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during excavations, in contrast with elsewhere in the world. Much of the archaeological research conducted in this country into the material culture of the Early Modern period has had at its heart the question of whether the inhabitants of the location examined were rich or poor. Specific categories of finds such as porcelain function here as indicators of status.5 Issues such as fashion and the related question of taste, the popularization of articles, and also the emergence and the diffusion to wider circles of customs such Much has been written about the role played by the Dutch in the early 17-century Chinese porcelain trade from an (art)historical point of view." Central to this is the role that the Westerners played in the manufacture and great popularity of so-called Kraak porcelain.’ Relatively little attention, however, has up until now been given to this area of research from an archaeological angle.? Shipwrecks with cargoes of porcelain have contributed to a better dating of consecutive styles. However, in the Netherlands very little research has been done on porcelain found Fig.1 Group of finds of Jingdezher porcelain from a cesspit of a building on the Oudezijds Voorburgwal in Amsterdam in use between 1600 and 1625. Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen Rotterdam, on loan from Stichting Het Nederlandse Gebruiksvoorwerp, photo: Rob Roedema.

Figure 1 during excavations, in contrast with elsewhere in the world. Much of the archaeological research conducted in this country into the material culture of the Early Modern period has had at its heart the question of whether the inhabitants of the location examined were rich or poor. Specific categories of finds such as porcelain function here as indicators of status.5 Issues such as fashion and the related question of taste, the popularization of articles, and also the emergence and the diffusion to wider circles of customs such Much has been written about the role played by the Dutch in the early 17-century Chinese porcelain trade from an (art)historical point of view." Central to this is the role that the Westerners played in the manufacture and great popularity of so-called Kraak porcelain.’ Relatively little attention, however, has up until now been given to this area of research from an archaeological angle.? Shipwrecks with cargoes of porcelain have contributed to a better dating of consecutive styles. However, in the Netherlands very little research has been done on porcelain found Fig.1 Group of finds of Jingdezher porcelain from a cesspit of a building on the Oudezijds Voorburgwal in Amsterdam in use between 1600 and 1625. Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen Rotterdam, on loan from Stichting Het Nederlandse Gebruiksvoorwerp, photo: Rob Roedema.

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Things (the standard Chinese ornaments of pearl, coin, lozenge, mirror, music stone, rhinoceros horns, book and artemesia leaves), alternating with knots of flanking flowers. They appeared in Enkhuizen from a landfill layer datable on a historical basis to before 1591.53 On the centre of the plate a bird sitting on a blossom branch is just visible. Plates with a comparable border decoration often have a feng huang standing in a garden in the centre. This depiction also appears on plates on which the edge has a successional band of ruyi, although other central depictions do appear. The border of such a plate with a successional band of ruyi appeared from the Damrak during the building of the Amsterdam North-South line. Both plates are also dateable to the 1570s or 1580s. A possibly slightly younger plate that was dug up from a 17"-century cesspit on the Amsterdam Waterlooplein is decorated with a deer and a monkey in a landscape. On the reverse a border decoration is visible. Comparable plates are known from, among others, the excavation of Hachioji Castle, near Tokyo, which was destroyed in 1590.% This castle also yielded various examples of comparable dishes on which a chilong is painted.55 An example that seamlessly fits in with this group came to light in Enkhuizen. One last find from a probable pre-VOC historical context is a bowl dug up in Hoorn, painted both inside and out with a scene of dignitaries, and bearing a seal mark underneath. The bowl was found in an ash pit dating from the first decades of the 17 century. The decoration on the bowl is similar to, among others, the decoration of some finds from Santa Elena. In 1602 the VOC was founded. They arranged auctions in 1602 and 1604 at which porcelain captured by the VOC from Portuguese ships came under the hammer in Holland and Zeeland. Although it would be most useful to be able to identify the porcelain sold in these first auctions, there are no pieces that can instantly be connected. However, there are a few pieces that come close. This is true for instance for a few finds, including plates and bowls from this period, from the historic city centre of Middelburg (Figs. 6 and 7). Plates comparable to Fig. 6 are encountered in the cargo of the Spanish galleon San Diego, which sank in 1600 off the coast of Manila.*° For the bowl (Fig. 7) we find a parallel in the collection of the Topkapi Palace Museum.» The depiction of a bird on a rock on the inside of this bowl also allows comparison with the shard from the aforementioned pre-1597 landfill layer from the Waterlooplein. It is tempting to believe that the early dating of the finds, in combination with the location in Middelburg, might mean that we are dealing with objects from the Portuguese carrack San Jago, even though there is no proof of this.
Things (the standard Chinese ornaments of pearl, coin, lozenge, mirror, music stone, rhinoceros horns, book and artemesia leaves), alternating with knots of flanking flowers. They appeared in Enkhuizen from a landfill layer datable on a historical basis to before 1591.53 On the centre of the plate a bird sitting on a blossom branch is just visible. Plates with a comparable border decoration often have a feng huang standing in a garden in the centre. This depiction also appears on plates on which the edge has a successional band of ruyi, although other central depictions do appear. The border of such a plate with a successional band of ruyi appeared from the Damrak during the building of the Amsterdam North-South line. Both plates are also dateable to the 1570s or 1580s. A possibly slightly younger plate that was dug up from a 17"-century cesspit on the Amsterdam Waterlooplein is decorated with a deer and a monkey in a landscape. On the reverse a border decoration is visible. Comparable plates are known from, among others, the excavation of Hachioji Castle, near Tokyo, which was destroyed in 1590.% This castle also yielded various examples of comparable dishes on which a chilong is painted.55 An example that seamlessly fits in with this group came to light in Enkhuizen. One last find from a probable pre-VOC historical context is a bowl dug up in Hoorn, painted both inside and out with a scene of dignitaries, and bearing a seal mark underneath. The bowl was found in an ash pit dating from the first decades of the 17 century. The decoration on the bowl is similar to, among others, the decoration of some finds from Santa Elena. In 1602 the VOC was founded. They arranged auctions in 1602 and 1604 at which porcelain captured by the VOC from Portuguese ships came under the hammer in Holland and Zeeland. Although it would be most useful to be able to identify the porcelain sold in these first auctions, there are no pieces that can instantly be connected. However, there are a few pieces that come close. This is true for instance for a few finds, including plates and bowls from this period, from the historic city centre of Middelburg (Figs. 6 and 7). Plates comparable to Fig. 6 are encountered in the cargo of the Spanish galleon San Diego, which sank in 1600 off the coast of Manila.*° For the bowl (Fig. 7) we find a parallel in the collection of the Topkapi Palace Museum.» The depiction of a bird on a rock on the inside of this bowl also allows comparison with the shard from the aforementioned pre-1597 landfill layer from the Waterlooplein. It is tempting to believe that the early dating of the finds, in combination with the location in Middelburg, might mean that we are dealing with objects from the Portuguese carrack San Jago, even though there is no proof of this.
a cover on which flying horses between leaf scrolls are painted. A much coarser piece is a bowl with a flower rosette that was probably intended for drinking wine out of. A slightly larger bowl with a highly stylised decoration of what is sometimes described as a frog belongs among the Zhangzhou wares. It demonstrates that these coarse products also found their way to the rich Amsterdam citizens.
a cover on which flying horses between leaf scrolls are painted. A much coarser piece is a bowl with a flower rosette that was probably intended for drinking wine out of. A slightly larger bowl with a highly stylised decoration of what is sometimes described as a frog belongs among the Zhangzhou wares. It demonstrates that these coarse products also found their way to the rich Amsterdam citizens.
of which, Judging from the grey colour of the glaze, is probably Zhangzhou ware, completes the whole. Abraham’s porcelain possessions comprised for the rest what were at the time relatively cheap pieces. Large plates and bowls are entirely lacking, although of course this does not mean that they had no place in his estate. Perhaps such objects had a decorative function, and only functional wares ended up in the cesspit. However, in a few other Alkmaar find contexts from the same period we do find (shards of) larger plates. It seems as if almost everyone in Alkmaar could afford a bowl or a dish, but that the (daily) use of larger plates and bowls perhaps remained restricted to a relatively small group. This porcelain is very likely to have come from Amsterdam. The usual porcelain also arrived in the West Friesian coastal towns of Hoorn and Enkhuizen. There it was immediately commandeered by the VOC and auctioned. Strikingly enough, hardly any porcelain is to be found in the ditches and ash pits of the grounds of the farms outside these towns, even though the surrounding villages are famous for their rich archaeological heritage Orher exotic imnorts | re See © ees © an Eis en ainda © haa and Italy, are commonly found here.” Porcelain, however, is almost entirely absent. Some beautiful examples are the finds on a property in the village centre of Grootebroek. A ditch filling on a property near the church produced a number of imports from North Germany, France, Italy and Portugal, a few pieces of which are exceptional for the Netherlands.?3 The only piece of porcelain found in this context, however, is a simple bowl of no special quality. Perhaps porcelain was present here, but was only cherished as decorative objects, or perhaps people’s need for luxury goods had already been fulfilled within their own trading network. The majority of the imports appear after all to be the result of peoples own travel and exchange networks, and precisely these sorts of imports are the ones that are almost completely absent from a town such as Alkmaar. All in all it seems as if early 17"-century porcelain possession was more a part of town culture than country culture. However, more research, particularly into country contexts, is necessary before a more grounded pronouncement can be made.
of which, Judging from the grey colour of the glaze, is probably Zhangzhou ware, completes the whole. Abraham’s porcelain possessions comprised for the rest what were at the time relatively cheap pieces. Large plates and bowls are entirely lacking, although of course this does not mean that they had no place in his estate. Perhaps such objects had a decorative function, and only functional wares ended up in the cesspit. However, in a few other Alkmaar find contexts from the same period we do find (shards of) larger plates. It seems as if almost everyone in Alkmaar could afford a bowl or a dish, but that the (daily) use of larger plates and bowls perhaps remained restricted to a relatively small group. This porcelain is very likely to have come from Amsterdam. The usual porcelain also arrived in the West Friesian coastal towns of Hoorn and Enkhuizen. There it was immediately commandeered by the VOC and auctioned. Strikingly enough, hardly any porcelain is to be found in the ditches and ash pits of the grounds of the farms outside these towns, even though the surrounding villages are famous for their rich archaeological heritage Orher exotic imnorts | re See © ees © an Eis en ainda © haa and Italy, are commonly found here.” Porcelain, however, is almost entirely absent. Some beautiful examples are the finds on a property in the village centre of Grootebroek. A ditch filling on a property near the church produced a number of imports from North Germany, France, Italy and Portugal, a few pieces of which are exceptional for the Netherlands.?3 The only piece of porcelain found in this context, however, is a simple bowl of no special quality. Perhaps porcelain was present here, but was only cherished as decorative objects, or perhaps people’s need for luxury goods had already been fulfilled within their own trading network. The majority of the imports appear after all to be the result of peoples own travel and exchange networks, and precisely these sorts of imports are the ones that are almost completely absent from a town such as Alkmaar. All in all it seems as if early 17"-century porcelain possession was more a part of town culture than country culture. However, more research, particularly into country contexts, is necessary before a more grounded pronouncement can be made.
The plate with relief decoration and scratched flower brings us nevertheless to another interesting consideration. In the collection of the Topkapi Palace Museum in Istanbul we find an identical plate, which was once set with precious stones, applied
The plate with relief decoration and scratched flower brings us nevertheless to another interesting consideration. In the collection of the Topkapi Palace Museum in Istanbul we find an identical plate, which was once set with precious stones, applied
find complex (rst half of the 17 century) must have arrived in the Netherlands during this period. This is most interesting, because it is generally accepted that the VOC only began importing Japanese porcelain in the middle of the 17" century as a supplement to or replacement for Chinese porcelain. Virtually all the Japanese porcelain found in the Netherlands to date is from after 1650. The earliest imports have been without exception underglaze-blue decorated porcelain, which is more or less a direct imitation of Chinese Kraak ware. However, the plate found in Vlissingen is totally different. Only the reverse is painted in underglaze blue, with a scroll decoration and an imitation seal mark. The front is decorated in polychrome overglaze enamels. This means that the plate has undergone a second firing, during which the colours are ‘burned’ at a lower temperature. The decoration fits with the tradition of the late Ming porcelain popular in the first half of the 17" century. Although the modelling of the plate is typical for Kutani products, this is also derived from Chinese export porcelain. The finding of such a plate ina cesspit in Vlissingen is unique in several ways. It is, as far as we know, the earliest archaeological find of Japanese porcelain in Dutch soil. In addition, Kutani porcelain was not intended for export but for the elite connected with the shogunate 1n japan, where It had a mostly ritual function. It is possible that this was a gift from a Japanese nobleman or merchant to a high-raking VOC functionary. However, there is also another possibility imaginable. Before the VOC began to trade in Japanese porcelain in 1659, there was already an extensive private trade. Functionaries of the VOC sold porcelain to Batavia from the Dutch factory on Deshima (Nagasaki), to fill the gap that appeared after the supply of Chinese porcelain came almost to a standstill.*5 Presumably, private trade in Japanese porcelain had already begun before the middle of the 17" century, and for this trade it was primarily the best quality porcelain that was in demand. The pieces of Kutani and early examples of Kakiemon that are present in Dutch and other European collections could well be the result of this trade. It has been suggested that an important role in the private trade was played by rich investors, such as the people who jointly funded the ships of (among others) the VOC fleet.®° After all, they had the money to finance this trade, and the profits were excellent. Whether it is a coincidence or not, the Kutani plates dug up in Vlissingen come from the cesspit of a building that belonged to Cornelis Lampsins (1600-1664), for some years Mayor of Vlissingen and a shareholder
find complex (rst half of the 17 century) must have arrived in the Netherlands during this period. This is most interesting, because it is generally accepted that the VOC only began importing Japanese porcelain in the middle of the 17" century as a supplement to or replacement for Chinese porcelain. Virtually all the Japanese porcelain found in the Netherlands to date is from after 1650. The earliest imports have been without exception underglaze-blue decorated porcelain, which is more or less a direct imitation of Chinese Kraak ware. However, the plate found in Vlissingen is totally different. Only the reverse is painted in underglaze blue, with a scroll decoration and an imitation seal mark. The front is decorated in polychrome overglaze enamels. This means that the plate has undergone a second firing, during which the colours are ‘burned’ at a lower temperature. The decoration fits with the tradition of the late Ming porcelain popular in the first half of the 17" century. Although the modelling of the plate is typical for Kutani products, this is also derived from Chinese export porcelain. The finding of such a plate ina cesspit in Vlissingen is unique in several ways. It is, as far as we know, the earliest archaeological find of Japanese porcelain in Dutch soil. In addition, Kutani porcelain was not intended for export but for the elite connected with the shogunate 1n japan, where It had a mostly ritual function. It is possible that this was a gift from a Japanese nobleman or merchant to a high-raking VOC functionary. However, there is also another possibility imaginable. Before the VOC began to trade in Japanese porcelain in 1659, there was already an extensive private trade. Functionaries of the VOC sold porcelain to Batavia from the Dutch factory on Deshima (Nagasaki), to fill the gap that appeared after the supply of Chinese porcelain came almost to a standstill.*5 Presumably, private trade in Japanese porcelain had already begun before the middle of the 17" century, and for this trade it was primarily the best quality porcelain that was in demand. The pieces of Kutani and early examples of Kakiemon that are present in Dutch and other European collections could well be the result of this trade. It has been suggested that an important role in the private trade was played by rich investors, such as the people who jointly funded the ships of (among others) the VOC fleet.®° After all, they had the money to finance this trade, and the profits were excellent. Whether it is a coincidence or not, the Kutani plates dug up in Vlissingen come from the cesspit of a building that belonged to Cornelis Lampsins (1600-1664), for some years Mayor of Vlissingen and a shareholder
Another group of finds stands midway between ship- wrecks and finds on land. In Drakes Bay in California two expeditions ran aground in 1579 and 1595 respec- tively: that of the English buccaneer Francis Drake (c.1540-1579) and the Portuguese explorer Sebastian Rodriguez Cermenio (c.1560-1602). Their ships the Golden Hinde and the San Agustin contained, among A large group of intact objects of Kraak porcelain emerged from the wreck of the Spanish galleon the San Diego, which sank in 1600 off the coast of the Philippines.%” It is noticeable that alongside Kraak porcelain of an often exceptionally high quality (Fig. 34) there is also much coarse Zhangzhou porcelain among the finds.°®
Another group of finds stands midway between ship- wrecks and finds on land. In Drakes Bay in California two expeditions ran aground in 1579 and 1595 respec- tively: that of the English buccaneer Francis Drake (c.1540-1579) and the Portuguese explorer Sebastian Rodriguez Cermenio (c.1560-1602). Their ships the Golden Hinde and the San Agustin contained, among A large group of intact objects of Kraak porcelain emerged from the wreck of the Spanish galleon the San Diego, which sank in 1600 off the coast of the Philippines.%” It is noticeable that alongside Kraak porcelain of an often exceptionally high quality (Fig. 34) there is also much coarse Zhangzhou porcelain among the finds.°®
in the bay known as the ‘Moluksche Reede’ when disaster struck.’ They ran into the reef off the west coast of Mauritius, near present-day Albion. The Banda foundered in front of the reef and the Geiinieerde Provincién struck the reef and was dragged over it. Two other ships of the fleet, the Delft and the Gelderland, ended up elsewhere along the coast of Mauritius. The Gelderland also sank, and only the Delft survived the storm and set sail for home. Although the Gelderland thus also foundered, part of its cargo was rescued by the Delft. During a diving expedition in the 1970s, part of the porcelain cargo of the Banda was salvaged." In 1981 Dumas published all the pieces that were found in the Banda, but the remaining material has not been described. The most important finds published by Dumas found their way to the National Historical Naval Museum in Mahébourg, Mauritius.“° The collection there consists of plates, klapmutsen, drinking bowls and so-called pimpeltjes (Fig. 36). One cup, one flask and one bowl are unique among the finds. The published proportion is however so scant that it certainly does not provide a representative image of the total cargo.™ The finds from the Getinieerde Provincién consist exclusively of shards. Fig. 36 Group of Jingdezhen porcelain finds from the shipwreck of the VOC ship the Banda. China, c.1615. National Historical Naval Museum in Mahébourg, Mauritius, photo: Pieter Floore. I II IID EEE EEE IEEE IE DD In 1615, a hurricane caused almost the entire return fleet of the VOC, under the leadership of Pieter Both, to run aground off the coast of Mauritius. On the way back from Batavia to the Republic, two ships, the Banda and the Geiinieerde Provincién, were at anchor
in the bay known as the ‘Moluksche Reede’ when disaster struck.’ They ran into the reef off the west coast of Mauritius, near present-day Albion. The Banda foundered in front of the reef and the Geiinieerde Provincién struck the reef and was dragged over it. Two other ships of the fleet, the Delft and the Gelderland, ended up elsewhere along the coast of Mauritius. The Gelderland also sank, and only the Delft survived the storm and set sail for home. Although the Gelderland thus also foundered, part of its cargo was rescued by the Delft. During a diving expedition in the 1970s, part of the porcelain cargo of the Banda was salvaged." In 1981 Dumas published all the pieces that were found in the Banda, but the remaining material has not been described. The most important finds published by Dumas found their way to the National Historical Naval Museum in Mahébourg, Mauritius.“° The collection there consists of plates, klapmutsen, drinking bowls and so-called pimpeltjes (Fig. 36). One cup, one flask and one bowl are unique among the finds. The published proportion is however so scant that it certainly does not provide a representative image of the total cargo.™ The finds from the Getinieerde Provincién consist exclusively of shards. Fig. 36 Group of Jingdezhen porcelain finds from the shipwreck of the VOC ship the Banda. China, c.1615. National Historical Naval Museum in Mahébourg, Mauritius, photo: Pieter Floore. I II IID EEE EEE IEEE IE DD In 1615, a hurricane caused almost the entire return fleet of the VOC, under the leadership of Pieter Both, to run aground off the coast of Mauritius. On the way back from Batavia to the Republic, two ships, the Banda and the Geiinieerde Provincién, were at anchor
re-excavated, it is almost impossible to attribute the porcelain finds from this research with any certainty to the Avondster. Among the few pieces of porcelain attributed to the wreck we find both Chinese and Japanese export porcelain. In the finds catalogue of the recent publication about this ship we find a wide variety of objects, dating from the 17" to the 19" century. All these finds are related by the excavators to this wreck, and on the basis of this dated to around 1659." Fig. 37 Porcelain shards from the shipwreck of the VOC ship the Geiinieerde Provincién washed up in 2002 (among other times) on the west coast of Mauritius, close to present- day Albion. Photo: Pieter Floore.
re-excavated, it is almost impossible to attribute the porcelain finds from this research with any certainty to the Avondster. Among the few pieces of porcelain attributed to the wreck we find both Chinese and Japanese export porcelain. In the finds catalogue of the recent publication about this ship we find a wide variety of objects, dating from the 17" to the 19" century. All these finds are related by the excavators to this wreck, and on the basis of this dated to around 1659." Fig. 37 Porcelain shards from the shipwreck of the VOC ship the Geiinieerde Provincién washed up in 2002 (among other times) on the west coast of Mauritius, close to present- day Albion. Photo: Pieter Floore.
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Maritime ArchaeologyHistorical ArchaeologyCeramics (Art History)Ceramics (Archaeology)Post-Medieval Archaeology
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