This article explores the origins of inspiration underlying the description of the use of trumpet... more This article explores the origins of inspiration underlying the description of the use of trumpets on the battlefield in the Qumran War Scroll (1QM). This focused study serves as a potential “test case” that will shed light on the broader issue of the sources informing the author’s knowledge of the military subjects he mentions. Elsewhere, I have shown the similarity between the description of the use of trumpets by priests in 1QM, and biblical depictions of priests’ use of trumpets for the purpose of being remembered before God. The current article focuses on showing the similarity between descriptions of the use of trumpets in Roman armies and their portrayal in the War Scroll, and also introduces a novel suggestion for an alternative source of inspiration that has not been raised in scholarship to date – the use of trumpets in the Jerusalem Temple, as described in Tannaitic literature. This comparison between 1QM and Roman tactics is based on the analysis of textual and archaeological data from the Roman era, detailing such aspects of military trumpets as: the types of trumpets used, the number of trumpet-players and their military status, and the military and religious purposes for which trumpets were utilized to emit different auditory signals in the routine of the camp, on the battlefield, and during army marches. The findings of this research have revealed a distinction between the elevated status of trumpet players in 1QM, and the position of trumpet players in the Roman armies, who held the lowest military rank among all legionnaires. Alongside this particular difference, there are several points of similarity between the characteristics of the use of trumpets as described in 1QM and in the Roman military: * The use of various types of trumpets for distinct military purposes. * The use of a group of six trumpets. 1QM 8: 8–9 and 16:7 refers to “the six trumpets of the slain.” Descriptions found on various archaeological findings indicate that the Roman army also used six trumpets simultaneously, in ritual ceremonies and perhaps also on the battlefield. * Similar to 1QM, several sources composed in the Roman era attest to extensive use of a variety of sound signals produced by trumpets, to direct soldiers on the battlefield. * The use of trumpets during army marches. 1QM 3: 5–6 refers to the use of “trumpets for their journeys,” and the use of “trumpets for the return signal” (lines 10–11) during the army's journey back to Jerusalem. Roman armies also employed trumpets during their expeditions. * The religious function of trumpets during battle. In 1QM, trumpets were apparently employed in battle both in order to direct the solders in combat and, additionally, to bring the divine presence into their midst, to support the army of the Sons of Light. Various sources from the Roman era testify that Roman armies also used trumpets for religious purposes (such as warding off bad omens, as well as in various ritual ceremonies). Due to the substantial time gap between some of the sources describing Roman military tactics (which span from the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE) and the time of the composition of the War Scroll (generally dated to the second half of the 1st century BCE), it is not possible to definitively establish a direct influence of any specific Roman text or artefact on 1QM’s description of trumpet usage. Nevertheless, if the Roman writings and archaeological findings discussed in this article indeed reflect the historical reality of the Roman period, then the resemblance between the description of trumpet usage in 1QM and the characteristics of trumpet usage in the Roman military strengthens the argument that the author of the scroll was also familiar with the same reality, which influenced his depiction of the use of trumpets. The final section of the article examines the possibility that the description of the use of trumpets in 1QM was also influenced by the use of trumpets in the Jerusalem Temple. The first point of evidence for this proposal relates to the resemblance between the auditory pattern: Teki'ah – Teru'ah – Teki'ah in the two comparanda. According to Tannaitic sources, this auditory pattern was sounded daily in the Temple at various designated times, as well as during holidays and other specified occasions. Similarly, the auditory pattern: Teki'ah – Teru'ot – Teki'ah appears in the four stages of war described in 1QM 8: 3–14. The second point is the possible resemblance between the Mishnaic depiction of the simultaneous sounding of trumpets and Shofar during communal fasts (m. Rosh Hashanah 3:3) and the usage of trumpets and Shofarot collectively in the battlefield, as described in various passages in 1QM. My conclusion is that the description of the use of trumpets in the War Scroll likely arises from a combination of scriptural descriptions relating to the religious aspect of using trumpets to invoke the divine presence, together with Roman military practices employing trumpets for tactical guidance of soldiers, as well as some influence from how trumpets were used in the temple, as described in Tannaitic sources. If this conclusion is accurate, then the focused discussion in this article regarding the description of trumpet usage in the battlefield in the War Scroll could contribute to a broader question regarding the sources of inspiration for all the military aspects described in the scroll, and potentially open up new directions for research.
This article is an archaeo-musicological study of the trumpets (ḥaṣoṣrot, metal wind instruments)... more This article is an archaeo-musicological study of the trumpets (ḥaṣoṣrot, metal wind instruments) and shofarot (animal horns) in the War Scroll from the Dead Sea Scrolls of Qumran. The study of ancient Jewish music is largely uncharted territory. Many musical terms that appear in the Bible, Second Temple writings, and rabbinic literature, including the names of musical instruments, are not fully understood and there are many questions about their interpretation. For this reason, the War Scroll is one of the most important sources for archaeo-musicological scholarship of the ancient world generally, and of the Second Temple period in particular. This is not only because of the extensive description of the use of trumpets and shofarot in warfare that is found in the scroll, but especially because this rare and rich description is unmatched in any ancient work, Jewish, Hellenistic, or Roman. This uniquely extensive description includes a detailed itemization of the stages when the priests use different types of trumpets to direct the fighting forces, and describes the sounding of the shofarot by the Levites and the people as a means of instilling fear in the enemy. In addition, the scroll lists the types of sounds generated by trumpets and shofarot in battle, using technical and musical terms whose meaning is not always clear.
In this article, I re-examine the interpretations that previous scholars have suggested for the terms describing the sounds made by the trumpets and shofarot in the War Scroll, and, in some cases, I offer new interpretations. I also examine how trumpets and shofarot were used in specific stages of the eschatological war depicted in the scroll and suggest a number of ways to understand the military uses and purpose of the incorporation of these instruments. In addition to contributing to the understanding of the musical terms that appear in the War Scroll, my research opens a window to the rich musical language used by the Dead Sea sect and perhaps also by other groups in the Second Temple era.
The object of this dissertation is to elucidate various aspects related to trumpets from the Seco... more The object of this dissertation is to elucidate various aspects related to trumpets from the Second Temple period to the end of the Tannaitic period. The study investigates the roles of these instruments, the identity of their players, the different types of trumpets and the materials from which they were made, their design, their manner of construction, the sounds they produced, and their symbolic meaning. There are numerous texts, as well as archeological findings from the Second Temple and the Tannaitic period, describing trumpets in their various facets. Some of these sources have been discussed extensively by scholars who addressed specific (mostly limited) aspects of these instruments, yet a comprehensive picture of the subject has so far been lacking. This dissertation is in fact the first study to focus exclusively on the trumpet in ancient Jewish history and on the issues related to it, in a research model that integrates several methods (critical textual analysis, an examination of archeological findings, and various research tools from the field of musicology, used to study the textual and archeological data). This combination of research methods contributes to the understanding of the information revealed in the different sources, leading to insights and innovations that could not have been attained otherwise.
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Papers by Moshe Piamenta
This comparison between 1QM and Roman tactics is based on the analysis of textual and archaeological data from the Roman era, detailing such aspects of military trumpets as: the types of trumpets used, the number of trumpet-players and their military status, and the military and religious purposes for which trumpets were utilized to emit different auditory signals in the routine of the camp, on the battlefield, and during army marches. The findings of this research have revealed a distinction between the elevated status of trumpet players in 1QM, and the position of trumpet players in the Roman armies, who held the lowest military rank among all legionnaires. Alongside this particular difference, there are several points of similarity between the characteristics of the use of trumpets as described in 1QM and in the Roman military:
* The use of various types of trumpets for distinct military purposes.
* The use of a group of six trumpets. 1QM 8: 8–9 and 16:7 refers to “the six trumpets of the slain.” Descriptions found on various archaeological findings indicate that the Roman army also used six trumpets simultaneously, in ritual ceremonies and perhaps also on the battlefield.
* Similar to 1QM, several sources composed in the Roman era attest to extensive use of a variety of sound signals produced by trumpets, to direct soldiers on the battlefield.
* The use of trumpets during army marches. 1QM 3: 5–6 refers to the use of “trumpets for their journeys,” and the use of “trumpets for the return signal” (lines 10–11) during the army's journey back to Jerusalem. Roman armies also employed trumpets during their expeditions.
* The religious function of trumpets during battle. In 1QM, trumpets were apparently employed in battle both in order to direct the solders in combat and, additionally, to bring the divine presence into their midst, to support the army of the Sons of Light. Various sources from the Roman era testify that Roman armies also used trumpets for religious purposes (such as warding off bad omens, as well as in various ritual ceremonies).
Due to the substantial time gap between some of the sources describing Roman military tactics (which span from the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE) and the time of the composition of the War Scroll (generally dated to the second half of the 1st century BCE), it is not possible to definitively establish a direct influence of any specific Roman text or artefact on 1QM’s description of trumpet usage. Nevertheless, if the Roman writings and archaeological findings discussed in this article indeed reflect the historical reality of the Roman period, then the resemblance between the description of trumpet usage in 1QM and the characteristics of trumpet usage in the Roman military strengthens the argument that the author of the scroll was also familiar with the same reality, which influenced his depiction of the use of trumpets.
The final section of the article examines the possibility that the description of the use of trumpets in 1QM was also influenced by the use of trumpets in the Jerusalem Temple. The first point of evidence for this proposal relates to the resemblance between the auditory pattern: Teki'ah – Teru'ah – Teki'ah in the two comparanda. According to Tannaitic sources, this auditory pattern was sounded daily in the Temple at various designated times, as well as during holidays and other specified occasions. Similarly, the auditory pattern: Teki'ah – Teru'ot – Teki'ah appears in the four stages of war described in 1QM 8: 3–14. The second point is the possible resemblance between the Mishnaic depiction of the simultaneous sounding of trumpets and Shofar during communal fasts (m. Rosh Hashanah 3:3) and the usage of trumpets and Shofarot collectively in the battlefield, as described in various passages in 1QM.
My conclusion is that the description of the use of trumpets in the War Scroll likely arises from a combination of scriptural descriptions relating to the religious aspect of using trumpets to invoke the divine presence, together with Roman military practices employing trumpets for tactical guidance of soldiers, as well as some influence from how trumpets were used in the temple, as described in Tannaitic sources. If this conclusion is accurate, then the focused discussion in this article regarding the description of trumpet usage in the battlefield in the War Scroll could contribute to a broader question regarding the sources of inspiration for all the military aspects described in the scroll, and potentially open up new directions for research.
In this article, I re-examine the interpretations that previous scholars have suggested for the terms describing the sounds made by the trumpets and shofarot in the War Scroll, and, in some cases, I offer new interpretations. I also examine how trumpets and shofarot were used in specific stages of the eschatological war depicted in the scroll and suggest a number of ways to understand the military uses and purpose of the incorporation of these instruments. In addition to contributing to the understanding of the musical terms that appear in the War Scroll, my research opens a window to the rich musical language used by the Dead Sea sect and perhaps also by other groups in the Second Temple era.