in prehistoric human societies during the Holocene. High-quality direct evidence of this transition is rare. We report new interdisciplinary research at the archaeological site of Nan Madol that allows us to specify where and when people began to construct monumental architecture in the remote islands of the Pacific. Nan Madol is an ancient administrative and mortuary center and the former capital of the island of Pohnpei. It was constructed over 83 ha of lagoon with artificial islets and other architecture built using columnar basalt and coral. We employed geochemical sourcing of basalt used as architectural stone and high-precision uranium-thorium series dates (230 Th/U) on coral from the tomb of the first chief of the entire island to identify the beginning of monument building at Nan Madol in AD 1180-1200. Over the next several centuries (AD 1300-1600) monument building began on other islands across Oceania. Future research should be aimed at resolving the causes of these social transformations through higher quality data on monument building.
Abstract: Archaeology of traditional religious sites in Polynesia tends to focus on the “pre-cont... more Abstract: Archaeology of traditional religious sites in Polynesia tends to focus on the “pre-contact” era, before religions were transformed by European influence. An historical archaeology of traditional religious sites is essential, however, for understanding the relationship between 21st-century traditional or indigenous religious beliefs and practices, and the transformations wrought during the colonial era. Traditional religion certainly did not disappear with the arrival of Christian missionaries, but there would have been some transformations. Using case studies from the Hawaiian Islands (Puhina o Lono or “Cook’s Heiau” on Hawai‘i Island and the leprosarium at Kalaupapa, Moloka‘i Island), we explore some of the ways that sacred sites were transformed in the 18th and 19th centuries. These are initial observations and we offer a number of recommendations for future research, particularly relating to the interpretation of architectural modifications and ritual offerings. The largely unexplored colonial archaeology of traditional religious sites merits a more prominent place in Polynesian archaeology.
Keywords: Religious sites, historical archaeology, Hawai‘i, heiau, Captain Cook
During the colonization of remote Pacific Islands, founding communities forged novel interaction ... more During the colonization of remote Pacific Islands, founding communities forged novel interaction spheres within newly settled archipelagos. We report on new research on the geographic range of interaction spheres in the first centuries of occupation of New Zealand based on geochemical source identifications from obsidian assemblages found along the coast of the Otago region in the southern South Island. Results suggest that while there is evidence for interaction spanning the entire archipelago, logistical limitations on long-distance mobility along the long north-south axis of New Zealand appear to have developed early on and may be important in understanding the development of territories later in M¯ aori culture history.
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Papers by Mark D McCoy
250 archaeologists highlighted gaps in archaeological expertise and data quality, which peaked for 2000 yr B.P. and in traditionally studied and wealthier regions. Archaeological reconstruction of global land-use history illuminates the deep roots of Earth’s transformation and challenges the emerging Anthropocene paradigm that large-scale anthropogenic global environmental change is mostly a recent phenomenon.
Keywords: Religious sites, historical archaeology, Hawai‘i, heiau, Captain Cook