Papers by Rakefet Ackerman
BMC Psychology, 2025
Background: Creativity is a fundamental cognitive skill enabling the generation of original and e... more Background: Creativity is a fundamental cognitive skill enabling the generation of original and effective ideas. While research has focused on creative idea generation, relatively little is known about creative idea evaluation, particularly from a metacognitive perspective. Understanding how knowledge structures relate to metacognitive processes that accompany creative thinking can further elucidate its complexity.
Methods: Using the relatedness judgment task, we constructed participants’ (N = 106) semantic memory networks. These networks provide individual-level measures such as network integration (efficiency), local connectivity, and community structure. These metrics were related to participants’ performance in the alternative uses task (AUT), which was used to assess both creative performance and participants’ subjective judgments of the originality of their responses.
Results: Objective originality was predicted by semantic memory networks that were broadly connected and avoided tightly knit clusters. In contrast, originality judgments were predicted by semantic memory networks that
were highly integrated and efficient. These findings suggest a dissociation between objective originality performance and individuals’ self-assessments of originality. Finally, the number of ideas generated in the AUT was a consistent and strong predictor of both creative performance and individuals’ self-assessments of originality.
Conclusions: Our findings reveal how different aspects of semantic memory structure contribute to creative thinking and metacognitive judgments.
Background: Creativity is a fundamental cognitive skill enabling the generation of original and e... more Background: Creativity is a fundamental cognitive skill enabling the generation of original and effective ideas. While research has focused on creative idea generation, relatively little is known about creative idea evaluation, particularly from a metacognitive perspective. Understanding how knowledge structures relate to metacognitive processes that accompany creative thinking can further elucidate its complexity. Methods: Using the relatedness judgment task, we constructed participants' (N = 106) semantic memory networks. These networks provide individual-level measures such as network integration (efficiency), local connectivity, and community structure. These metrics were related to participants' performance in the alternative uses task (AUT), which was used to assess both creative performance and participants' subjective judgments of the originality of their responses. Objective originality was predicted by semantic memory networks that were broadly connected and avoided tightly knit clusters. In contrast, originality judgments were predicted by semantic memory networks that were highly integrated and efficient. These findings suggest a dissociation between objective originality performance and individuals' selfassessments of originality. Finally, the number of ideas generated in the AUT was a consistent and strong predictor of both creative performance and individuals' self-assessments of originality. Our findings reveal how different aspects of semantic memory structure contribute to creative thinking and metacognitive judgments.
Thinking and Reasoning
Central questions in metacognitive research are how reliably people’s confidence reflect success ... more Central questions in metacognitive research are how reliably people’s confidence reflect success and how mental effort is regulated during cognitive tasks. Ackerman’s (2023) Bird’s-Eye View of Cue Integration methodology exposed confidence biases in a geometric problem-solving task. We replicated one experiment, incorporating eye-tracking to expose additional confidence predictors and insights into mental effort regulation. Fifty-four university students performed the task wearing eye-tracking glasses. The original confidence biases were replicated. Notably, the best predictive model for confidence included eye-tracking measures. Mean pupil diameter and number of visits to stimuli uniquely predicted success and confidence, highlighting the role of mental effort investment and attentional shifts. Individual-level analyses revealed that while the eye-tracking measures identified individuals with higher success, they did not reliably predict confidence or resolution (confidence associated with success). These findings underscore the potential of eye-tracking to provide valuable insights into metacognitive monitoring and mental effort regulation, and suggest eye-tracking potential utility when eliciting confidence ratings is impractical.
The Pitfall of Latency-Confidence Association in Problem Solving
PsycEXTRA Dataset, 2012
Mindset effects on the regulation of thinking time in problem-solving
Thinking & Reasoning
Understanding time investment while solving problems is central to metacognitive research. By the... more Understanding time investment while solving problems is central to metacognitive research. By the Diminishing Criterion Model (DCM; Ackerman, 2014), time regulation is guided by two stopping rules: a confidence criterion that drops as time is invested in each problem and the maximum time to be invested. This combination generates curved confidence–time associations. We compared the belief that intelligence is malleable, a growth mindset, to the belief that intelligence is fixed, and to neutral control groups. We hypothesized that a growth mindset leads people to selectively invest time in problems carrying the hope of improvement. This extra time makes the curved DCM pattern curvier. In two experiments, participants primed with growth, fixed, or control mindsets solved analogies (Experiment 1) and compound remote associates (Experiment 2). As expected, in both experiments a growth mindset exhibited a curvier confidence–time pattern, while the fixed mindset and control groups replicated previous confidence–time associations. Most additional time was invested in problems with intermediate difficulty levels, suggesting strategic time allocation. The study offers useful measures for delving into factors that affect thinking time allocation.
Creative metacognition: A much needed bridge between meta-reasoning and creativity
Physics of Life Reviews
Educational psychology review, Apr 6, 2024
When faced with challenging thinking tasks accompanied by a feeling of uncertainty, people often ... more When faced with challenging thinking tasks accompanied by a feeling of uncertainty, people often prefer to opt out (e.g., replying "I don't know", seeking advice) over giving low-confidence responses. In professions with high-stakes decisions (e.g., judges, medical practitioners), opting out is generally seen as preferable to making unreliable decisions. Contrarily, in educational settings, despite being designed to prepare students for real-life challenges, opting out is often viewed as an indication of low motivation or an avoidance of challenges. Presenting a complementary perspective, metacognitive research dealing with knowledge management and problem-solving shows substantial empirical evidence that both adults and children can use opt-out options to enhance the quality of their responses. Moreover, there are initial signs that strategic opting out can increase the efficiency of self-regulated effort. These opportunities to improve self-regulated learning have yet to be exploited in instructional design. Research guided by Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), which focuses on effort allocation in the face of cognitive challenges, has largely ignored the benefits of opting out as a strategy for improving effort allocation. The present review summarizes advantages and pitfalls within the current state of knowledge. Furthermore, we propose new avenues of inquiry for examining the impact of incorporating explicit opt-out options in instructional design to support knowledge and skill acquisition. As a novel avenue, we urge educators to develop effective opting-out skills in students to prepare them for real-life challenges.
Thinking & Reasoning
Understanding time investment while solving problems is central to metacognitive research. By the... more Understanding time investment while solving problems is central to metacognitive research. By the Diminishing Criterion Model (DCM; Ackerman, 2014), time regulation is guided by two stopping rules: a confidence criterion that drops as time is invested in each problem and the maximum time to be invested. This combination generates curved confidence–time associations. We compared the belief that intelligence is malleable, a growth mindset, to the belief that intelligence is fixed, and to neutral control groups. We hypothesized that a growth mindset leads people to selectively invest time in problems carrying the hope of improvement. This extra time makes the curved DCM pattern curvier. In two experiments, participants primed with growth, fixed, or control mindsets solved analogies (Experiment 1) and compound remote associates (Experiment 2). As expected, in both experiments a growth mindset exhibited a curvier confidence–time pattern, while the fixed mindset and control groups replicated previous confidence–time associations. Most additional time was invested in problems with intermediate difficulty levels, suggesting strategic time allocation. The study offers useful measures for delving into factors that affect thinking time allocation.
Physics of Life Reviews, 2023
Educational Psychology Review, 2024
When faced with challenging thinking tasks accompanied by a feeling of uncertainty, people often ... more When faced with challenging thinking tasks accompanied by a feeling of uncertainty, people often prefer to opt out (e.g., replying "I don't know", seeking advice) over giving low confidence responses. In professions with high-stakes decisions (e.g., judges, medical practitioners), opting out is generally seen as preferable to making unreliable decisions. Contrarily, in educational settings, despite being designed to prepare students for real-life challenges, opting out is often viewed as an indication of low motivation or an avoidance of challenges. Presenting a complementary perspective, metacognitive research dealing with knowledge management and problem-solving shows substantial empirical evidence that both adults and children can use opt-out options to enhance the quality of their responses. Moreover, there are initial signs that strategic opting-out can increase the efficiency of self-regulated effort. These opportunities to improve self-regulated learning have yet to be exploited in instructional design. Research guided by Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), which focuses on effort allocation in the face of cognitive challenges, has largely ignored the benefits of opting out as a strategy for improving effort allocation. The present review summarizes advantages and pitfalls within the current state of knowledge. Furthermore, we propose new avenues of inquiry for examining the impact of incorporating explicit opt-out options in instructional design to support knowledge and skill acquisition. As a novel avenue, we urge educators to develop effective opting-out skills in students to prepare them for real life challenges.
Judgments of Learning Depend on How Learners Interpret Study Time
PsycEXTRA Dataset, 2013
Response latency as a diagnostic cue for the accuracy of children's reports
PsycEXTRA Dataset, 2010
PLOS ONE, May 18, 2023
Reading is considered a non-intuitive, cognitively demanding ability requiring synchronization be... more Reading is considered a non-intuitive, cognitively demanding ability requiring synchronization between several neural networks supporting visual, language processing and higherorder abilities. With the involvement of technology in our everyday life, reading from a screen has become widely used. Several studies point to challenges in processing written materials from the screen due to changes in attention allocation when reading from a screen compared to reading from a printed paper. The current study examined the differences in brain activation when reading from a screen compared to reading from a printed paper focusing on spectral power related to attention in fifteen 6-8-year-old children. Using an electroencephalogram, children read two different age-appropriate texts, without illustrations, presented randomly on the screen and on a printed paper. Data were analyzed using spectral analyses in brain regions related to language, visual processing, and cognitive control, focusing on theta vs. beta waveforms. Results indicated that while reading from a printed paper was accompanied by higher energy in high-frequency bands (beta, gamma), reading from the screen was manifested by a higher power in the lower frequency bands (alpha, theta). Higher theta compared to the beta ratio, representing challenges in allocating attention to a given task, was found for the screen reading compared to the printed paper reading condition. Also, a significant negative correlation was found between differences in theta/ beta ratio for screen vs paper reading and accuracy level in the age-normalized Sky-Search task measuring attention and a positive correlation with performance time. These results provide neurobiological support for the greater cognitive load and reduced focused attention during screen-based compared to print-based reading and suggest a different reliance on attention resources for the two conditions in children.
We know what stops you from thinking forever: A metacognitive perspective
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2023
This commentary addresses omissions in De Neys's model of fast-and-slow thinking from a metac... more This commentary addresses omissions in De Neys's model of fast-and-slow thinking from a metacognitive perspective. We review well-established meta-reasoning monitoring (e.g., confidence) and control processes (e.g., rethinking) that explain mental effort regulation. Moreover, we point to individual, developmental, and task design considerations that affect this regulation. These core issues are completely ignored or mentioned in passing in the target article.
Initial judgment of solvability: integrating prior expectations with experience-based heuristic cues
Thinking & Reasoning, Jun 29, 2023
Initial Judgment of Solvability (iJOS) is a metacognitive judgment that reflects solvers'... more Initial Judgment of Solvability (iJOS) is a metacognitive judgment that reflects solvers' first impression as to whether a problem is solvable. We hypothesized that iJOS is inferred by combining prior expectations about the entire task with heuristic cues derived from each problem's elements. In two experiments participants first provided quick iJOSs for all problems, then attempted to solve them. We manipulated expectations by changing the proportion of solvable problems conveyed to participants, 33%, 50%, or 66%, while the true proportion was the 50% for all. In Experiment 1 we used the non-verbal Raven's matrices and examined nameability as the element-based heuristic cue. Unsolvable matrices were generated by switching locations of elements in original Raven's matrices. In Experiment 2 we used the verbal Compound Remote Associate (CRA) problems and examined word's frequency in the language as the element-based heuristic cue. Unsolvable CRAs were random word triads from the same word pool. The results were consistent in suggesting that quick iJOS integrates prior expectations and experience-based heuristic cues. Notably, iJOS was predictive for the subsequent solving attempt only for Raven's matrices.
Bird’s-Eye View of Cue Integration: Exposing Instructional and Task Design Factors Which Bias Problem Solvers
Educational Psychology Review, May 9, 2023
Solving problems in educational settings, as in daily-life scenarios, involves constantly assessi... more Solving problems in educational settings, as in daily-life scenarios, involves constantly assessing one’s own confidence in each considered solution. Metacognitive research has exposed cues that may bias confidence judgments (e.g., familiarity with question terms). Typically, metacognitive research methodologies require examining misleading cues one-by-one, while recent research has revealed integration of multiple cues stemming from the same stimuli. However, this research leaves open important questions about including the weight balance among cues and their changes across task design (e.g., instructions) and/or population characteristics (e.g., background knowledge). The present study presents the Bird’s-Eye View of Cue Integration (BEVoCI) methodology. It is based on hierarchical multiple regression models, allowing efficient exposure of multiple biases at once, their relative weights, and their malleability across task designs and populations. Notably, the BEVoCI can be applied both to planned studies and to existing datasets. I demonstrate its application in both ways. In Experiment 1 and Experiment 2, I introduce two nonverbal problem-solving tasks, the Comparison of Perimeters (CoP) and the novel Missing Tan Task (MTT), while Experiment 3 reanalyzes data collected by others, comprising algebra problems solved by children and adults. The experiments demonstrate exposing biases, their malleability across conditions, and the non-straightforward association between performance improvement and overcoming biases; and the results of Experiment 3 provide strong support for the generalizability of the methodology. Pinpointing sources of bias is essential for guiding educational design efforts.
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals), May 1, 2019
Metacognitive research aims to explain how people regulate their effort when performing cognitive... more Metacognitive research aims to explain how people regulate their effort when performing cognitive tasks, to expose conditions that support reliable monitoring of chance for success, and to provide a basis for developing improvement guidelines. The essence of the domain is that monitoring drives control: people continually self-assess their chance for success before, during, and after performing a cognitive task, and use these judgments to guide their effort-allocation decisions (e.g., whether to reconsider an answer option, change strategy, seek help, or give up). Thus, factors that underlie metacognitive judgments affect the efficiency with which people perform cognitive tasks. This paper focuses on meta-reasoningthe monitoring and control processes that apply to reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making tasks. So far, relatively little is known about heuristic cues used for inferring meta-reasoning judgments. This paper reviews the known heuristic cues and offers methodological guidelines for a critical reading of existing research and for designing high-quality studies that will advance this important domain.
Cognitive processes and digital reading
Reasoning, Rationality, and Metacognition
The MIT Press eBooks, Dec 14, 2021
Chapter 3. Cognitive processes and digital reading
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Papers by Rakefet Ackerman
Methods: Using the relatedness judgment task, we constructed participants’ (N = 106) semantic memory networks. These networks provide individual-level measures such as network integration (efficiency), local connectivity, and community structure. These metrics were related to participants’ performance in the alternative uses task (AUT), which was used to assess both creative performance and participants’ subjective judgments of the originality of their responses.
Results: Objective originality was predicted by semantic memory networks that were broadly connected and avoided tightly knit clusters. In contrast, originality judgments were predicted by semantic memory networks that
were highly integrated and efficient. These findings suggest a dissociation between objective originality performance and individuals’ self-assessments of originality. Finally, the number of ideas generated in the AUT was a consistent and strong predictor of both creative performance and individuals’ self-assessments of originality.
Conclusions: Our findings reveal how different aspects of semantic memory structure contribute to creative thinking and metacognitive judgments.