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SEM photograph of quartz grains evolving in Alexandria's ancient harbour Alexandria I-26: Evolved Non-Eroded quartz grain from ancient harbou clays at Alexandria.

Figure 23 SEM photograph of quartz grains evolving in Alexandria's ancient harbour Alexandria I-26: Evolved Non-Eroded quartz grain from ancient harbou clays at Alexandria.

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Fig. 1. Braun and Hogenberg’s sixteenth century reconstruction of Portus, near Rome (volume IV, 1588). This representation is typical of the Renaissance antiquarian tradition whereby, in the absence of precise topographical information, speculative graphic reconstructions were reached.
Fig. 1. Braun and Hogenberg’s sixteenth century reconstruction of Portus, near Rome (volume IV, 1588). This representation is typical of the Renaissance antiquarian tradition whereby, in the absence of precise topographical information, speculative graphic reconstructions were reached.
Fig. 2. A. Silting up of Portus at Ostia as represented by Garrez (1834, in d’Espouy, 1910). B. Garrez’s reconstruction of the ancient port on the basis of measured topographical features. The plans were inspired by the work of Canina (1830). In general terms, the nineteenth century marked a watershed between the antiquarian tradition of the Renaissance period and modern topography. It was around this time that a number of scholars started to draw the link between harbour silting and coastal progradation to explain the demise of ancient seaports.
Fig. 2. A. Silting up of Portus at Ostia as represented by Garrez (1834, in d’Espouy, 1910). B. Garrez’s reconstruction of the ancient port on the basis of measured topographical features. The plans were inspired by the work of Canina (1830). In general terms, the nineteenth century marked a watershed between the antiquarian tradition of the Renaissance period and modern topography. It was around this time that a number of scholars started to draw the link between harbour silting and coastal progradation to explain the demise of ancient seaports.
Fig. 3. Antoine Poidebard was one of the pioneers in underwater and coastal archaeology. He coupled aerial photography and underwater surveying to propose harbour locations for a number of Phoenicia’s coastal sites. The oblique aerial photograph is of the Tyrian peninsula. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great linked the offshore island fortress to the continent by means of a causeway. This engineering feat profoundly influenced sediment trapping behind the island and today a tombolo, or sand spit, links the two. Poidebard diagnosed a series of harbourworks on the southern coastal fringe of Tyre. New research suggests that this area is in reality not a harbour basin but rather a drowned urban quarter, which sank into the sea during late Roman times (photographs from Poidebard (1939) and Denise and Nordiguian (2004)). archaeology, Poidebard coupled this aerial reconnaissance with diving surveys to propose harbour reconstructions for numerous Phoenician city-states (Nordiguian and Salles, 2000; Viret, 2000; Denise and Nordiguian, 2004; Fig. 3). The aeroplane, symbol of technical modernity during the 920s, offered new research avenues in archaeology and even if Poidebard was not the first to realise this, he was a pioneer in developing a clearly defined methodology. Relying on reports from ‘hard-hat’ divers he surveyed and mapped a number of important coastal sites including Arwad, Sidon, Tyre and Carthage. Although some of his findings have since proved erroneous (Frost, 1971; E Amouri et al., 2005) his work laid the foundations for maritime archaeology as we know it today. His methodica documentation and recording (aerial reconnaissance, cartography and underwater photography) is all the more important for modern scholars working in this region given the destruction of many remains wrought by recent building (Marriner and Morhange, 2005). Invention of the aqualung revolutionized underwater archaeology after 1945, with a coeval shift in research loci away from the ports themselves to shipwrecks. Over the following decades, many ancient wreck sites were subsequently localized along the coasts of France and Italy (Pomey and Rieth, 2005). A minority of scholars continued to show an interest in ports and harbour infrastructure, notably at Appollonia in Libya (Flem- ming, 1961, 1965, 1971), Athlit in Israel (Linder, 1967), Carthage in Tunisia (Yorke and Little, 1975; Yorke, 1976; Yorke et al., 1976), Cosa (Lewis, 1973; McCann, 1979; McCann et al., 1987), Pyrgi (Oleson, 1977) and Portus in Italy (Testaguzza, 1964, 1970), Phaselis in Turkey (Blackman, 1973a), Kenchreai (Scranton and Ramage, 1967) and Porto Cheli in Greece (Jameson, 1973), and the ancient harbours of Israel (Galili et al., 2002). Under- water archaeologists such as Frost also did much for the development of aquatic survey techniques during the
Fig. 3. Antoine Poidebard was one of the pioneers in underwater and coastal archaeology. He coupled aerial photography and underwater surveying to propose harbour locations for a number of Phoenicia’s coastal sites. The oblique aerial photograph is of the Tyrian peninsula. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great linked the offshore island fortress to the continent by means of a causeway. This engineering feat profoundly influenced sediment trapping behind the island and today a tombolo, or sand spit, links the two. Poidebard diagnosed a series of harbourworks on the southern coastal fringe of Tyre. New research suggests that this area is in reality not a harbour basin but rather a drowned urban quarter, which sank into the sea during late Roman times (photographs from Poidebard (1939) and Denise and Nordiguian (2004)). archaeology, Poidebard coupled this aerial reconnaissance with diving surveys to propose harbour reconstructions for numerous Phoenician city-states (Nordiguian and Salles, 2000; Viret, 2000; Denise and Nordiguian, 2004; Fig. 3). The aeroplane, symbol of technical modernity during the 920s, offered new research avenues in archaeology and even if Poidebard was not the first to realise this, he was a pioneer in developing a clearly defined methodology. Relying on reports from ‘hard-hat’ divers he surveyed and mapped a number of important coastal sites including Arwad, Sidon, Tyre and Carthage. Although some of his findings have since proved erroneous (Frost, 1971; E Amouri et al., 2005) his work laid the foundations for maritime archaeology as we know it today. His methodica documentation and recording (aerial reconnaissance, cartography and underwater photography) is all the more important for modern scholars working in this region given the destruction of many remains wrought by recent building (Marriner and Morhange, 2005). Invention of the aqualung revolutionized underwater archaeology after 1945, with a coeval shift in research loci away from the ports themselves to shipwrecks. Over the following decades, many ancient wreck sites were subsequently localized along the coasts of France and Italy (Pomey and Rieth, 2005). A minority of scholars continued to show an interest in ports and harbour infrastructure, notably at Appollonia in Libya (Flem- ming, 1961, 1965, 1971), Athlit in Israel (Linder, 1967), Carthage in Tunisia (Yorke and Little, 1975; Yorke, 1976; Yorke et al., 1976), Cosa (Lewis, 1973; McCann, 1979; McCann et al., 1987), Pyrgi (Oleson, 1977) and Portus in Italy (Testaguzza, 1964, 1970), Phaselis in Turkey (Blackman, 1973a), Kenchreai (Scranton and Ramage, 1967) and Porto Cheli in Greece (Jameson, 1973), and the ancient harbours of Israel (Galili et al., 2002). Under- water archaeologists such as Frost also did much for the development of aquatic survey techniques during the
Fig. 4. The three pillars of the Roman market at Pozzuoli (southern Italy) have become a secular icon of uniformitarianism since their publication in Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology (1830). Lyell argued that the rise and fall of the coastal archaeology showed the land had undergone significant vertical movements since antiquity.
Fig. 4. The three pillars of the Roman market at Pozzuoli (southern Italy) have become a secular icon of uniformitarianism since their publication in Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology (1830). Lyell argued that the rise and fall of the coastal archaeology showed the land had undergone significant vertical movements since antiquity.
Fig. 5. Jules Verne 3, a Roman dredging boat unearthed in Marseilles’ ancient harbour. The vessel dates from the first to second centuries AD. The central dredging well measures 255 cm by 50 cm. The wooden hull has been preserved by the enveloping harbour clays (photograph: Morhange).
Fig. 5. Jules Verne 3, a Roman dredging boat unearthed in Marseilles’ ancient harbour. The vessel dates from the first to second centuries AD. The central dredging well measures 255 cm by 50 cm. The wooden hull has been preserved by the enveloping harbour clays (photograph: Morhange).
Fig. 8. Non-exhaustive list of harbours classed into seven groups.
Fig. 8. Non-exhaustive list of harbours classed into seven groups.
Fig. 7. Ancient harbour classification based on four variables (1) proximity to the coastline; (2) position relative to sea level; (3) sedimentary environments; and (4) taphonomy.
Fig. 7. Ancient harbour classification based on four variables (1) proximity to the coastline; (2) position relative to sea level; (3) sedimentary environments; and (4) taphonomy.
Fig. 9. Non-exhaustive map of the Mediterranean’s ancient habours, grouped according to how they have been preserved in the geological record.
Fig. 9. Non-exhaustive map of the Mediterranean’s ancient habours, grouped according to how they have been preserved in the geological record.
Palaeolithic cave of Cosquer is one of the best Medi- terranean examples of human occupation of the con- tinental margin and post-glacial sea-level rise (Fig. 11). Painted horses dated ~ 18,000 BP have been partially eroded at current sea level testifying the absence of any sea-level oscillation higher than present. Transgression of the continental platform gradually displaced coastal populations landwards until, around 6000 BP, broad sea- level stability meant that human societies started to sedentarise along present coastlines (van Andel, 1989). Fig. 10. Last Glacial Maximum shoreline and transgression of the Mediterranean’s coastal margin since 18,000 BP, when sea level was around 120 m below present (after Bracco, 2005). The drowning of a great number of Palaeolithic sites means that our understanding of coastal prehistoric human groups in the Mediterranean is relatively poor.
Palaeolithic cave of Cosquer is one of the best Medi- terranean examples of human occupation of the con- tinental margin and post-glacial sea-level rise (Fig. 11). Painted horses dated ~ 18,000 BP have been partially eroded at current sea level testifying the absence of any sea-level oscillation higher than present. Transgression of the continental platform gradually displaced coastal populations landwards until, around 6000 BP, broad sea- level stability meant that human societies started to sedentarise along present coastlines (van Andel, 1989). Fig. 10. Last Glacial Maximum shoreline and transgression of the Mediterranean’s coastal margin since 18,000 BP, when sea level was around 120 m below present (after Bracco, 2005). The drowning of a great number of Palaeolithic sites means that our understanding of coastal prehistoric human groups in the Mediterranean is relatively poor.
Fig. 11. Cosquer is a French Palaeolithic painted cave (27,000—18,500 BP). The partially drowned cavern has formed in the Urgonian limestones of Cap Morgiou, near Marseilles. The entrance, 37 m below sea level, was submerged around 7000 BP (Sartoretto et al., 1995). Archaeological studies indicate that the cave was used as a refuge around 27,000 and 18,000 BP. The partially eroded cave paintings demonstrate there has been no sea level higher than present during the Holocene (adapted from Vouvet et al., 1996).
Fig. 11. Cosquer is a French Palaeolithic painted cave (27,000—18,500 BP). The partially drowned cavern has formed in the Urgonian limestones of Cap Morgiou, near Marseilles. The entrance, 37 m below sea level, was submerged around 7000 BP (Sartoretto et al., 1995). Archaeological studies indicate that the cave was used as a refuge around 27,000 and 18,000 BP. The partially eroded cave paintings demonstrate there has been no sea level higher than present during the Holocene (adapted from Vouvet et al., 1996).
Fig. 12. Geomorphological reconstruction of Alexandria’s ancient harbour by Goiran et al. (2005). The Heptastadion, constructed by Alexander the Great in 331 BC, separated Alexandria’s bay into two separate coves. The Eastern Bay shielded a number of discrete port basins. The Royal port is presently drowned ~5 m below present sea level. Goiran (2001) has reconstructed the Holocene history of Alexandria’s ancient harbours using coastal stratigraphy and numerous geoscience tools. Corings by Stanley and Bernasconi (2006) from the centre of the Eastern Bay show no diagnostic harbour sediments, suggesting that this area lay outside the main artificial basins.
Fig. 12. Geomorphological reconstruction of Alexandria’s ancient harbour by Goiran et al. (2005). The Heptastadion, constructed by Alexander the Great in 331 BC, separated Alexandria’s bay into two separate coves. The Eastern Bay shielded a number of discrete port basins. The Royal port is presently drowned ~5 m below present sea level. Goiran (2001) has reconstructed the Holocene history of Alexandria’s ancient harbours using coastal stratigraphy and numerous geoscience tools. Corings by Stanley and Bernasconi (2006) from the centre of the Eastern Bay show no diagnostic harbour sediments, suggesting that this area lay outside the main artificial basins.
Fig. 13. Pozzuoli’s drowned harbour remains presently ~ 10 m below mean sea level. The site lies inside a caldera, where shoreline mobility is attributed to volcanism and faulting. Recently, scholars have reconstructed a complex history of post-Roman relative sea-level changes evidencing three metric crustal oscillations at both Pozzuoli (Morhange et al., 2006a) and Miseno (Cinque et al., 1991) between the fifth and fifteenth centuries AD. Research suggests that inflation—deflation cycles are linked to a complex interplay of deep magma inputs, fluid exsolution and degassing (photograph: CNRS, CJB, Naples). By contrast, uplifted harbours resulting from crustal movements are much rarer. The best geoarchaeological evidence for this harbour type derives from the Hellenic arc, an area long affected by the complex tectonic interplay of the African and Anatolian plates (Stiros, 2005). The Gulf of Corinth is a deep inlet of the Ionian Sea separating the Peloponnese from western mainland Greece. It is one of the most tectonically active and rapidly extending regions in the world (6—15 mm/yr), and surface features (uplifted shorelines, reversal of drainage patterns, earthquake-induced landslides) and archaeology are clearly associated with seismic activity (Papadopoulos et al., 2000; Koukouvelas et al., 2001;
Fig. 13. Pozzuoli’s drowned harbour remains presently ~ 10 m below mean sea level. The site lies inside a caldera, where shoreline mobility is attributed to volcanism and faulting. Recently, scholars have reconstructed a complex history of post-Roman relative sea-level changes evidencing three metric crustal oscillations at both Pozzuoli (Morhange et al., 2006a) and Miseno (Cinque et al., 1991) between the fifth and fifteenth centuries AD. Research suggests that inflation—deflation cycles are linked to a complex interplay of deep magma inputs, fluid exsolution and degassing (photograph: CNRS, CJB, Naples). By contrast, uplifted harbours resulting from crustal movements are much rarer. The best geoarchaeological evidence for this harbour type derives from the Hellenic arc, an area long affected by the complex tectonic interplay of the African and Anatolian plates (Stiros, 2005). The Gulf of Corinth is a deep inlet of the Ionian Sea separating the Peloponnese from western mainland Greece. It is one of the most tectonically active and rapidly extending regions in the world (6—15 mm/yr), and surface features (uplifted shorelines, reversal of drainage patterns, earthquake-induced landslides) and archaeology are clearly associated with seismic activity (Papadopoulos et al., 2000; Koukouvelas et al., 2001;
Fig. 14. Greek and Roman port remains were discovered in the Bourse area of Marseilles during the 1960s. These vestiges, in the heart of the modern city, have since been converted into museum gardens. The preserved port buildings date from the end of the first century AD, although these were preceded by earlier constructions in an area known as “the Port’s Horn”. Prone to silting, the area was abandoned from late antiquity onwards. The modern Vieux Port is clearly discerned in the background and attests to progradation of the coastline landlocking the ancient seaport (photograph: CNRS, CCJ, MMSH, Aix-en-Provence).
Fig. 14. Greek and Roman port remains were discovered in the Bourse area of Marseilles during the 1960s. These vestiges, in the heart of the modern city, have since been converted into museum gardens. The preserved port buildings date from the end of the first century AD, although these were preceded by earlier constructions in an area known as “the Port’s Horn”. Prone to silting, the area was abandoned from late antiquity onwards. The modern Vieux Port is clearly discerned in the background and attests to progradation of the coastline landlocking the ancient seaport (photograph: CNRS, CCJ, MMSH, Aix-en-Provence).
Fig. 15. Progradation of Marseilles’ northern harbour coastline since the Neolithic. The coastlines were studied in section during archaeological excavations and each historic coastline was defined on the basis of its archaeological remains (quays, jetties). Note the progressive regularisation of the coastline. After Morhange et al. (2003).
Fig. 15. Progradation of Marseilles’ northern harbour coastline since the Neolithic. The coastlines were studied in section during archaeological excavations and each historic coastline was defined on the basis of its archaeological remains (quays, jetties). Note the progressive regularisation of the coastline. After Morhange et al. (2003).
Fig. 16. Cartagena’s buried urban seaport (from Garcia, 1998). Cartagena was founded ~230 BC by Carthaginian general Hasdrubal. Coastal stratigraphy and archaeology indicate that the heart of the ancient seaport is presently located beneath the city centre.
Fig. 16. Cartagena’s buried urban seaport (from Garcia, 1998). Cartagena was founded ~230 BC by Carthaginian general Hasdrubal. Coastal stratigraphy and archaeology indicate that the heart of the ancient seaport is presently located beneath the city centre.
Fig. 17. Morphodynamic evolution of Alexandria and Tyre’s isthmuses since antiquity. Research at both sites has elucidated a proto-tombolo phas« within 1—2 m of sea level by Hellensitic times (Goiran, Marriner and Morhange, unpublished data). This proto-tombolo phase greatly facilitated th construction of the two artificial causeways.
Fig. 17. Morphodynamic evolution of Alexandria and Tyre’s isthmuses since antiquity. Research at both sites has elucidated a proto-tombolo phas« within 1—2 m of sea level by Hellensitic times (Goiran, Marriner and Morhange, unpublished data). This proto-tombolo phase greatly facilitated th construction of the two artificial causeways.
Fig. 18. A. Early twentieth century photographic mosaic of Portus. B. Geoarchaeological interpretation of the site (after Giuliani, 1996). Portus Claudius has completely silted up since antiquity, whilst the artificial Portus Traiani today comprises a freshwater lake. Progradation of the beach ridges is clearly evidenced by the aerial photography.
Fig. 18. A. Early twentieth century photographic mosaic of Portus. B. Geoarchaeological interpretation of the site (after Giuliani, 1996). Portus Claudius has completely silted up since antiquity, whilst the artificial Portus Traiani today comprises a freshwater lake. Progradation of the beach ridges is clearly evidenced by the aerial photography.
Fig. 19. Coastal progradation of the Menderes delta and the landlocking of Priene, Miletus and Heracleia’s ancient seaports (from Miillenhoff et al., 2004).
Fig. 19. Coastal progradation of the Menderes delta and the landlocking of Priene, Miletus and Heracleia’s ancient seaports (from Miillenhoff et al., 2004).
Fig. 21. Ampurias’ Roman harbour. Exposed wave conditions coupled with avulsion of the river Fluvia to the north of the settlement have led to a fall in sediment supply and a gradual erosion of the harbour infrastructure during the past two millennia. The ancient Greek harbour had to be abandoned due to silting up of the basin (photographs: Marriner). Eroded harbours can result from two complementary geological processes: (1) a fall in sediment supply to the coastal zone; and/or (2) the destruction of harbourworks in areas exposed to high energy coastal processes. The best examples of eroded harbours date from the Roman period, when natural low-energy roadsteads were no longer a prerequisite for harbour location. At many high to medium energy coastal sites across the Mediterra- nean, the Romans constructed large enveloping moles to shelter an anchorage basin on its leeward side. Good examples of eroded ancient harbours include Carthage, Caesarea Maritima and the Roman port of Ampurias (Nieto and Raurich, 1998). Eroded outer harbour remains at Caesarea Maritima are still clearly visible. During the first century BC, King Herod ordered the construction of a royal harbour of the size of that of Piraeus. Roman engineers em- ployed pozzolan concrete to build free-standing moles nean, the Romans constructed large enveloping moles to Although the location of Punic Carthage has never been lost to memory, academic speculation has persisted concerning the location, shape and number of its harbours during the Late Punic period (Little and Yorke, 1975; Hurst and Stager, 1978). Gifford et al. (1992) cross- correlated brackish-lagoon stratigraphies to reconstruct the coastline and harbour areas of Carthage. The work shows a shallow (4—5 m below MSL) artificial harbour dug down into a Quaternary aeolianite sandstone and flooded by marine waters in the third century BC. The team elucidate two interlinked basins: (1) a commercial port; and (2) a shallower, circular military harbour. Eventual erosion of the harbour is indicated by overlying anthropogenic and high energy beach facies, consistent with the hub’s abandonment (Paskoff et al., 1985).
Fig. 21. Ampurias’ Roman harbour. Exposed wave conditions coupled with avulsion of the river Fluvia to the north of the settlement have led to a fall in sediment supply and a gradual erosion of the harbour infrastructure during the past two millennia. The ancient Greek harbour had to be abandoned due to silting up of the basin (photographs: Marriner). Eroded harbours can result from two complementary geological processes: (1) a fall in sediment supply to the coastal zone; and/or (2) the destruction of harbourworks in areas exposed to high energy coastal processes. The best examples of eroded harbours date from the Roman period, when natural low-energy roadsteads were no longer a prerequisite for harbour location. At many high to medium energy coastal sites across the Mediterra- nean, the Romans constructed large enveloping moles to shelter an anchorage basin on its leeward side. Good examples of eroded ancient harbours include Carthage, Caesarea Maritima and the Roman port of Ampurias (Nieto and Raurich, 1998). Eroded outer harbour remains at Caesarea Maritima are still clearly visible. During the first century BC, King Herod ordered the construction of a royal harbour of the size of that of Piraeus. Roman engineers em- ployed pozzolan concrete to build free-standing moles nean, the Romans constructed large enveloping moles to Although the location of Punic Carthage has never been lost to memory, academic speculation has persisted concerning the location, shape and number of its harbours during the Late Punic period (Little and Yorke, 1975; Hurst and Stager, 1978). Gifford et al. (1992) cross- correlated brackish-lagoon stratigraphies to reconstruct the coastline and harbour areas of Carthage. The work shows a shallow (4—5 m below MSL) artificial harbour dug down into a Quaternary aeolianite sandstone and flooded by marine waters in the third century BC. The team elucidate two interlinked basins: (1) a commercial port; and (2) a shallower, circular military harbour. Eventual erosion of the harbour is indicated by overlying anthropogenic and high energy beach facies, consistent with the hub’s abandonment (Paskoff et al., 1985).
Fig. 22. Coastal reconstruction of Kition-Bamboula (Cyprus) according to various authors. Nicolaou (1976) and Gifford (1978) speculated the presence of a cothon harbour based on modern engravings showing a lagoon. Morhange et al. (2000) demonstrated that Bamboula basin was in fact a small cove within a larger lagoon. The work reinforces the idea that recent landscape patterns should not be extrapolated to antiquity.
Fig. 22. Coastal reconstruction of Kition-Bamboula (Cyprus) according to various authors. Nicolaou (1976) and Gifford (1978) speculated the presence of a cothon harbour based on modern engravings showing a lagoon. Morhange et al. (2000) demonstrated that Bamboula basin was in fact a small cove within a larger lagoon. The work reinforces the idea that recent landscape patterns should not be extrapolated to antiquity.
Fig. 23. Hesse’s new hypothesis for the location of Alexandria’s causeway, based on geoelectrical prospections (modified from Hesse, 1998).
Fig. 23. Hesse’s new hypothesis for the location of Alexandria’s causeway, based on geoelectrical prospections (modified from Hesse, 1998).
Fig. 24. Facies, sedimentary processes and anthropogenic impacts: research tools used in the study of ancient harbour sequences
Fig. 24. Facies, sedimentary processes and anthropogenic impacts: research tools used in the study of ancient harbour sequences
Alexandria I-11: High energy trace shock. Alexandria I-11: Fracture surface on the face of a quartz grain.
Alexandria I-11: High energy trace shock. Alexandria I-11: Fracture surface on the face of a quartz grain.
Alexandria |-11: Deep fracture line.
Alexandria |-11: Deep fracture line.
Fig. 26. Biostratigraphic indicators of confined harbour conditions.
Fig. 26. Biostratigraphic indicators of confined harbour conditions.
Fig. 27. Pollutant lead at Alexandria during the past 3000 yr (adapted from Véron et al., 2006). The use of lead geochemistry has elucidated pre- Hellenistic pollutants at Alexandria, suggesting an advanced settlement at the site before the arrival of Alexander the Great in 331 BC.
Fig. 27. Pollutant lead at Alexandria during the past 3000 yr (adapted from Véron et al., 2006). The use of lead geochemistry has elucidated pre- Hellenistic pollutants at Alexandria, suggesting an advanced settlement at the site before the arrival of Alexander the Great in 331 BC.
Fig. 28. Pollutant lead contamination at Sidon’s ancient harbour (adapted from Le Roux et al., 2003).
Fig. 28. Pollutant lead contamination at Sidon’s ancient harbour (adapted from Le Roux et al., 2003).
Fig. 29. Lithostratigraphy of the Mediterranean’s best studied ancient harbours. This highstand anthropogenic facies comprises uncharacteristically high levels of fine-grained material (Marriner a1 Morhange, 2006a,b).
Fig. 29. Lithostratigraphy of the Mediterranean’s best studied ancient harbours. This highstand anthropogenic facies comprises uncharacteristically high levels of fine-grained material (Marriner a1 Morhange, 2006a,b).
Fig. 30. Lithofacies and key stratigraphic surfaces of (A) the Coastal Progradational Parasequence and (B) the Ancient Harbour Parasequence. Adapted from Marriner and Morhange (2006b).
Fig. 30. Lithofacies and key stratigraphic surfaces of (A) the Coastal Progradational Parasequence and (B) the Ancient Harbour Parasequence. Adapted from Marriner and Morhange (2006b).
Fig. 31. Definitions of the AHP’s key facies and surfaces. (Frost, 1995; Raban, 1995). Gradual improvements in harbour engineering are recorded by increasingly fine- grained facies, up until the Roman period when pozzolan concrete marked a revolution in maritime infrastructure (Oleson et al., 2004). Natural roadsteads were no longer a prerequisite to harbour loci and completely artificial ports, enveloped by imposing concrete moles, could be located on open coasts (Hohlfelder, 1997). Plastic clays tend to be the rule for this period.
Fig. 31. Definitions of the AHP’s key facies and surfaces. (Frost, 1995; Raban, 1995). Gradual improvements in harbour engineering are recorded by increasingly fine- grained facies, up until the Roman period when pozzolan concrete marked a revolution in maritime infrastructure (Oleson et al., 2004). Natural roadsteads were no longer a prerequisite to harbour loci and completely artificial ports, enveloped by imposing concrete moles, could be located on open coasts (Hohlfelder, 1997). Plastic clays tend to be the rule for this period.
Fig. 32. Stratigraphic section from Naples’ port (Piazza Municipio) showing the high variability of sedimentary fluxes. Anthropogenic impact is fundamental in explaining the harbour silting up. Excavations directed by D. Giampaola (Archaeological Superintendence of Naples) and assisted by V. Carsana.
Fig. 32. Stratigraphic section from Naples’ port (Piazza Municipio) showing the high variability of sedimentary fluxes. Anthropogenic impact is fundamental in explaining the harbour silting up. Excavations directed by D. Giampaola (Archaeological Superintendence of Naples) and assisted by V. Carsana.
Fig. 33. (A—B) Tufa substratum scour marks resulting from Roman dredging of the harbour bottom at Piazza Municipio, Naples. Excavations directed oy D. Giampaola (Archaeological Superintendence of Naples) and assisted by V. Carsana.
Fig. 33. (A—B) Tufa substratum scour marks resulting from Roman dredging of the harbour bottom at Piazza Municipio, Naples. Excavations directed oy D. Giampaola (Archaeological Superintendence of Naples) and assisted by V. Carsana.
Fig. 34. Top: Marseilles excavations, Place Jules Verne. Bottom: the upper limit of fixed fauna on stakes from the harbour’s Roman quays. By measuring the upper altimetric difference between fossil and contemporary populations it is possible to accurately infer palaeo-sea levels during antiquity (photographs: Morhange).
Fig. 34. Top: Marseilles excavations, Place Jules Verne. Bottom: the upper limit of fixed fauna on stakes from the harbour’s Roman quays. By measuring the upper altimetric difference between fossil and contemporary populations it is possible to accurately infer palaeo-sea levels during antiquity (photographs: Morhange).
Fig. 35. In the ancient harbour of Marseilles (southern France), marine fauna fixed upon archaeological structures, allied with bio-sedimentary data document a steady 1.5 m rise in relative sea level during the past 5000 yr. A near stable level, at present datum, prevailed from 1500 yr AD to the las century. This trend is similar to the one previously documented on the rocky coasts of Provence, southern France. Field observations inside an: outside the harbour confirm that no sea-level stand higher than present occurred during the study period. Since Roman times, relative sea level ha risen by ~50 cm (after Morhange et al., 2001).
Fig. 35. In the ancient harbour of Marseilles (southern France), marine fauna fixed upon archaeological structures, allied with bio-sedimentary data document a steady 1.5 m rise in relative sea level during the past 5000 yr. A near stable level, at present datum, prevailed from 1500 yr AD to the las century. This trend is similar to the one previously documented on the rocky coasts of Provence, southern France. Field observations inside an: outside the harbour confirm that no sea-level stand higher than present occurred during the study period. Since Roman times, relative sea level ha risen by ~50 cm (after Morhange et al., 2001).
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