Papers by Jonathan Benjamin
in the summer of 2005, an underwater survey of the slovenian Adriatic was conducted by a group of... more in the summer of 2005, an underwater survey of the slovenian Adriatic was conducted by a group of international archaeologists. A rare prehistoric chert artefact classified as a small bifacial dagger or "fixed blade" knife was recovered near Punta Piran. The artefact has bilateral notches near the proximal end, presumably to facilitate hafting, and shows evidence of resharpening. Typologically, this find is most closely related to northern italian Chalcolithic and Bavarian Final neolithic examples, and is likely an import from the northeast italian Pre-Alpine region.
Investigating prehistoric sites on the seabed
Aarhus University Press & Jutland Archaeological Society, 2018
Archaeological observation and recovery under water is often carried out with the same degree of ... more Archaeological observation and recovery under water is often carried out with the same degree of accuracy as on land. Recreational divers frequently take part in the operations, particularly where these can be undertaken using basic scuba-gear and minimal specialist equipment. The chapter focuses on methods for identifying early prehistoric localities under water. We introduce the basic principles for the sampling and small-scale excavation of sites located in near-shore, shallow waters. Considerations are also given to more technical approaches, including remotely operated equipment for surveying and trial excavation without divers.
The Archaeology of Europe’s Drowned Landscapes, 2020
The big flood: responding to sea-level rise and the inundated continental shelf
Since the first peopling of Australia and New Guinea (the continent of Sahul) during times of low... more Since the first peopling of Australia and New Guinea (the continent of Sahul) during times of lower sea level more than 60,000 years ago, approximately 2 million km2 of land, roughly one-third of the present continental land mass, has been drowned by sea-level rise. Landscapes encountered and settled by thousands of generations of people throughout the continent have been inundated by rising seas as polar ice and glaciers melted into the world’s oceans. While some archaeological sites formed within these landscapes were no doubt destroyed by the rising seas, many sites are likely to have survived. This submerged archaeological record represents the majority of human occupation in Sahul, spanning the period from initial peopling of the continent to 7000 years BP. As a major frontier in Australian archaeology, investigation of what is now seabed will ultimately lead to revised and enhanced understanding of the continental archaeological record. By reevaluating the coastal zone, submer...
Under the Sea: Archaeology and Palaeolandscapes of the Continental Shelf, 2017
In 2010, a submerged Late Mesolithic settlement site was discovered near the hamlet of Falden dur... more In 2010, a submerged Late Mesolithic settlement site was discovered near the hamlet of Falden during a week-long archaeological dive survey of Helnaes Bay, Denmark. The survey was carried out as part of a training exercise, funded by the SPLASHCOS network. The discovery was a rare occurrence in recent years because priority has been given to rescue investigation of sites affected by the threat of erosion or otherwise potentially destructive modern development. This was not the case at Falden. Two short field seasons subsequent to the site's discovery (2011-2012) yielded a large inventory of worked flint, faunal remains and various other archaeological materials. The site is presented here within a larger discussion surrounding issues in training and capacity building, as well as management and research strategies concerned with prehistoric underwater cultural heritage. The fieldwork was based on methods used for many years by Langelands Museum as part of a combined survey and public outreach programme, with the additional integration of SPLASHCOS participants, mainly Early Stage Researchers. The lessons learned during this integrated dual-purpose capacitybuilding and archaeological research mission serve as a valuable experience for a proposed training centre with the aim of providing the opportunity for researchers and practitioners of underwater archaeology to gain the necessary experience to properly undertake research and advise (or themselves become) competent authorities working in underwater heritage management.
Underwater Investigations at the Early Sites of Aspros and Nissi Beach on Cyprus
Submerged Prehistory, 2011
ABSTRACT This chapter presents the results of underwater reconnaissance work carried out in front... more ABSTRACT This chapter presents the results of underwater reconnaissance work carried out in front of two early sites on Cyprus. In addition, it is the story of how a land-based project decided to get its feet wet. As late as 2003, there was only one good candidate for a site (Aetokremnos) dating to the pre-Neolithic on the island. In 2004, reconnaissance work on land made it possible to identify several new early sites (including Aspros and Nissi Beach) located on coastal formations of aeolianite. Previously, the archaeologist on Cyprus had essentially ignored the aeolianite that now holds one of the keys to the study of the origins of seafaring in the Eastern Mediterranean. Given the low position of sea levels prior to 10,000 years ago, there is a good chance that what one fi nds on land today is just the tip of the iceberg. At Aspros in the summer of 2007, the aim was to trace one of the early sites out into the water. For the first time on Cyprus, dive site C at the foot of a submerged cliff on the north bank of the Aspros River yielded a set of chipped stone pieces in the water. Much, of course, remains to be done at Aspros and Nissi Beach. Th e work undertaken so far represents just the fi rst step toward learning more about early sites in submerged contexts on Cyprus.
Studies in world prehistory, which include the transition between the Pleistocene and Holocene an... more Studies in world prehistory, which include the transition between the Pleistocene and Holocene and the cultural shift from Forager to Farmer, remain incomplete, particularly along the coastal margins. Submerged landscape archaeology has begun to emerge as a serious sub-discipline of both maritime archaeology and world prehistory, with a largely untapped potential to fill in significant gaps in the archaeological record. This chapter reviews the current state of submerged landscape archaeology and considers important elements, both theoretical and practical, and discusses how future generations of prehistorians must be willing and able to engage with archaeology on the continental shelves, worldwide.
The Kalvestene: A reevaluation of the ship settings on the Danish island of Hjarnø
The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 2021
The ship setting site on the island of Hjarno, known as the Kalvestene (“the calf stones”), is a ... more The ship setting site on the island of Hjarno, known as the Kalvestene (“the calf stones”), is a grave field made up of ten small ship settings dating to the Viking Age. Although it is a comparativ...
In this paper we assess the potential for the survival and investigation of submerged prehistoric... more In this paper we assess the potential for the survival and investigation of submerged prehistoric sites and cultural landscapes in the eastern Adriatic. We review previous underwater prehistoric fi nds from the region and evaluate their signifi cance. Most of these fi nds were made in shallow water close inshore and likely date to the Neolithic-Early Bronze Age. We discuss the reasons for this pattern and for the concentration of fi nds along the Istrian and Dalmatian coasts. Th e prospects for fi nding submerged sites belonging to earlier periods of prehistory are discussed, with emphasis on the crucial period between 7000 and 5500 cal BC during which farming and herding supplanted hunting, fi shing, and gathering as the dominant modes of subsistence. Against this background, we present a research design for a multidisciplinary study of submerged landscapes around one of the larger islands of the Zadar archipelago. It is suggested that some important questions of the processes and timing of the transition to farming around the Adriatic Basin may only be answered through the investigation of the continental shelf, and that such research can also contribute to a better understanding of Holocene sea-level and coastal change.
The archaeology and paleoenvironment of the submerged Pottery Neolithic settlement of Kfar Samir (Israel)
This article focuses on a recently excavated stone and wood-built water well (Well no. 13) from t... more This article focuses on a recently excavated stone and wood-built water well (Well no. 13) from the submerged Pottery Neolithic site (Wadi Rabah culture) of Kfar Samir on the Carmel coast, Israel. This feature is considered within the context of previous research on the site and other submerged sites in the same area, incorporating new data on botanical remains and radiometric dates from Kfar Samir. Taken together, the new and previous investigations of the site shed light on the lifestyle of Pottery Neolithic coastal populations in the Southern Levant, especially those relating to management of water resources, olive oil production and the evolution of Mediterranean food ways. This research further informs us on the palaeoenvironment of the Carmel coast and sea level changes.
3D Recording and Interpretation for Maritime Archaeology, 2019
Archaeologists have aspired to a seamless integration of terrestrial and marine survey since mari... more Archaeologists have aspired to a seamless integration of terrestrial and marine survey since maritime archaeology began to emerge as a distinct sub-discipline. This chapter will review and discuss how 3D technology is changing the way that archaeologists work, blurring the boundaries between different technologies and different environments. Special attention is paid to the integration of data obtained from aerial and underwater methods. Maritime archaeology is undergoing an explosion of site recording methods and techniques which improve survey, excavation and interpretation, as well as management and conservation of material culture, protected sites, and cultural landscapes. An appraisal of methods and interpretive tools is therefore necessary as well as a consideration of how theoretical concepts of maritime landscapes are finding new expressions in practice. A thematic focus is placed on integrating land and sea through case studies of maritime archaeological sites and material which range chronologically from the recent past to several thousand years before present.
PLOS ONE, 2020
This article reports Australia's first confirmed ancient underwater archaeological sites from the... more This article reports Australia's first confirmed ancient underwater archaeological sites from the continental shelf, located off the Murujuga coastline in northwestern Australia. Details on two underwater sites are reported: Cape Bruguieres, comprising > 260 recorded lithic artefacts at depths down to −2.4 m below sea level, and Flying Foam Passage where the find spot is associated with a submerged freshwater spring at −14 m. The sites were discovered through a purposeful research strategy designed to identify underwater targets, using an iterative process incorporating a variety of aerial and underwater remote sensing techniques and diver investigation within a predictive framework to map the submerged landscape within a depth range of 0-20 m. The condition and context of the lithic artefacts are analysed in order to unravel their depositional and taphonomic history and to corroborate their in situ position on a pre-inundation land surface, taking account of known geomorphological and climatic processes including cyclone activity that could have caused displacement and transportation from adjacent coasts. Geomorphological data and radiometric dates establish the chronological limits of the sites and demonstrate that they cannot be later than 7000 cal BP and 8500 cal BP respectively, based on the dates when they were finally submerged by sea-level rise. Comparison of underwater and onshore lithic assemblages shows differences that are consistent with this chronological interpretation. This article sets a foundation for the research strategies and technologies needed to identify archaeological targets at greater depth on the Australian continental shelf and elsewhere, building on the results presented. Emphasis is also placed on the need for legislation to better protect and manage underwater cultural heritage on the 2 million square kilometres of
Quaternary Science Reviews, 2021
Shell middens, sometimes in the form of mounds of great size, are a ubiquitous indicator of coast... more Shell middens, sometimes in the form of mounds of great size, are a ubiquitous indicator of coastal settlement and exploitation of marine resources across the world. However, shell middens are relatively rare before the mid-Holocene because most palaeoshorelines before that time are now submerged by sea-level rise since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Previously reported examples of underwater shell middens are almost unknown and of uncertain status, and it has generally been assumed that such deposits would not survive the destructive impact of sea-level rise or would be indistinguishable from natural shell deposits. Recently, two examples of underwater shell deposits have been independently discovered and verified as anthropogenic midden deposits e a Mesolithic shell midden on the island of Hjarnø in the Straits of Denmark, and a Middle to Late Archaic shell midden in the Econfina Channel of the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, USA. We report the comparative geoarchaeological analysis of these deposits, using a sedimentological approach to unravel their formation history and post-depositional transformation. Despite the differences in coastal geomorphology and geology, cultural context, molluscan taxonomy and preservation conditions between these sites, the results demonstrate similar sedimentological profiles that are distinctive of anthropogenic deposits, demonstrate their origin as subaerial deposits at the shore edge before inundation by sea-level rise, and show that these properties can be identified in sediment samples recovered from coring. These findings support arguments that such sites likely exist in greater numbers than previously assumed, that they can be identified from minimally invasive techniques without the need for extensive underwater excavation, and that they should be sought to fill critical gaps in the temporal and geographical record concerning Late Quaternary human use of coastal zones and marine resources.
PLOS ONE, 2019
We report the results of underwater archaeological investigations at the submerged Neolithic sett... more We report the results of underwater archaeological investigations at the submerged Neolithic settlement of Tel Hreiz (7500-7000 BP), off the Carmel coast of Israel. The underwater archaeological site has yielded well-preserved architectural, artefactual, faunal and human remains. We examine and discuss the notable recent discovery of a linear, boulderbuilt feature >100m long, located seaward of the settlement. Based on archaeological context, mode of construction and radiometric dating, we demonstrate the feature was contemporary with the inundated Neolithic settlement and conclude that it served as a seawall, built to protect the village against Mediterranean Sea-level rise. The seawall is unique for the period and is the oldest known coastal defence worldwide. Its length, use of large non-local boulders and specific arrangement in the landscape reflect the extensive effort invested by the Neolithic villagers in its conception, organisation and construction. However, this distinct social action and display of resilience proved a temporary solution and ultimately the village was inundated and abandoned.
The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 2019
Shell middens, or shell-matrix deposits, occur in large numbers across the coastlines of the worl... more Shell middens, or shell-matrix deposits, occur in large numbers across the coastlines of the world from the mid-Holocene (ca. 6000-5000 cal BC) onwards, often forming substantial mounds. However, they become smaller, rarer or absent as one goes back into earlier periods, suggesting a worldwide process of economic intensification. Since sea level was generally much lower during these earlier periods, a critical question is the extent to which mounded shell middens could have accumulated on now-submerged palaeoshorelines, and if so, how they were affected by the potentially destructive impact of sea-level rise. Further, and important to modern practice, it is essential that archaeologists consider how such sites can be discovered through underwater investigation. Here we offer a proof of concept that shell middens can survive submergence and can be detected, using systematic investigation of a rare example of a confirmed underwater shell midden at the Mesolithic site of Hjarnø (ca. 5300-4300 cal BC) in Denmark. We
Project SAMPHIRE: Crowd Sourcing Maritime Archaeology data off Scotland's West Coast
The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 2017
ABSTRACT Perhaps the greatest barrier to effective management of underwater cultural heritage is ... more ABSTRACT Perhaps the greatest barrier to effective management of underwater cultural heritage is the lack of data on the nature and location of offshore archaeological resources. This is a problem shared with terrestrial archaeology, but is particularly acute due to the limitations of survey techniques in the underwater environment. In Scotland <15% of known ship losses from the last 200 years have been located and the record is far less comprehensive for earlier periods, verging on a near total data gap. Most known archaeological sites in Scottish waters have been discovered through large-scale sonar survey of relatively low resolution and a considerable bias has been introduced in the archaeological record; this has favored the discovery and documentation of larger and more recent, often upstanding, metal shipwrecks. This article presents the methods and results from a three-year project designed to reduce this bias by demonstrating large-scale prospecting for maritime archaeology through a community-based crowd-sourcing approach. Project SAMPHIRE (the Scottish Atlantic Maritime Past: Heritage, Investigation, Research and Education Project) was geographically focused on the west coast of the Scottish mainland and was undertaken between 2013 and 2015, resulting in a large number of new archaeological discoveries, including shipwrecks, aircraft, and other material of a much more varied nature than what is typically found through large-scale hydrographic surveys.
Antiquity, 2018
This research aims to explore the submerged landscapes of the Pilbara of western Australia, using... more This research aims to explore the submerged landscapes of the Pilbara of western Australia, using predictive archaeological modelling, airborne LiDAR, marine acoustics, coring and diver survey. It includes excavation and geophysical investigation of a submerged shell midden in Denmark to establish guidelines for the underwater discovery of such sites elsewhere.
Quaternary International, 2017
This article reviews key data and debates focused on relative sea-level changes since the Last In... more This article reviews key data and debates focused on relative sea-level changes since the Last Interglacial (approximately the last ~132,000 years) in the Mediterranean Basin, and their implications for past human populations. Geological and geomorphological landscape studies are critical to archaeology. Coastal regions provide a wide range of resources to the populations that inhabit them and coastal landscapes and resources are increasingly the focus of scholarly discussions from the earliest exploitation of littoral resources and early hominin cognition, to the inundation of the earliest permanently settled fishing villages and eventually, formative centres of urbanisation. In the Mediterranean, these would become hubs of maritime transportation that gave rise to the roots of modern seaborne trade. As such, this article represents an original review of both the geo-scientific and archaeological data that specifically relate to sea-level changes and resulting impacts on both physical and cultural landscapes from the Palaeolithic until the emergence of the Classical periods. Our review highlights that the interdisciplinary links between coastal archaeology, geomorphology and sea-level changes are important to explain environmental impacts on coastal human societies and human migration. We review geological indicators of sea level and outline how archaeological features are commonly used as proxies for measuring past sea levels, both gradual changes and catastrophic events. We argue that coastal archaeologists should, as a part of their analyses, incorporate important sea-level concepts, such as indicative meaning. The interpretation of the indicative meaning of Roman fishtanks, for example, plays a critical role in reconstructions of late Holocene Mediterranean sea levels. We identify avenues for future work, which include the consideration of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) in addition to coastal tectonics to explain vertical movements of coastlines, more studies on Palaeolithic island colonisation, broadening of Palaeolithic studies to include materials from the entire coastal landscape and not just coastal resources, a focus on rescue of archeological sites under threat by coastal change, and expansion of underwater archaeological studies in combination with submarine geomorphology. This article presents a collaborative synthesis of data, some of which have been collected and analysed by the authors, as the MEDFLOOD (MEDiterranean sea-level change and projection for future FLOODing) community, and highlights key sites, data, concepts and ongoing debates.
Regulating Scientific Diving and Underwater Archaeology: legal and historical considerations
International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 2015
The regulation of scientific and archaeological diving is complex but it is essential that underw... more The regulation of scientific and archaeological diving is complex but it is essential that underwater archaeologists are familiar with the requirements placed on them by legal systems. This paper outlines the history and development of current legal systems in four jurisdictions: the UK, USA, EU and Australia. This historical and legal approach informs key discussions facing maritime archaeologists; reference is made to training requirements, safety records and the question of who should be allowed to participate and who should be excluded from archaeological diving.
Epilogue to Submerged Prehistory
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Papers by Jonathan Benjamin