BOOKS by Lucian Munteanu
Descrierea CIP este disponibilă la Biblioteca Naţională a României.
Editura Istros a Muzeului Brăilei Carol I, Editura Constantin Matasă, Brăila-Piatra Neamț, 2021
The architectural and religious ensemble, viewed as the most imposing and important in the city R... more The architectural and religious ensemble, viewed as the most imposing and important in the city Roman, is located on a promontory of the upper terrace of the river Moldova and it includes ecclesiastical and administrative buildings erected during the 15th-18th centuries. Through its location, it dominates the entrance plateau to the former medieval fair of Roman and it imposes due to its past of over 600 years. Through its antiquity, architecture and tradition, the Bishopric of Roman (category A monument) is part of the Romanian national historical and cultural-artistic heritage.
The collapse of a portion of the southern enclosure wall of the sanctuary determined the archaeological intervention in 2015. Besides the restoration of the enclosure wall, the aim was to construct an administrative building (in the courtyard behind the church), in an untouched investigation perimeter. It was researched by means of two extensions (marked Cas.1 and Cas.2), the first separated longitudinally by a modern stone foundation (reason for which it was renumbered Cas.1/I and Cas.1/II). Adjacently a sewer ditch was drawn, which crossed the entire orchard behind the church. Until the discovery of the features, it was found that the medieval and modern layers were partially affected by an addition of soil necessary for leveling the surface. Household (jar vessels, bowls, cups, mugs, plates, lids) and ornamental ceramics (tiles), along with other artifacts made of clay (candlesticks, smoking pipes), glass (fragmentary containers), bronze (religious objects) and iron (clothing pieces, tools, locks) indicated and dated the respective levels.
Starting with a depth of 1.40 m, in the perimeter of the extension Cas.1 were discovered the first graves of the cemetery on the south and southwest side of the church. Along the way, on the side of the extension there were some graves located at 1.00-1.20m depth, but most were between 1.40m and 2.80m deep. 210 medieval tombs were found and researched, as well as 5 tombs (one double) from the Bronze Age (M.39-Cas.1/II, M.101, M.102, M.107, M.dublu110- Cas.1/I), a rarity for the plateau on the upper terrace of the Moldova River. The pottery discovered among the tombs and on the surface of the cemetery indicates, in addition to the known levels, an ancient layer, which, according to local and imported pottery, dates back to the 1st-2nd centuries AD, a settlement so far unknown on the terrace of this area.
Das Buch bildet den dritten Teil einer auf mehrere Bände angelegten Bibliographie, die die Litera... more Das Buch bildet den dritten Teil einer auf mehrere Bände angelegten Bibliographie, die die Literatur zum nördlichen Schwarzmeerraum in griechisch-römischer Zeit möglichst vollständig erfasst. Erstmalig wird hier der Versuch unternommen, die gesamte im Westen und Osten erschienene Literatur zur antiken Kunst, Religion und Mythologie vom Beginn der altertumskundlichen Forschungen bis zum Jahr 2019 systematisch zusammenzustellen. Die „Bibliographia classica orae septentrionalis Ponti Euxini. III. Ars, res sacrae & mythologica“ schließt eine Forschungslücke, fördert den neuen Geist des wissenschaftlichen Austausches zwischen Ost und West und stellt ein Arbeitsinstrument bereit, das die internationale Zusammenarbeit zur Erforschung der Schwarzmeerküste weiter vorantreiben soll.
Colecţia BIBLIOTHECA CLASSICA IASSIENSIS este coordonată de Alexander Rubel Lucian Munteanu este ... more Colecţia BIBLIOTHECA CLASSICA IASSIENSIS este coordonată de Alexander Rubel Lucian Munteanu este doctor în istorie (anul 2012, Universitatea "Alexandru Ioan Cuza", Facultatea de Istorie), cercetător științific în cadrul Institutului de Arheologie al Academiei Române, filiala Iași (din anul 2006); specialist în domeniul numismaticii antice și medievale și cel al arheologiei romane; autor a numeroase studii științifice publicate în reviste de specialitate și în volume colective din țară și din străinătate.
in extenso o cercetare arheologică recentă, derulată în regim preventiv. Deși suprafața acoperită... more in extenso o cercetare arheologică recentă, derulată în regim preventiv. Deși suprafața acoperită de săpăturile arheologice nu este una foarte extinsă, perimetrul abordat poate fi un eșantion reprezentativ pentru respectivul obiectiv arheologic, dar și pentru etapa actuală de cercetare. În completarea acestor noi săpături arheologice sunt adăugate și reevaluate informații legate de cercetări anterioare derulate în secolul XX. Descoperirile sunt abordate pluridisciplinar, concluziile gererate oferind o perspectivă mult mai lărgă asupra sitului de la Dărmănești. *** După anii 90 a intervenit în România o nouă abordarea în practica arheologică, aceea a arheologiei preventive. La un moment dat s-a trecut relativ ușor de la autorizația de salvare la cea preventivă, fără să fie percepută implicarea unei noi abordari instituționale, dar și modificări și adaptări mentale, atât ale breslei, cât și ale legiuitorului și în cele din urmă ale beneficiarului cercetării. Trebuie evidențiat că cele mai multe din săpături au avut și continuuă să aibă un caracter de salvare, în multe situații arheologii intervin după ce siturile sunt deja afectate. Prin urmare, credem că existența unei astfel de autorizații/abordări, este necesară inclusiv pentru a conștientiza că persistă o culpabilitate instituțională atunci când sunt distruse situri arheologice. E dificil să definești o săpătură ca fiind preventivă atunci când intervi într-o situație extremă. Cercetarea de salvare, mai curând decât cea preventivă, are o anumită istorie în România. Sunt cunoscute cercetările în cazul unor mari investiții derulate în a doua jumătate a secolului XX precum Canalul Dunăre Marea Neagră, Porțile de Fier, Bicazul, valea Buzăului, valea Jijiei, Dridu, etc. Deși au existat proiecte cu rezultate mai mult sau mai puțin notabile, nu s-a creat o anumită conștientizare a acestui tip de abordare și necesitate în practica arheologică românească. De altfel, discuțiile și dezbaterile din ultimele două
EDITED by Lucian Munteanu
Magdalena MĄCZYŃSKA (Łódż) Mircea MAMALAUCĂ (Bârlad) omagial ionita.indb 11 omagial ionita.indb 1... more Magdalena MĄCZYŃSKA (Łódż) Mircea MAMALAUCĂ (Bârlad) omagial ionita.indb 11 omagial ionita.indb 11 7/24/2006 2:21:22 PM 7/24/2006 2:21:22 PM 12 SCRIPTA ARCHAEOLOGICA Lucia MARINESCU (Bucureşti) Lucreţiu MIHAILESCU-BÎRLIBA (Iaşi) Virgil MIHAILESCU-BÎRLIBA (Iaşi) Ioan MITREA (Bacău) Dan MONAH (Iaşi) Sergiu MUSTEAŢĂ (Chişinău) Lucian MUNTEANU (Iaşi) Rosemarie MÜLLER (Göttingen) Wojciech NOWAKOWSKI (Warszawa) Bernhard PÄFFGEN (München) Mircea PETRESCU-DÎMBOVIŢA (Iaşi) Alexandru POPA (Chişinău) Rodica POPOVICI (Iaşi) Gheorghe POSTICĂ (Chişinău) Silviu SANIE (Iaşi) Michael SCHMAUDER (Bonn) Siegmar von SCHNURBEIN (Frankfurt a. M.) Valeriu SÎRBU (Brăila) Victor SPINEI (Iaşi) Heiko STEUER (Freiburg i. Br.) Eldrid STRAUME (Oslo) Octavian-Liviu ŞOVAN (Botoşani) Ursula TEGTMEIER Köln) Jaroslav TEJRAL (Brno) Dan Gh. TEODOR (Iaşi) Silvia TEODOR (Iaşi) Vasile URSACHI (Roman) Vlad VORNIC (Chişinău) Frank WILLER (Bonn) omagial ionita.indb 12 omagial ionita.indb 12 7/24/2006 2:21:23 PM 7/24/2006 2:21:23 PM Im Sommer 1965 bekam ich eine Stelle beim Archäologischen Museum in Piatra Neamţ und kurz nachher wurde ich vom damaligen Institutsdirektor (Constantin Matasă), nach Cucuteni geschickt, zu Professor Mircea Petrescu-Dîmboviţa, um mir so gut und so schnell wie möglich die Technik der archäologischen Arbeit anzueignen. Damals leitete der Jassyer Professor die große Ausgrabungsstätte zu Cucuteni, die für viele interessierte Jugendliche eine regelrechte Schule darstellte. Außer dem Hauptziel der Untersuchungen -die Festung Cucuteni -wurden auch sonstige umgebende Stätten unter der Leitung seiner jüngeren, jedoch genauso erfahrenen Mitarbeiter untersucht (Adrian C. Florescu, Ion Ioniţă, Attila László, Dinu Marin, Victor Spinei u. a.). Ich füge hinzu, dass nicht nur Studierende bei all diesen Ausgrabungen mitmachten, sondern auch Archäologen aus allen Zentren des Landes: Assistenten, Doktoranden, Mitglieder des Personals usw. Es herrschte eine Atmosphäre des steten, fruchtbaren Betätigungsdrangs, aber auch der Kollegialität. Professor Petrescu-Dîmboviţa hat mir dazu geraten, an den höchst interessanten und komplexen Ausgrabungen in Băiceni-Silişte teilzunehmen, die unter der wissenschaftlichen Aufsicht von Ion Ioniţă, meinem seither immer treuen Freund, stattfanden. Einige Merkmale der von ihm geleiteten Ausgrabungsstelle haben mich von Anfang an beeindruckt: die exakte Planung, die Pünklichkeit, die maximal ausgenutzte Arbeitszeit, die dem winzigsten Detail geschenkte Aufmerksamkeit und schließlich die absolute Behrrschung der Lage. Später, als ich Ion Ioniţă besser kennenlernen durfte, kam ich zum Schluss, dass all meine Feststellungen seinen Charakterzügen entsprachen, die auch seine wissenschaftliche Persönlichkeit geprägt haben. Einige Charakterzüge sind uns eingeboren und können von der Umwelt begünstigt werden, andere aber erwerben wir erst allmählich mittels der Erziehung. Mir scheint, dass Ion Ioniţă -oder einfach Ion oder John, wie die Freunde ihn nennen -einiges von beiden hat. Ion PROFESSOR ION IONIŢĂ WIRD 70 omagial ionita.indb 13 omagial ionita.indb 13 7/24/2006 2:21:24 PM 7/24/2006 2:21:24 PM 14 SCRIPTA ARCHAEOLOGICA Ioniţă wurde in Răuseni, Kreis Botoşani, am 8. Januar 1936 geboren und kam nach dem Abschluss der dortigen Grundschule nach Iaşi, um das Pädagogische Gymnasium zu besuchen. Hier hat er während der Studien, wie er mir oft gestand, versucht, seinen Sinn für Disziplin und Ordnung weiterzuentwickeln, ohne den man in jedem Bereich, doch insbesondere in der Archäologie keine ertragreiche Arbeit leisten, keine überzeugenden Ergebnisse erzielen kann.
NUMISMATICS by Lucian Munteanu
Acta Musei Tutovensis, 2025
We present two unpublished coins from the hoard of Iezer (com. Puiești, Vaslui county) (CHRE 1647... more We present two unpublished coins from the hoard of Iezer (com. Puiești, Vaslui county) (CHRE 16479), which were identified in the numismatic collection of the "Vasile Pârvan" Museum in Bârlad, by Mrs. Ioana Scutaru. The first is a cast copy of a denarius of Domitianus (RIC 790). The XRF analysis revealed an unusually high amount of arsenic (8.56% - 8.94%) in its composition. There is also a group of four similar counterfeits in the hoard, the origin of which cannot yet be established. The second coin is a genuine denarius of Severus Alexander (RIC 64). The XRF data showed a very high percentage of silver (90.7% - 91.86%), which can be explained by the deliberate artificial “enrichment” of the surface with silver (depletion silvering), a common practice in the early 3rd century AD. With the addition of the two unpublished coins, no significant changes occur in the composition and chronological structure of the hoard. The copied denarius, containing a large amount of arsenic in the alloy, increases the number of special issues in the hoard, while the genuine coin from Severus Alexander supports the late chronology of this outstanding monetary find from western Moldavia.
Memoria Antiquitatis, 2024
The hoard from Cândești (Neamț County) was discovered, by chance, towards the middle of the last ... more The hoard from Cândești (Neamț County) was discovered, by chance, towards the middle of the last century (1946), on the occasion of planting a vineyard. It was sheltered in a clay pot, which, unfortunately, was lost. Chronologically, the 288 Roman imperial denarii dated between Nero and Severus Alexander. In order to verify the quality of the metal, we analysed the elemental chemical composition of ten coins from this hoard (1 ex. Vitellius, 2 ex. Trajan, 1 ex. Hadrianus, 3 ex. Antoninus Pius, 2 ex. Marcus Aurelius, 1 ex. Barbarised imitation). The investigations were carried out at the Horia Hulubei National Institute for R&D in Physics and Nuclear Engineering from Măgurele using a portable spectrometer, Tracer 5i, produced by Bruker Instruments, whose operating principle is based on the Fluorescence of X-rays (XRF). The obtained results were confronted with those existing in specialized literature, being revealed interesting aspects regarding the technology of the production of silver coins in the era.
Memoria Antiquitatis, 2024
The hoard from Blăgești (Bacău county) (CHRE no. 2924) was found, by chance, in the ʽ60s of the l... more The hoard from Blăgești (Bacău county) (CHRE no. 2924) was found, by chance, in the ʽ60s of the last century. Over time, five batches of coins (121 pcs.) have been recovered from this discovery, which have ended up in various public and private collections. Our paper presents two other unpublished batches from this hoard, that were handed over to the "Iulian Antonescu" Museum Complex in Bacău, in 2014 and 2020, by different persons. Together, the two lots grand total 19 denarii: 1 D Vitellius, 1 D Vespasianus, 1 D Titus, 1 D Nerva, 4 D Hadrianus, 2 D Antoninus Pius (1 D Diva Faustina I), 3 D Marcus Aurelius (2 D Faustina II), 2 D Commodus, 4 D Septimius Severus (2 D Caracalla, 1 D Geta). We suspect that two coins (1 D Hadrianus and 1 D Antoninus Pius: Diva Faustina I) have been copied and silvered. Currently, 140 denarii are known from the hoard of Blăgești, dating between 67-68 and 222 AD. Over half of these are devalued issues bearing effigies of the Severian emperors. It is the only hoard of its kind in the territory of western Moldavia, and we believe that its origin is to be sought in the Empire, where deposits with a similar chronological structure are recorded.
Revista de Arheologie, Antropologie și Studii Interdisciplinare, 2024
Note on a ‟repaired” Roman coin. The study presents a remarkable Roman issue kept in the collecti... more Note on a ‟repaired” Roman coin. The study presents a remarkable Roman issue kept in the collection of the Institute of Archaeology in Iași. It is a denarius serratus of Q. Antonius Balbus (83-82 BC), which belongs to a hoard discovered in the vicinity of the Drobeta site. This coin was originally sloppily pierced in order to be worn as a pendant. Subsequently, at a time we cannot estimate, the hole was plugged with a piece of metal. It has drawn our attention that the ‟repair” was very carefully carried out. The Roman craftsman tried to integrate the added material as well as possible, taking into account the metal (silver with a 97-98% fineness), colour, relief and design of the coin. The aim was to reproduce as accurate as possible, the original appearance of the denarius in order to reinsert it into monetary circulation in Dacia. The only analogies we have found in the specialized literature refer to perforated Roman coins, mostly of gold (aurei, solidi) and, rarely, of silver (denarii), discovered in territories outside the Empire (India and the east-central and north European Barbaricum), which have been ‟repaired” in a similar manner in order to restore their original monetary function.
Key words: Dacia, Drobeta, denarius serratus, perforation, ‟plugged” coin.
Studia Antiqua et Archaeologica, 2024
He would have acquired the denarii back in his hometown, Drobeta-Turnu Severin, during his childh... more He would have acquired the denarii back in his hometown, Drobeta-Turnu Severin, during his childhood and student years. Throughout this paper, we have attempted to prove that these coins are unlikely to represent single finds from the Drobeta site. More likely, the issues were part of a hoard of Roman denarii, also containing Republican coins, which had its main core made up of denarii from the Antonine emperors until the reign of Elagabalus or Severus Alexander. Although we have no other information about this hypothetical hoard, the discovery was made in Drobeta or, quite probably, in the vicinity, before the year 1931.
Tezaurul de la Muncelu de Sus (com. Mogoșești-Siret, jud. Iași). Lotul de monede păstrat în colecția Institutului de Arheologie din Iași, in: D. Aparaschivei, G. Bilavschi, L. Bacumenco-Pîrnău (eds.), Varia Archaeologica (IV). Provocări, căutări și certitudini, Mega, Cluj-Napoca, 2024, p. 273-346. The hoard from Muncelu de Sus (Mogoșești-Siret comm., Iași County). The batch of coins kept in th... more The hoard from Muncelu de Sus (Mogoșești-Siret comm., Iași County). The batch of coins kept in the Collection of the Institute of Archaeology in Iași
The hoard of Muncelu de Sus (Mogoșești-Siret Commune, Iași County) is the most important discovery from the Roman period in the eastern territory of the Carpathians. The deposit has been recovered in several batches over time and contains Roman silver and bronze artifacts and c. 2000 silver coins. In this paper we point out the oldest batch from the hoard of Muncelu de Sus (batch I), which was discovered accidentally, in May of 1963 and contains 364 silver coins, stored in a mug, which has not been preserved. The pieces are kept in the collection of the Institute of Archaeology Iași. The chronological structure of the batch is as follows: Republican denarii (15 pcs.), “legionary denarii” of Marcus Antonius (200 pcs.), imperial denarii (149 pcs.), from Nero - Antoninus Pius period and a Trajanic drachm from Lycia. Most of the coins are countermarked. An outstanding countermark which appears on four of the coins is “IMP•VES”, applied at Ephesus, between 74-79 AD. We suppose that five other denarii belong also to this batch, which were recorded in 1973 by V. Mihailescu-Bîrliba, in the collection of the School of Muncelu de Sus (2 pcs. Antoninus Pius, 1 pc. Vespasianus, 1 pc. Traianus, 1 pc. Marcus Aurelius). In this instance, the end date of our batch is in the time of Marcus Aurelius, as in the case of the other batches from the same hoard.
Arheologie Moldovei, 2023
In this issue of the chronicle we publish the Medieval coins, which are kept in the collection of... more In this issue of the chronicle we publish the Medieval coins, which are kept in the collection of the "Constantin Mihai" Museum, from the "Ion Neculce" Theoretical High School in Târgu Frumos. The coins have been discovered over time in the localities around the town of Târgu Frumos (Iași County): Principality of Moldavia (1 pc.): Ștefan I, gros, 1433-1435; Ottoman Empire (2 pcs.): Mehmed II, akçe, 1451-1461; Mustafa III, para, 1764/1765; Kingdom of Hungary (2 pcs.): Hunyadi Mátyás, denár, 1471-1481 (1), 1479-1485 (1); Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Polish Crown (3 pcs.): Zygmunt I Stary, grosz, 1548 (1); Zygmunt III Waza, szeląg, 1626 (1), trojak, 1599 (1); Lithuania (7 pcs.): Aleksander I Jagiellończyk, pólgrosz, 1501-1506; Zygmunt II August, pólgrosz, 1557 (1), 1558 (1), 1560 (1), 1561 (2), 1565 (1); Ryga (city) (1 pc.): Zygmunt III Waza, trojak, 1593; Gdańsk (1 pc.): Zygmunt III Waza, ort, 1626; Holy Roman Empire: Kingdom of Hungary (4 pc.): Ferdinand I, denar, 1553; Maximilian II, denar, 1578; Rudolf II, denar, 1589; Ferdinand II, denar, 1629; Branderburg-Prussia (1 pc.): Georg Wilhelm, Schilling, 1626; Kampen (imperial city) (1 pc.): Leeuwendaalder, 1649; Swedish Empire (1 pcs.): Ryga (city): Krystyna, Schilling, 1637; Austrian Empire (1 pc.): Franz I, 3 Kreuzer, 1815.
Memoria Antiquitatis, 2023
In the archive of the Museum of History and Ethnography in Târgu Neamț there are some unpublished... more In the archive of the Museum of History and Ethnography in Târgu Neamț there are some unpublished documents, which refer directly to the discovery of Roman imperial denarii from Ghindăoani (Neamț County). One of the documents contains impressions of the obverse and reverse sides of two coins, a date ("958.III", probably March 1958) and the owner of the coins (the teacher Enea). The coins are two denarii from Marcus Aurelius: Diva Faustina II, years 176-180 (RIC III 743) and Antoninus Pius: Diva Faustina I, post 141 (RIC III 360a). Another document confirms that the museum received two coins from a local man, Vasile Gh. Leonte, through the teacher Mihai David. The legends of the coins were transcribed in the document, so that they could be easily identified: Hadrianus: Sabina, years c. 130-133 (RIC II.3 2500-2504 var.) and Commodus, years 190-191 (RIC III 219).
We believe that all four denarii have their origin in a hoard known from the literature. It was discovered by Vasile Gh. Leonte in his yard, on the "Leontești"/"Izvoare" hill in Ghindăoani. This monetary deposit belongs to a small group of hoards, from the territory of western Moldavia, ending with issues from the period Elagabalus - Severus Alexander.
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BOOKS by Lucian Munteanu
The collapse of a portion of the southern enclosure wall of the sanctuary determined the archaeological intervention in 2015. Besides the restoration of the enclosure wall, the aim was to construct an administrative building (in the courtyard behind the church), in an untouched investigation perimeter. It was researched by means of two extensions (marked Cas.1 and Cas.2), the first separated longitudinally by a modern stone foundation (reason for which it was renumbered Cas.1/I and Cas.1/II). Adjacently a sewer ditch was drawn, which crossed the entire orchard behind the church. Until the discovery of the features, it was found that the medieval and modern layers were partially affected by an addition of soil necessary for leveling the surface. Household (jar vessels, bowls, cups, mugs, plates, lids) and ornamental ceramics (tiles), along with other artifacts made of clay (candlesticks, smoking pipes), glass (fragmentary containers), bronze (religious objects) and iron (clothing pieces, tools, locks) indicated and dated the respective levels.
Starting with a depth of 1.40 m, in the perimeter of the extension Cas.1 were discovered the first graves of the cemetery on the south and southwest side of the church. Along the way, on the side of the extension there were some graves located at 1.00-1.20m depth, but most were between 1.40m and 2.80m deep. 210 medieval tombs were found and researched, as well as 5 tombs (one double) from the Bronze Age (M.39-Cas.1/II, M.101, M.102, M.107, M.dublu110- Cas.1/I), a rarity for the plateau on the upper terrace of the Moldova River. The pottery discovered among the tombs and on the surface of the cemetery indicates, in addition to the known levels, an ancient layer, which, according to local and imported pottery, dates back to the 1st-2nd centuries AD, a settlement so far unknown on the terrace of this area.
EDITED by Lucian Munteanu
NUMISMATICS by Lucian Munteanu
Key words: Dacia, Drobeta, denarius serratus, perforation, ‟plugged” coin.
The hoard of Muncelu de Sus (Mogoșești-Siret Commune, Iași County) is the most important discovery from the Roman period in the eastern territory of the Carpathians. The deposit has been recovered in several batches over time and contains Roman silver and bronze artifacts and c. 2000 silver coins. In this paper we point out the oldest batch from the hoard of Muncelu de Sus (batch I), which was discovered accidentally, in May of 1963 and contains 364 silver coins, stored in a mug, which has not been preserved. The pieces are kept in the collection of the Institute of Archaeology Iași. The chronological structure of the batch is as follows: Republican denarii (15 pcs.), “legionary denarii” of Marcus Antonius (200 pcs.), imperial denarii (149 pcs.), from Nero - Antoninus Pius period and a Trajanic drachm from Lycia. Most of the coins are countermarked. An outstanding countermark which appears on four of the coins is “IMP•VES”, applied at Ephesus, between 74-79 AD. We suppose that five other denarii belong also to this batch, which were recorded in 1973 by V. Mihailescu-Bîrliba, in the collection of the School of Muncelu de Sus (2 pcs. Antoninus Pius, 1 pc. Vespasianus, 1 pc. Traianus, 1 pc. Marcus Aurelius). In this instance, the end date of our batch is in the time of Marcus Aurelius, as in the case of the other batches from the same hoard.
We believe that all four denarii have their origin in a hoard known from the literature. It was discovered by Vasile Gh. Leonte in his yard, on the "Leontești"/"Izvoare" hill in Ghindăoani. This monetary deposit belongs to a small group of hoards, from the territory of western Moldavia, ending with issues from the period Elagabalus - Severus Alexander.