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In addition to direct radiative effects, volcanic aerosols also might have indirect effects whet they fall out of the stratosphere and affect the formation of cirrus clouds in the upper tropo sohere. However, little is yet known about this mechanism. Fig. 7. (Top) Schematic indicating the number and growth of aerosol particles after the eruptions of Pinatubo and Tambora, respectively.>° (Bottom) Comparison of extinction at the equator at 20km in model simulations after Tambora and Pinatubo. *'

Figure 7 In addition to direct radiative effects, volcanic aerosols also might have indirect effects whet they fall out of the stratosphere and affect the formation of cirrus clouds in the upper tropo sohere. However, little is yet known about this mechanism. Fig. 7. (Top) Schematic indicating the number and growth of aerosol particles after the eruptions of Pinatubo and Tambora, respectively.>° (Bottom) Comparison of extinction at the equator at 20km in model simulations after Tambora and Pinatubo. *'

Related Figures (61)

Fig. 1. Aerial view of the caldera of Tambora as seen today. It is 7km wide and 1100-—1200m deep and has an ephemeral freshwater lake. A small active vent, called Doro Afi Toi, has formed at its base. The seismic and tectonic activity of the volcano is monitored by the Indonesian Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (photo by Manuel Marty).
Fig. 1. Aerial view of the caldera of Tambora as seen today. It is 7km wide and 1100-—1200m deep and has an ephemeral freshwater lake. A small active vent, called Doro Afi Toi, has formed at its base. The seismic and tectonic activity of the volcano is monitored by the Indonesian Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (photo by Manuel Marty).
The Tambora caldera and slopes of the volcano to- day as seen from the Inter national Space Station ISS Sumbawa is an island of the Lesser Sunda Islands chain with an area of 15,448km2 and a population of around 1.39 million. The geology is characterised by a volcanic sedimentary succession of Late Oligocene to Quater- nary age, with interbedded marine sedimentary rocks and limestones. The island still has large areas of the natural dry deciduous forest (thorn forest) and conifers at higher altitude. The coastal plains were origi- nally savanna vegetation. The Lesser Sunda Islands are home to many endemic species. particularly birds.
The Tambora caldera and slopes of the volcano to- day as seen from the Inter national Space Station ISS Sumbawa is an island of the Lesser Sunda Islands chain with an area of 15,448km2 and a population of around 1.39 million. The geology is characterised by a volcanic sedimentary succession of Late Oligocene to Quater- nary age, with interbedded marine sedimentary rocks and limestones. The island still has large areas of the natural dry deciduous forest (thorn forest) and conifers at higher altitude. The coastal plains were origi- nally savanna vegetation. The Lesser Sunda Islands are home to many endemic species. particularly birds.
Fig. 2. In 1847, Swiss botanist Heinrich Zollinger travelled Sumbawa and climbed Mt.Tambora. He founc a large caldera with two lakes in it (the map is taken from his publication). Zollinger gave an extensive account of the Tambora eruption. In fact, many widely reported descriptions about the eruption go back to his work. Note the deserted settlements or ruins indicated with brackets, some of which were newly founded in a different location (Sangar, Papekat, Tambora). In fact, even away from the immediate zone of devastation, most settlements were founded after 1815 as the entire island was largely depopulatec after the eruption. Interestingly, Zollinger already described the biogeographical division that later became known as the Wallace line (see figure on the left).3
Fig. 2. In 1847, Swiss botanist Heinrich Zollinger travelled Sumbawa and climbed Mt.Tambora. He founc a large caldera with two lakes in it (the map is taken from his publication). Zollinger gave an extensive account of the Tambora eruption. In fact, many widely reported descriptions about the eruption go back to his work. Note the deserted settlements or ruins indicated with brackets, some of which were newly founded in a different location (Sangar, Papekat, Tambora). In fact, even away from the immediate zone of devastation, most settlements were founded after 1815 as the entire island was largely depopulatec after the eruption. Interestingly, Zollinger already described the biogeographical division that later became known as the Wallace line (see figure on the left).3
The Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo (Philippines) in June 1991 as seen from the Clark Air Base
The Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo (Philippines) in June 1991 as seen from the Clark Air Base
Fig. 3. Map of Indonesia showing the location of Tambora and the thickness of ash deposits (in cm, frorr Self et al. 1984)'8. The inset shows the six kingdoms that existed on Sumbawa prior to the eruption. Along the Sunda Trench south of Indonesia, the heavy Indo-Australian plate is subducting under the lighter Sunda Plate forming the Sunda Volcanic Arc. Indonesia has 147 volcanoes, of which 76 are historically active (i.e., have documented eruptions). Mt. Tambora is one of these volcanoes. It was a typical stratovolcano with a symmetrical volcanic cone and a single central vent. Even though it had been historically active Tambora was silent for more than 400 years before the eruption in 1815.
Fig. 3. Map of Indonesia showing the location of Tambora and the thickness of ash deposits (in cm, frorr Self et al. 1984)'8. The inset shows the six kingdoms that existed on Sumbawa prior to the eruption. Along the Sunda Trench south of Indonesia, the heavy Indo-Australian plate is subducting under the lighter Sunda Plate forming the Sunda Volcanic Arc. Indonesia has 147 volcanoes, of which 76 are historically active (i.e., have documented eruptions). Mt. Tambora is one of these volcanoes. It was a typical stratovolcano with a symmetrical volcanic cone and a single central vent. Even though it had been historically active Tambora was silent for more than 400 years before the eruption in 1815.
Fig. 4. A stratigraphic column of volcanic deposits near Tambora village on the Sanggar Peninsula (fron Sudrajat and Rachmat, 2015)24.
Fig. 4. A stratigraphic column of volcanic deposits near Tambora village on the Sanggar Peninsula (fron Sudrajat and Rachmat, 2015)24.
Deposits of the 1815 Tambora eruption cover large areas of the Sanggar Peninsula
Deposits of the 1815 Tambora eruption cover large areas of the Sanggar Peninsula
Tambora affected the skies over Indonesia and Europe. Two paintings by William Turner showing (left) an eruption of Vesuvius (engraved by T. Jeavons, 1830, photo Tate, London 2016) and (right) a colourful sunset in the painting “Fighting Temeraire” from 1838, (photo National Gallery, London). Although most sunset paintings from Turner date to later, he is said to have been influenced by the intense colours of the sunsets experienced after the Tambora eruption.
Tambora affected the skies over Indonesia and Europe. Two paintings by William Turner showing (left) an eruption of Vesuvius (engraved by T. Jeavons, 1830, photo Tate, London 2016) and (right) a colourful sunset in the painting “Fighting Temeraire” from 1838, (photo National Gallery, London). Although most sunset paintings from Turner date to later, he is said to have been influenced by the intense colours of the sunsets experienced after the Tambora eruption.
The Tambora eruption in 1815 devastated the Island of Sumbawa on Indonesia and affected the global atmosphere. Ash clouds rose to the sky above Sumbawa and completely darkened the sky for days. While the ash settled after a few days, the gaseous emissions of Tambora continued to affect the sky globally. Sulphate aerosol particles formed from these gases and resided in the stratosphere for two to three years. They led to colourful sunsets around the worlds that inspired the romantic painters in Europe such as William Turner (1775-1851, see also Section “On the Trail of the Aerosols”). Though fascinated by volcanic eruptions (left), Turner was most likely not aware that he painted “volcanic skies” for many years (right) after having been inspired by colourful sunsets in 1817-1818. The consequences of the 1815 eruption worried people in Indonesia and Europe. Eyewitness accounts as collected in Raffles’ report (left)?°, speak- ing of flames that rage with unabated fury and whirlwinds that blew down nearly every house, and the page for August 15*, 1816, from the diary of Martin Obersteg in Switzerland (right), who mentions that one had to heat the houses in the middle of summer (Staatsarchiv Nidwalden).
The Tambora eruption in 1815 devastated the Island of Sumbawa on Indonesia and affected the global atmosphere. Ash clouds rose to the sky above Sumbawa and completely darkened the sky for days. While the ash settled after a few days, the gaseous emissions of Tambora continued to affect the sky globally. Sulphate aerosol particles formed from these gases and resided in the stratosphere for two to three years. They led to colourful sunsets around the worlds that inspired the romantic painters in Europe such as William Turner (1775-1851, see also Section “On the Trail of the Aerosols”). Though fascinated by volcanic eruptions (left), Turner was most likely not aware that he painted “volcanic skies” for many years (right) after having been inspired by colourful sunsets in 1817-1818. The consequences of the 1815 eruption worried people in Indonesia and Europe. Eyewitness accounts as collected in Raffles’ report (left)?°, speak- ing of flames that rage with unabated fury and whirlwinds that blew down nearly every house, and the page for August 15*, 1816, from the diary of Martin Obersteg in Switzerland (right), who mentions that one had to heat the houses in the middle of summer (Staatsarchiv Nidwalden).
Tambora caused death in Indonesia and Europe. Skeleton excavated in Sumbawa (left, photo by Rik Stoetman), “hunger bread” in Europe (right, photo by P. Portner, Historisches Museum Basel). a aa ine iia aia Daan mia in ola ei? SS aaa atk ani ae) Hib eign Del ee iit ae iii mel ees to eae aainat nc ite filha Wi dane arate Se aman r r J r ial JN report?" (p.10, left) reached Europe a few months later. Excerpts were printed widely i in European newspapers. One year later and 15,000km away, central Europe suffered from a particularly cold and rainy summer. Desperate farmers struggled to survive. Life in Europe had been troubled due to the Coalition Wars. Now the constant rains and snow in early summer, no hay and the prospect of a very poor harvest threatened the very existence of many. Numerous meticulous diaries (p. 10, right) and other sources give a voice to these people and provide insight into the fears and challenges faced by them. Today we know that the rainy weather in Europe was partly a consequence of the eruption. However, the two events were not linked at that time, and the causes of the climatic anomalies in Europe would remain unknown for another century. 32
Tambora caused death in Indonesia and Europe. Skeleton excavated in Sumbawa (left, photo by Rik Stoetman), “hunger bread” in Europe (right, photo by P. Portner, Historisches Museum Basel). a aa ine iia aia Daan mia in ola ei? SS aaa atk ani ae) Hib eign Del ee iit ae iii mel ees to eae aainat nc ite filha Wi dane arate Se aman r r J r ial JN report?" (p.10, left) reached Europe a few months later. Excerpts were printed widely i in European newspapers. One year later and 15,000km away, central Europe suffered from a particularly cold and rainy summer. Desperate farmers struggled to survive. Life in Europe had been troubled due to the Coalition Wars. Now the constant rains and snow in early summer, no hay and the prospect of a very poor harvest threatened the very existence of many. Numerous meticulous diaries (p. 10, right) and other sources give a voice to these people and provide insight into the fears and challenges faced by them. Today we know that the rainy weather in Europe was partly a consequence of the eruption. However, the two events were not linked at that time, and the causes of the climatic anomalies in Europe would remain unknown for another century. 32
Iwo hundred years later, many events in Indonesia and in Europe commemorated the 1815 Tambora eruption and its consequences. An international conference on the occasion of the bicentenary was held in Bern, Switzerland, 7-10 April 2015 (bottom). Scientists from all over the world gathered to share their knowledge in order to better understand the 1815 Tambora eruption and its consequences.
Iwo hundred years later, many events in Indonesia and in Europe commemorated the 1815 Tambora eruption and its consequences. An international conference on the occasion of the bicentenary was held in Bern, Switzerland, 7-10 April 2015 (bottom). Scientists from all over the world gathered to share their knowledge in order to better understand the 1815 Tambora eruption and its consequences.
Fig. 5. Schematic figure showing the spread of SOz and aerosols across the globe after the eruption of Tambora. Likewise, the reconstruction of the horizontal transport of Tambora aerosols is not straight- forward. With the equatorial lower stratospheric winds (which are either easterly or westerly, but always close to zonal) the stratospheric volcanic cloud will circle the globe within 2-4 weeks (Fig. 5). This was first observed after the Krakatoa eruption in 1883. Textbook knowl- edge implies that the meridional circulation of the stratosphere will transport the aerosols of tropical volcanic eruptions towards the Polar Regions, but this circulation is much slower than the zonal circulation, such that it takes 2—5 years for an air parcel to travel from the tropical tropopause to the polar region (Fig. 5). It is not clear how efficient other transport
Fig. 5. Schematic figure showing the spread of SOz and aerosols across the globe after the eruption of Tambora. Likewise, the reconstruction of the horizontal transport of Tambora aerosols is not straight- forward. With the equatorial lower stratospheric winds (which are either easterly or westerly, but always close to zonal) the stratospheric volcanic cloud will circle the globe within 2-4 weeks (Fig. 5). This was first observed after the Krakatoa eruption in 1883. Textbook knowl- edge implies that the meridional circulation of the stratosphere will transport the aerosols of tropical volcanic eruptions towards the Polar Regions, but this circulation is much slower than the zonal circulation, such that it takes 2—5 years for an air parcel to travel from the tropical tropopause to the polar region (Fig. 5). It is not clear how efficient other transport
Fig. 6. (Top left) Sujohur concentration in segments of an ice core from Greenland. 38 (Top right) Recon- struction of global aerosols optical depth from ice cores using statistical techniques?9 or a 2D aerosol model.*° (Bottom left) Spread of the aerosols (zonally averaged aerosol optical depth) after the Tambora eruption in a 2D aerosol model.“' (Bottom right) Estimated aerosol optical depths from paintings’ and lunar eclipses? (grey indicates observed eclipses). The arrow indicates the eruption of Tambora.
Fig. 6. (Top left) Sujohur concentration in segments of an ice core from Greenland. 38 (Top right) Recon- struction of global aerosols optical depth from ice cores using statistical techniques?9 or a 2D aerosol model.*° (Bottom left) Spread of the aerosols (zonally averaged aerosol optical depth) after the Tambora eruption in a 2D aerosol model.“' (Bottom right) Estimated aerosol optical depths from paintings’ and lunar eclipses? (grey indicates observed eclipses). The arrow indicates the eruption of Tambora.
Fig. 8. Annual temperature anomalies’ from continental reconstructions for the Northern Hemisphere (top) and the Southern Hemisphere (middle) continents. 68 (Bottom) Annual anomalies from reconstructions of global, northern extratropical, tropical, and southern extratropical temperature.©° Grey bars denote major tropical volcanic eruptions. As an example, the temperature reconstructions by Tom Crowley and co-authors®’ are shown in Fig. 8 (bottom), expressed relative to a contemporary reference period”. The re- construction, which seems to emphasize decadal rather than interannual variability, shows that the year 1816 is the coldest on record globally, in the northern extratropics, and in the tropics, but not in the southern extratropics. A pronounced cold phase also occurred in the 1830s with particularly cold years after the eruptions of Babuyan Claro (Philippines) in 1831 and Cosiguina (Nicaragua) in 1835.
Fig. 8. Annual temperature anomalies’ from continental reconstructions for the Northern Hemisphere (top) and the Southern Hemisphere (middle) continents. 68 (Bottom) Annual anomalies from reconstructions of global, northern extratropical, tropical, and southern extratropical temperature.©° Grey bars denote major tropical volcanic eruptions. As an example, the temperature reconstructions by Tom Crowley and co-authors®’ are shown in Fig. 8 (bottom), expressed relative to a contemporary reference period”. The re- construction, which seems to emphasize decadal rather than interannual variability, shows that the year 1816 is the coldest on record globally, in the northern extratropics, and in the tropics, but not in the southern extratropics. A pronounced cold phase also occurred in the 1830s with particularly cold years after the eruptions of Babuyan Claro (Philippines) in 1831 and Cosiguina (Nicaragua) in 1835.
Fig. 9. (Left) Reconstructions of precipitation anomalies in boreal summer 1816 from instrumental data and proxies for Southern South America, 7° Europe’’ (both June to August), Asia’® (May to September), as well as point reconstructions for South Africa’? (April to September) and Australia®° (May top April). (Right) Tree-ring based reconstructions of the warm season Palmer Drought Severity index for North America, ®' Europe, ®2 and Asia®? for the boreal summer 1816, expressed as anomalies from a contemporary reference period (1799-1821).
Fig. 9. (Left) Reconstructions of precipitation anomalies in boreal summer 1816 from instrumental data and proxies for Southern South America, 7° Europe’’ (both June to August), Asia’® (May to September), as well as point reconstructions for South Africa’? (April to September) and Australia®° (May top April). (Right) Tree-ring based reconstructions of the warm season Palmer Drought Severity index for North America, ®' Europe, ®2 and Asia®? for the boreal summer 1816, expressed as anomalies from a contemporary reference period (1799-1821).
Fig. 10. Climate in summer (lun—Aug) 1816 expressed as anomalies from a contemporary reference observations period (1799-1821). Shown are reconstructions? of (top) temperature (right: frequency distributions of daily temperature anomalies from three stations), (middle) precipitation and (bottom) sea- level pressure (black contours, in hPa). Dots show the standard deviation of daily sea-level pressure, 3-6 day band-pass filtered?3 and expressed as anomalies from a present reference (1981-2010, red contours, in hPa). A recent reconstruction of global climate obtained from combining model simulations with instrumental data and proxies (Fig. 10, see also cover page)®' confirms the low temperatures over Central Europe and North America and higher temperatures in Eastern Europe. They also show a clear precipitation increase over Western and Central Europe (decrease over Western Russia) and a decrease in sea-level pressure centred over the British Isles.
Fig. 10. Climate in summer (lun—Aug) 1816 expressed as anomalies from a contemporary reference observations period (1799-1821). Shown are reconstructions? of (top) temperature (right: frequency distributions of daily temperature anomalies from three stations), (middle) precipitation and (bottom) sea- level pressure (black contours, in hPa). Dots show the standard deviation of daily sea-level pressure, 3-6 day band-pass filtered?3 and expressed as anomalies from a present reference (1981-2010, red contours, in hPa). A recent reconstruction of global climate obtained from combining model simulations with instrumental data and proxies (Fig. 10, see also cover page)®' confirms the low temperatures over Central Europe and North America and higher temperatures in Eastern Europe. They also show a clear precipitation increase over Western and Central Europe (decrease over Western Russia) and a decrease in sea-level pressure centred over the British Isles.
Flooding in Central Europe
Flooding in Central Europe
Fig. 12. Synoptic pressure charts for 7 and 8 June 1816, indicating observa- tions of wind, temperature (°F), cloud cover (open/tfilled circles), and precip- itation (dots or asterisks left to the wind arrows), based on a comprehensive compilation of observations by Mike Chenoweth (2009). 99 Farther north, unusual sea-ice conditions were reported. The ships of the Hudson Bay Com- pany, travelling between Britain and the Hudson Bay, reported severe ice conditions in 1816. Conversely, in the Greenland Sea (east of Greenland), whaler William Scoresby Jr reported less than normal sea-ice and high temperatures in 1816 (compared to the years 1810 to 1818). 98
Fig. 12. Synoptic pressure charts for 7 and 8 June 1816, indicating observa- tions of wind, temperature (°F), cloud cover (open/tfilled circles), and precip- itation (dots or asterisks left to the wind arrows), based on a comprehensive compilation of observations by Mike Chenoweth (2009). 99 Farther north, unusual sea-ice conditions were reported. The ships of the Hudson Bay Com- pany, travelling between Britain and the Hudson Bay, reported severe ice conditions in 1816. Conversely, in the Greenland Sea (east of Greenland), whaler William Scoresby Jr reported less than normal sea-ice and high temperatures in 1816 (compared to the years 1810 to 1818). 98
Fig. 11. June-to-August temperature in Geneva, Paris, and Bos- ton expressed as anomalies to a contemporary reference period (1799-1821). Grey bars mark major tropical volcanic eruptions. 1816 was not the first cold year in Europe in the 19th century. After a warm phase around 1800, temperature dropped markedly (Fig. 11). The summer of 1816 was thus the culmi- nation of a decade of cooling. Part of this cooling might have been due to a previous “un- known” eruption (a volcanic layer documented in ice cores, which could not yet be attribut- ed to a known eruption) in 1808 or 18091941, or due to low solar activity, but possibly also due to internal decadal variability in the ocean-atmosphere system. 2°
Fig. 11. June-to-August temperature in Geneva, Paris, and Bos- ton expressed as anomalies to a contemporary reference period (1799-1821). Grey bars mark major tropical volcanic eruptions. 1816 was not the first cold year in Europe in the 19th century. After a warm phase around 1800, temperature dropped markedly (Fig. 11). The summer of 1816 was thus the culmi- nation of a decade of cooling. Part of this cooling might have been due to a previous “un- known” eruption (a volcanic layer documented in ice cores, which could not yet be attribut- ed to a known eruption) in 1808 or 18091941, or due to low solar activity, but possibly also due to internal decadal variability in the ocean-atmosphere system. 2°
The German (later Swiss) scientist, author, and reformer Heinrich Zschokke performed instrumental measurements and weather observations three times per day in Aarau, Swit- zerland, during the years 1807 to 1816.15 The data sheet from July 1816 indicates rain (in German: “Regen”) on 28 out of 31 days, mostly all day long.
The German (later Swiss) scientist, author, and reformer Heinrich Zschokke performed instrumental measurements and weather observations three times per day in Aarau, Swit- zerland, during the years 1807 to 1816.15 The data sheet from July 1816 indicates rain (in German: “Regen”) on 28 out of 31 days, mostly all day long.
Lord Byron spent the summer of 1816 in the Villa Diodati close to Geneva, joined by Percy Bysshe Shelley and Mary Godwin (who later became Mary Shelley). The bad weather forced the young writers to stay inside — where they passed the time by talking, drinking, and writing ghost stories. Mary Shelley's novel “Frankenstein” and Lord Byron's poem “Darkness” were among the outcomes. This is one of the often-told Tambora anecdotes.
Lord Byron spent the summer of 1816 in the Villa Diodati close to Geneva, joined by Percy Bysshe Shelley and Mary Godwin (who later became Mary Shelley). The bad weather forced the young writers to stay inside — where they passed the time by talking, drinking, and writing ghost stories. Mary Shelley's novel “Frankenstein” and Lord Byron's poem “Darkness” were among the outcomes. This is one of the often-told Tambora anecdotes.
This is still far less than the observed 2.5—3°C of cooling. This means that most likely, random internal variability of the cli- mate system also contributed significantly. In fact, the largest contribution to the cooling in Switzerland remains unexplained in the models. To what extent this was just a coincidence, or whether it represents an amplification of the indirect volcanic effects due to some unknown processes, remains open. The fact is, not all strong eruptions cause a “Year Without a Sum- mer” as in 1816, neither in the model, nor in the real world (conversely, not all “Years Without a Summer” are volcanic). Thus “Frankenstein” and “Darkness” were not only the result of Tambora, but also of random weather variability — and of course of the imagination of the “young romantics”. '°7 Contributions of direct and indirect Tambora effects and of internal (unforced) variability to the temperature anomaly in the summer of 1816 in Geneva. The quantification is based on the observed diurnal temperature range on clear sky days as well as model results. '°8
This is still far less than the observed 2.5—3°C of cooling. This means that most likely, random internal variability of the cli- mate system also contributed significantly. In fact, the largest contribution to the cooling in Switzerland remains unexplained in the models. To what extent this was just a coincidence, or whether it represents an amplification of the indirect volcanic effects due to some unknown processes, remains open. The fact is, not all strong eruptions cause a “Year Without a Sum- mer” as in 1816, neither in the model, nor in the real world (conversely, not all “Years Without a Summer” are volcanic). Thus “Frankenstein” and “Darkness” were not only the result of Tambora, but also of random weather variability — and of course of the imagination of the “young romantics”. '°7 Contributions of direct and indirect Tambora effects and of internal (unforced) variability to the temperature anomaly in the summer of 1816 in Geneva. The quantification is based on the observed diurnal temperature range on clear sky days as well as model results. '°8
Fig. 13. A schematic climate model.
Fig. 13. A schematic climate model.
Fig. 14. Time series of global mean values of temperature at the Earth’s surface (as well as in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere) and in the stratosphere, global mean values of precipitation, sea ice coverage, and upper ocean (O—700m) heat content from four climate simulations performed with an ocean-at- mosphere chemistry-climate model, ''8 expressed as anomalies from a contemporary reference perioc (1799-1821). The thick lines indicate the mean of the four simulations, the shading indicates the spread. Two simulations differ from the other two by a different solar forcing, among themselves by different initia conditions. '!9 Grey bars mark major tropical volcanic eruptions.
Fig. 14. Time series of global mean values of temperature at the Earth’s surface (as well as in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere) and in the stratosphere, global mean values of precipitation, sea ice coverage, and upper ocean (O—700m) heat content from four climate simulations performed with an ocean-at- mosphere chemistry-climate model, ''8 expressed as anomalies from a contemporary reference perioc (1799-1821). The thick lines indicate the mean of the four simulations, the shading indicates the spread. Two simulations differ from the other two by a different solar forcing, among themselves by different initia conditions. '!9 Grey bars mark major tropical volcanic eruptions.
With less moisture and a weaker monsoon circulation, precipitation (shown in the top right panel) decreases over the monsoon regions of Africa, East Asia, and North America. While a precipitation decrease and drought over Asia is also seen in some reconstructions (Fig. 9), this is not the case for North America (no reconstructions are available for Africa). Along with precipitation, cloud cover is also lower in the typical monsoon regions. Therefore, embedded in the continental scale cooling that gives rise to weaker monsoons, many model simulations exhibit zones of warming due to less clouds. This is also seen in the atmospheric simulations (Fig. 15, top left). 123.124 Fig. 15. Modelled anomalies '2° of (top left) temperature at the Earth surface, (top right) precipitation, (bottom left) wind at 850hPa (ca. 1.5km altitude; colours indicate the zonal wind) and (bottom right vertical velocity (colours) and geopotential height at 500hPa (ca. 5.5km altitude; contours, 6gpm spacing symmetric around zero, negatives are dashed) in Jun—Aug 1816, expressed as anomalies from a contemporary reference period (1799-1821). Shown is the average over 30 individual simulations (ensemble members).
With less moisture and a weaker monsoon circulation, precipitation (shown in the top right panel) decreases over the monsoon regions of Africa, East Asia, and North America. While a precipitation decrease and drought over Asia is also seen in some reconstructions (Fig. 9), this is not the case for North America (no reconstructions are available for Africa). Along with precipitation, cloud cover is also lower in the typical monsoon regions. Therefore, embedded in the continental scale cooling that gives rise to weaker monsoons, many model simulations exhibit zones of warming due to less clouds. This is also seen in the atmospheric simulations (Fig. 15, top left). 123.124 Fig. 15. Modelled anomalies '2° of (top left) temperature at the Earth surface, (top right) precipitation, (bottom left) wind at 850hPa (ca. 1.5km altitude; colours indicate the zonal wind) and (bottom right vertical velocity (colours) and geopotential height at 500hPa (ca. 5.5km altitude; contours, 6gpm spacing symmetric around zero, negatives are dashed) in Jun—Aug 1816, expressed as anomalies from a contemporary reference period (1799-1821). Shown is the average over 30 individual simulations (ensemble members).
Monsoon systems react sensitively to perturba- tions in radiation such as volcanic eruptions
Monsoon systems react sensitively to perturba- tions in radiation such as volcanic eruptions
Figure 16 schematically summarises the indirect effects of volcanic eruptions on atmospheric circulation and climate. It is not known whether all of these effects occurred after the Tamb- ora eruption. Some of the effects are well known, some are discussed, and some indirect effects are likely yet to be discovered. Fig. 16. Schematic depiction of some mechanisms by which volcanic eruptions affect climate indirectly via changes in atmosphere circulation or the ocean. 136
Figure 16 schematically summarises the indirect effects of volcanic eruptions on atmospheric circulation and climate. It is not known whether all of these effects occurred after the Tamb- ora eruption. Some of the effects are well known, some are discussed, and some indirect effects are likely yet to be discovered. Fig. 16. Schematic depiction of some mechanisms by which volcanic eruptions affect climate indirectly via changes in atmosphere circulation or the ocean. 136
Sea ice increases after volcanic eruptions and might trigger further feedback mechanisms
Sea ice increases after volcanic eruptions and might trigger further feedback mechanisms
Fig. 17. Cholera victim in Sunderland, 1832. Coloured lithograph, (photo Wellcome Library, London CC BY 4.0).
Fig. 17. Cholera victim in Sunderland, 1832. Coloured lithograph, (photo Wellcome Library, London CC BY 4.0).
Fig. 18. Processes in the Earth system related to volcanic eruptions. Are these biophysical effects of the eruption or are they rather related to changes in the human behaviour? Prices of food, feed and firewood as well as famines, health issues or migration are economic, political, or societal mechanisms rather than biophysical effects. 146 Therefore, in the remaining part of this brochure, we focus on the human system. Before doing that, however, we give a brief summary of the Earth system effects of the Tambora eruption (or volcanic eruptions in general) in Fig. 18. The effects encompass volcanological phenomena, plume dynamics, chemical, microphysical and radiative processes in the atmo- sphere, dynamical changes of atmospheric circulation, and biophysical effects. The Tamb- ora eruption thus truly calls for a system view: In order to understand “Tambora’s” effects we need the expertise of geologists, physicists, chemists, climatologists, and biologists. We need field studies, collections of proxies, numerical modelling, and dynamical analyses. Even then, we might be strongly misled as to the effect on society. In fact, we not only need an Earth system perspective, but an Earth and human systems perspective.
Fig. 18. Processes in the Earth system related to volcanic eruptions. Are these biophysical effects of the eruption or are they rather related to changes in the human behaviour? Prices of food, feed and firewood as well as famines, health issues or migration are economic, political, or societal mechanisms rather than biophysical effects. 146 Therefore, in the remaining part of this brochure, we focus on the human system. Before doing that, however, we give a brief summary of the Earth system effects of the Tambora eruption (or volcanic eruptions in general) in Fig. 18. The effects encompass volcanological phenomena, plume dynamics, chemical, microphysical and radiative processes in the atmo- sphere, dynamical changes of atmospheric circulation, and biophysical effects. The Tamb- ora eruption thus truly calls for a system view: In order to understand “Tambora’s” effects we need the expertise of geologists, physicists, chemists, climatologists, and biologists. We need field studies, collections of proxies, numerical modelling, and dynamical analyses. Even then, we might be strongly misled as to the effect on society. In fact, we not only need an Earth system perspective, but an Earth and human systems perspective.
The purchasing power of consumers sank further during the inflation crisis. The lower and middle classes could barely afford food; the earning opportunities for day laborers and farm- hands disappeared with the failure of crops; sales collapsed in the textile industry, and no contracts were made in trade and commerce while inflation consumed incomes. "5° This, in part, led John D. Post to speak of the “last great subsistence crisis in the Western world”. 156
The purchasing power of consumers sank further during the inflation crisis. The lower and middle classes could barely afford food; the earning opportunities for day laborers and farm- hands disappeared with the failure of crops; sales collapsed in the textile industry, and no contracts were made in trade and commerce while inflation consumed incomes. "5° This, in part, led John D. Post to speak of the “last great subsistence crisis in the Western world”. 156
Fig. 19. Thigh bone of Susanna Hunziker-Widmer (ca. 1799-1853), who had experienced the famine as an 18-year-old woman. Imprints can be seen in the bone microstructure. The marked white line in the middle of the photograph shows a line of arrested growth (LAG) that coincides with crisis and famine of 1816 and 1817. Histological section and photograph by Stefanie Doppler. 2°° The last great subsistence crisis of the western world after the eruption of Tambora counts as an ideal case study in historical climatology, used to understand the interactions between cli- mate and society. 199 The abundance of resources enables not only a concerted examination of the interactions between climate, nutrition, and politics, but also allows for a differentiat- ed picture of human reactions to climatic extreme events to emerge.
Fig. 19. Thigh bone of Susanna Hunziker-Widmer (ca. 1799-1853), who had experienced the famine as an 18-year-old woman. Imprints can be seen in the bone microstructure. The marked white line in the middle of the photograph shows a line of arrested growth (LAG) that coincides with crisis and famine of 1816 and 1817. Histological section and photograph by Stefanie Doppler. 2°° The last great subsistence crisis of the western world after the eruption of Tambora counts as an ideal case study in historical climatology, used to understand the interactions between cli- mate and society. 199 The abundance of resources enables not only a concerted examination of the interactions between climate, nutrition, and politics, but also allows for a differentiat- ed picture of human reactions to climatic extreme events to emerge.
The crisis of 1817 had considerable demographic effects. On the one hand, the mortality rate increased, on the other hand the birth rate decreased. In Appen- zell Innerrhoden individual communites lost up to one ninth of their population.
The crisis of 1817 had considerable demographic effects. On the one hand, the mortality rate increased, on the other hand the birth rate decreased. In Appen- zell Innerrhoden individual communites lost up to one ninth of their population.
In the early 19th century, ri- ots were a form of self-help for the common people. They fought for fair prices. In search for the respon- sibles of the crisis, many anti-Semitic riots broke out. The photo shows the violent Hep-Hep riots in 1819, as the crisis continued, and was directed against jews. Although no country suffered as terribly as Switzerland during the “Year Without a Sum- mer”, protests remained a rarity.2°9 In the canton of Vaud, impoverished families from the Jura planned a march to Lausanne in March of 1817 in order to stock up on food. The gov- ernment sent two trusted men into the region who were able to calm down the situation. 2!° Only in Geneva did a demonstration with plundering and violence occur, in October 1817, ignited by the rising potato prices. Not only the timing but also the location of this demon- stration was a surprise. In comparison to the cities in eastern Switzerland, Geneva seemed to have overcome the crisis relatively well, and the demonstration occurred when the greatest moment of need had already passed. Thus, besides exposing the underlying social unrest and dissatisfaction, the demonstration also illustrated a fear of more inflation and its accom- panying misery.2"!
In the early 19th century, ri- ots were a form of self-help for the common people. They fought for fair prices. In search for the respon- sibles of the crisis, many anti-Semitic riots broke out. The photo shows the violent Hep-Hep riots in 1819, as the crisis continued, and was directed against jews. Although no country suffered as terribly as Switzerland during the “Year Without a Sum- mer”, protests remained a rarity.2°9 In the canton of Vaud, impoverished families from the Jura planned a march to Lausanne in March of 1817 in order to stock up on food. The gov- ernment sent two trusted men into the region who were able to calm down the situation. 2!° Only in Geneva did a demonstration with plundering and violence occur, in October 1817, ignited by the rising potato prices. Not only the timing but also the location of this demon- stration was a surprise. In comparison to the cities in eastern Switzerland, Geneva seemed to have overcome the crisis relatively well, and the demonstration occurred when the greatest moment of need had already passed. Thus, besides exposing the underlying social unrest and dissatisfaction, the demonstration also illustrated a fear of more inflation and its accom- panying misery.2"!
“Memory of a Friendly Agreement on the Promotion of Hunger in the Year of 1817”
“Memory of a Friendly Agreement on the Promotion of Hunger in the Year of 1817”
The “Year Without a Summer” also left other traces in the landscape. In the wake of the event, existing networks were extended and improved, and new roads were constructed across the Alps in order to facilitate transport of grain from Southern Europe in case of future famines. In general, the extension and the improvement of the road networks increased not only overall transport capacities, but also offered novel opportunities for trade over longer distances due to its higher reliability and regularity. Furthermore, the floods promoted an older plan by the engineer Johann Gottfried von Tulla to straighten the river Rhine between Basel and Worms. Yet another Tambora effect? Fig. 20. Rice fields on the island of Sumbawa in 1998 (photo by Lawson Speedway).
The “Year Without a Summer” also left other traces in the landscape. In the wake of the event, existing networks were extended and improved, and new roads were constructed across the Alps in order to facilitate transport of grain from Southern Europe in case of future famines. In general, the extension and the improvement of the road networks increased not only overall transport capacities, but also offered novel opportunities for trade over longer distances due to its higher reliability and regularity. Furthermore, the floods promoted an older plan by the engineer Johann Gottfried von Tulla to straighten the river Rhine between Basel and Worms. Yet another Tambora effect? Fig. 20. Rice fields on the island of Sumbawa in 1998 (photo by Lawson Speedway).
Fig. 21. High-water mark in Bregenz during the flooding of 1999, the highest lake level of the 20" century (the mark for 1817 should be ca. 5cm higher than indicated due to settling of the stone), 213 (photo Amt der Vorarlberger Landesregierung, Abteilung Wasserwirtschaft).
Fig. 21. High-water mark in Bregenz during the flooding of 1999, the highest lake level of the 20" century (the mark for 1817 should be ca. 5cm higher than indicated due to settling of the stone), 213 (photo Amt der Vorarlberger Landesregierung, Abteilung Wasserwirtschaft).
Fig. 22. Weymouth Bay with Approaching Storm. Painting by John Constable (1816), (photo Victoria and Albert Museum, London). Many authors argue that the 1815 Tambora eruption also affected European culture. Mary Shelley's “Frankenstein” (see box “How much of the Cold Summer of 1816 in Switzerland was due to Tambora?”), Lord Byron's poem “Darkness” or John William Polidori’s “The Vampyre” are then used as examples. Other examples are the sunset paintings by William Turner or John Constable's skies (Fig. 22). These may be famous models, but the effects on culture and society were generally more subtle. In the climate—society interaction model (see box above) cultural impacts are only a faint echo of the eruption of Mt. Tambora.
Fig. 22. Weymouth Bay with Approaching Storm. Painting by John Constable (1816), (photo Victoria and Albert Museum, London). Many authors argue that the 1815 Tambora eruption also affected European culture. Mary Shelley's “Frankenstein” (see box “How much of the Cold Summer of 1816 in Switzerland was due to Tambora?”), Lord Byron's poem “Darkness” or John William Polidori’s “The Vampyre” are then used as examples. Other examples are the sunset paintings by William Turner or John Constable's skies (Fig. 22). These may be famous models, but the effects on culture and society were generally more subtle. In the climate—society interaction model (see box above) cultural impacts are only a faint echo of the eruption of Mt. Tambora.
Fig. 23. Arrival of the first harvest waggons after the famine in Ravensburg on 4 August 1817 (Gouache by G. J. Edinger, 1817, photo Stadtarchiv Ravensburg).
Fig. 23. Arrival of the first harvest waggons after the famine in Ravensburg on 4 August 1817 (Gouache by G. J. Edinger, 1817, photo Stadtarchiv Ravensburg).
Fig. 24. Karl Drais’ walking machine (patent, 1817). The high prices for oat in the “Year Without a Summer” inspired Karl Drais to invent a “walking machine” without horses. This seemed to be a promising alternative in view of the increased costs for keeping and feeding horses. 2'6 Are the invention of the modern vampire stories or the draisine just some curiosities, o did Tambora really influence European culture? Again, it would be unwise to see the 1815 Tambora eruption as a major driver or rupture, but it would be equally unwise to completel neglect the “Year Without a Summer”.
Fig. 24. Karl Drais’ walking machine (patent, 1817). The high prices for oat in the “Year Without a Summer” inspired Karl Drais to invent a “walking machine” without horses. This seemed to be a promising alternative in view of the increased costs for keeping and feeding horses. 2'6 Are the invention of the modern vampire stories or the draisine just some curiosities, o did Tambora really influence European culture? Again, it would be unwise to see the 1815 Tambora eruption as a major driver or rupture, but it would be equally unwise to completel neglect the “Year Without a Summer”.
Fig. 25. The University of Hohenheim was founded as an agricultural institution in 1818 as a reaction to the famine of 1817, (photo by Eric. A. Lichtenscheidt, Universitat Hohenheim).
Fig. 25. The University of Hohenheim was founded as an agricultural institution in 1818 as a reaction to the famine of 1817, (photo by Eric. A. Lichtenscheidt, Universitat Hohenheim).
Interestingly, although the Tambora eruption was reported, the link between the bad weath-
Interestingly, although the Tambora eruption was reported, the link between the bad weath-
Fig. 26. (left) Temperature at 850 hPa (colours) and geopotential height at 500 hPa and (right) precipitation (colours), 850hPa wind (arrows) and vertical motion (Pa/s, negative means upward, only contours -0.2, -0.3 and -0.4 are shown) on 29 July 1816, 18 UTC in the “Twentieth Century Reanalysis” (ensemble mean).
Fig. 26. (left) Temperature at 850 hPa (colours) and geopotential height at 500 hPa and (right) precipitation (colours), 850hPa wind (arrows) and vertical motion (Pa/s, negative means upward, only contours -0.2, -0.3 and -0.4 are shown) on 29 July 1816, 18 UTC in the “Twentieth Century Reanalysis” (ensemble mean).
Fig. 27. Schematic map of the impacts of the 1815 Tambora eruption (blue: climate effects, green: biophysical effects, or- ange: socio-political or economic effects). It is clear that all these effects must be analysed in their own, specific contexts. Most likely, other factors were at least as important. However, when adding them up, a truly global picture emerges, which coincides with other ongoing societal changes. So, whether or not Tambora was the cause, the world was different after 1815.
Fig. 27. Schematic map of the impacts of the 1815 Tambora eruption (blue: climate effects, green: biophysical effects, or- ange: socio-political or economic effects). It is clear that all these effects must be analysed in their own, specific contexts. Most likely, other factors were at least as important. However, when adding them up, a truly global picture emerges, which coincides with other ongoing societal changes. So, whether or not Tambora was the cause, the world was different after 1815.
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