Academia.eduAcademia.edu

Figure 50 – uploaded by Cecilia Gañán de Molina

See full PDFdownloadDownload figure
Figure A3.3. Directions of governance processes addressed in different NbS approaches in the reviewed NbS studies (N=199).

Figure 50 A3.3. Directions of governance processes addressed in different NbS approaches in the reviewed NbS studies (N=199).

Related Figures (72)

Editorial Design: Mira Antonijevic, ? www.jutro-design.de
Editorial Design: Mira Antonijevic, ? www.jutro-design.de
Scenic views from the island El Hierro, Canary Islands, Spain To the Eklipse research assistant, Olga Ivlieva, thank you for your assistance with different tasks during our research.
Scenic views from the island El Hierro, Canary Islands, Spain To the Eklipse research assistant, Olga Ivlieva, thank you for your assistance with different tasks during our research.
Sunrise with steam rising from the sea, North sea, Norway
Sunrise with steam rising from the sea, North sea, Norway
The EmpowerUs project selected six LLs situated across Europe: 1. Connemara, Ireland; 2. Traena, Lofoten, Norway; 3. Aland Islands, Finland; 4. Burgas, Bulgaria; 5. East Limassol, Cyprus; and 6. Cap de Creus, Spain (Figure 1).
The EmpowerUs project selected six LLs situated across Europe: 1. Connemara, Ireland; 2. Traena, Lofoten, Norway; 3. Aland Islands, Finland; 4. Burgas, Bulgaria; 5. East Limassol, Cyprus; and 6. Cap de Creus, Spain (Figure 1).
Living Labs (LLs) are real life testing environments, which enable using a city or region as a test-bed to co-create and prototype solutions through effective stakeholder collaboration. They focus on co-designing and scaling-up innovations, providing joint-value to the involved stakeholders. LL facilitate engagement amongst different sections of society, including citi- zens, research organisations, companies, and government agencies. While various LLs share common traits such as co-creation, real-life settings, multi-stakeholder participation, they also exhibit different implementations of these characteristics, based on user-needs and local con- texts (Kumer et al., 2022). Implementing NbS in LL settings has been playing key role in capacity-building community-led initiatives, and city planning, in order to build resilience in coastal European cities (Kumer et al., 2022; Aniche et al., 2024, Bradley and Mahmoud, 2024, reviewed by Tiwari et al., 2023). EU projects such as VITALISE, coordinated by the European Network of Living Labs (ENOLL), SCORE, & URBANET or #& UNALAB have found a positive relationship between LL and en- hanced coastal resilience, increased public health, and empowerment (see e.g. Bernaerts et al., 2022).
Living Labs (LLs) are real life testing environments, which enable using a city or region as a test-bed to co-create and prototype solutions through effective stakeholder collaboration. They focus on co-designing and scaling-up innovations, providing joint-value to the involved stakeholders. LL facilitate engagement amongst different sections of society, including citi- zens, research organisations, companies, and government agencies. While various LLs share common traits such as co-creation, real-life settings, multi-stakeholder participation, they also exhibit different implementations of these characteristics, based on user-needs and local con- texts (Kumer et al., 2022). Implementing NbS in LL settings has been playing key role in capacity-building community-led initiatives, and city planning, in order to build resilience in coastal European cities (Kumer et al., 2022; Aniche et al., 2024, Bradley and Mahmoud, 2024, reviewed by Tiwari et al., 2023). EU projects such as VITALISE, coordinated by the European Network of Living Labs (ENOLL), SCORE, & URBANET or #& UNALAB have found a positive relationship between LL and en- hanced coastal resilience, increased public health, and empowerment (see e.g. Bernaerts et al., 2022).
Scoping phase
Scoping phase
Figure 3. Members of the Expert Working Group on Nature-based Solutions and community Empowerment Tools.
Figure 3. Members of the Expert Working Group on Nature-based Solutions and community Empowerment Tools.
The lagoon system of the Ria Formosa (south Portugal) offering protection to the main cities Boat anchored in a seagrass meadow, Culatra Island, Ria Formosa lagoon (Portugal) Originally, two general objectives were foreseen to answer this request; with the second objective aiming to “provide inclusive and participative decision-support tools and community engagement scenarios to facilitate the co-creation process of Tailored Empowerment Programs (TEP) for each TCL’. However, following a meeting in September 2023 in Belfast (Northern Ireland, UK) with the EmpowerUs project consortium, it was decided that only one general objective would be needed.
The lagoon system of the Ria Formosa (south Portugal) offering protection to the main cities Boat anchored in a seagrass meadow, Culatra Island, Ria Formosa lagoon (Portugal) Originally, two general objectives were foreseen to answer this request; with the second objective aiming to “provide inclusive and participative decision-support tools and community engagement scenarios to facilitate the co-creation process of Tailored Empowerment Programs (TEP) for each TCL’. However, following a meeting in September 2023 in Belfast (Northern Ireland, UK) with the EmpowerUs project consortium, it was decided that only one general objective would be needed.
Figure 4. International Association for Public Participation (IAP2)’s spectrum (IAP2 International Federation. 2018) used to assign different levels of stakeholder/community engagement to the interventions found ir publications screened during this literature review. IAP2’s Spectrum of Public Participation was designed to assist with the selection of the level of participation that defines th public’s role in any public participation process. The Spectrum is used internationally, and it is found in public participation plans around the world.
Figure 4. International Association for Public Participation (IAP2)’s spectrum (IAP2 International Federation. 2018) used to assign different levels of stakeholder/community engagement to the interventions found ir publications screened during this literature review. IAP2’s Spectrum of Public Participation was designed to assist with the selection of the level of participation that defines th public’s role in any public participation process. The Spectrum is used internationally, and it is found in public participation plans around the world.
Scenic view of coastal houses during sunrise, Alicante, Spain A Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA) was chosen as the most effective and efficient literature- based method to provide a streamlined and focused review of the existing evidence on NbS, ET, and their contributions to coastal resilience. A comprehensive understanding of the current state of evidence in this domain will furnish coastal communities, as well as the EmpowerUs project, with well-informed conclusions, and recommendations to install solid interventions in their TCLs and other coastal LLs. A more detailed connection between objectives and the implementation of the method can be found in Table 1 and in Figure 5 below. 3 MAGICKS is an open-source, interactive decision support tool developed by Eklipse that draws on the work of the MEG in collating and classify- ing methods. It is suitable for use in a variety of policy and management settings. It is accessible on: https://ksm-eklipse.shinyapps.io/MAGICKS/
Scenic view of coastal houses during sunrise, Alicante, Spain A Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA) was chosen as the most effective and efficient literature- based method to provide a streamlined and focused review of the existing evidence on NbS, ET, and their contributions to coastal resilience. A comprehensive understanding of the current state of evidence in this domain will furnish coastal communities, as well as the EmpowerUs project, with well-informed conclusions, and recommendations to install solid interventions in their TCLs and other coastal LLs. A more detailed connection between objectives and the implementation of the method can be found in Table 1 and in Figure 5 below. 3 MAGICKS is an open-source, interactive decision support tool developed by Eklipse that draws on the work of the MEG in collating and classify- ing methods. It is suitable for use in a variety of policy and management settings. It is accessible on: https://ksm-eklipse.shinyapps.io/MAGICKS/
Table 1. Relationships between the request objectives and proposed implementation of the knowledge synthesis method.
Table 1. Relationships between the request objectives and proposed implementation of the knowledge synthesis method.
Figure 5. Conceptual framework linking Nature-based Solutions (NbS) and Empowerment Tools (ET) fol coastal resilience in relation to the objectives of this report.
Figure 5. Conceptual framework linking Nature-based Solutions (NbS) and Empowerment Tools (ET) fol coastal resilience in relation to the objectives of this report.
Table 2. List of keywords used for structured searches in the two academic databases (Web of Science and Scopus) and Google. Although the term “Nature-based Solutions” was only coined in 2016 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the focus of the search were studies documenting the application of different types of ecosystem-related approaches under the umbrella term of NbS, in which the concepts of ecosystem services and social-ecological systems are operationalised into practice. Thus, to increase the breadth of the evidence, all articles published after the year 2012 were included. This was the first year after the completion of the UK National Ecosystem Assessment (NEA), one of the most complete NEAs in Europe (Schroter et al., 2016), and the first year of full economic recovery among major economies (UN, 2012). For the scientific literature, articles, reviews, book chapters and conference proceedings were considered for searches. For the grey literature, the search included reports, briefs, white papers, dissertations, guidelines and other documents from government/intergovernmental organisations, NGOs, research institutions, among others. All records underwent thorough checks to prevent duplicate entries and reduce bias. They were then evaluated for relevance using a PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome) framework or topic statement (see Liberati et al., 2009). Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the focus of the search were studies documenting the application Additionally, in the case of WoS, Scopus and Google, other keywords relating to the main terms (e.g., synonyms, elements within terms) were added to the search query (connected by ‘OR’ to the main term) to increase the breadth of the evidence (see Table 2; Annex la; Annex 1b), while for the other grey literature repositories, we only used the basic search string or modifications depending on the specificity and sensitivity of the scoping search (Annex 1b). The final selection and number of keywords was chosen to ensure records remain relevant and manageable to analyse in the timeframe provided by the requester.
Table 2. List of keywords used for structured searches in the two academic databases (Web of Science and Scopus) and Google. Although the term “Nature-based Solutions” was only coined in 2016 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the focus of the search were studies documenting the application of different types of ecosystem-related approaches under the umbrella term of NbS, in which the concepts of ecosystem services and social-ecological systems are operationalised into practice. Thus, to increase the breadth of the evidence, all articles published after the year 2012 were included. This was the first year after the completion of the UK National Ecosystem Assessment (NEA), one of the most complete NEAs in Europe (Schroter et al., 2016), and the first year of full economic recovery among major economies (UN, 2012). For the scientific literature, articles, reviews, book chapters and conference proceedings were considered for searches. For the grey literature, the search included reports, briefs, white papers, dissertations, guidelines and other documents from government/intergovernmental organisations, NGOs, research institutions, among others. All records underwent thorough checks to prevent duplicate entries and reduce bias. They were then evaluated for relevance using a PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome) framework or topic statement (see Liberati et al., 2009). Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the focus of the search were studies documenting the application Additionally, in the case of WoS, Scopus and Google, other keywords relating to the main terms (e.g., synonyms, elements within terms) were added to the search query (connected by ‘OR’ to the main term) to increase the breadth of the evidence (see Table 2; Annex la; Annex 1b), while for the other grey literature repositories, we only used the basic search string or modifications depending on the specificity and sensitivity of the scoping search (Annex 1b). The final selection and number of keywords was chosen to ensure records remain relevant and manageable to analyse in the timeframe provided by the requester.
Figure 6. Flow schemes depicting an overview of the screening process (from 6/2023 - 12/2023) of the literature, following the PRISMA protocol (Liberati et al., 2009). in the final dataset comprising a total of 218 items for analysis. During the second phase, 336 scientific records were screened out based on abstract relevance, with an additional 16 records excluded for other various reasons in the third phase (e.g., lack of full document accessibility), resulting in 202 studies selected for data extraction and synthesis in the fourth phase. In contrast, due to the absence of abstracts in many grey literature documents, a full-text screening was directly undertaken (third phase), culminating in the inclusion of 16 records in the final dataset comprising a total of 218 items for analysis.
Figure 6. Flow schemes depicting an overview of the screening process (from 6/2023 - 12/2023) of the literature, following the PRISMA protocol (Liberati et al., 2009). in the final dataset comprising a total of 218 items for analysis. During the second phase, 336 scientific records were screened out based on abstract relevance, with an additional 16 records excluded for other various reasons in the third phase (e.g., lack of full document accessibility), resulting in 202 studies selected for data extraction and synthesis in the fourth phase. In contrast, due to the absence of abstracts in many grey literature documents, a full-text screening was directly undertaken (third phase), culminating in the inclusion of 16 records in the final dataset comprising a total of 218 items for analysis.
Figure 7. Evolution of publication numbers linked to NbS and ET in coastal communities from 2011 to June 2025 Since 2012, 218 relevant studies have been published on these topics. Notably, there was a significant surge in publications on the topic observed in 2017. Despite a slight dip in 2020, the peak occurred in 2022, with 41 studies addressing. The decline in 2023 can be attributed to the timing of the literature search conducted in June 2023, as numerous annual publications may not have been released at that point (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Evolution of publication numbers linked to NbS and ET in coastal communities from 2011 to June 2025 Since 2012, 218 relevant studies have been published on these topics. Notably, there was a significant surge in publications on the topic observed in 2017. Despite a slight dip in 2020, the peak occurred in 2022, with 41 studies addressing. The decline in 2023 can be attributed to the timing of the literature search conducted in June 2023, as numerous annual publications may not have been released at that point (Figure 7).
Figure 8. Overview of the study types/methodological approaches used in publications related to NbS ano ET for coastal resilience. All examined studies underwent analysis based on their study type and methodologica approaches. The majority of records (82%) comprised empirical research (178 publications in total). Within this category, 59 studies (27%) presented case studies devoid of statistical methods while 39 publications (18%) from the social sciences utilised interviews, ethnography, or other socio-cultural approaches. Additionally, 36 studies (17%) included measurements/observations. typically for biophysical and/or economic variables, whereas 22 studies (10%) developed and applied modelling techniques. A smaller subset, comprising 14 studies (6%), adopted ar experiential setting. Surveys, primarily for economic analysis, were the least common amonc the empirical studies, with 8 applications (4%) (Figure 8). Moreover, 63 studies (29%) employec extensive literature review approaches, whereas conceptual studies were the least prevalent amounting to 32 studies (15%) (Figure 8). Several publications comprised other types of studies (N=27, 12%), as some did not comprise research outputs (e.g., some grey literature documents). Furthermore, many publications combined methodological approaches, averaging 1.4 approaches per publication. per publication.
Figure 8. Overview of the study types/methodological approaches used in publications related to NbS ano ET for coastal resilience. All examined studies underwent analysis based on their study type and methodologica approaches. The majority of records (82%) comprised empirical research (178 publications in total). Within this category, 59 studies (27%) presented case studies devoid of statistical methods while 39 publications (18%) from the social sciences utilised interviews, ethnography, or other socio-cultural approaches. Additionally, 36 studies (17%) included measurements/observations. typically for biophysical and/or economic variables, whereas 22 studies (10%) developed and applied modelling techniques. A smaller subset, comprising 14 studies (6%), adopted ar experiential setting. Surveys, primarily for economic analysis, were the least common amonc the empirical studies, with 8 applications (4%) (Figure 8). Moreover, 63 studies (29%) employec extensive literature review approaches, whereas conceptual studies were the least prevalent amounting to 32 studies (15%) (Figure 8). Several publications comprised other types of studies (N=27, 12%), as some did not comprise research outputs (e.g., some grey literature documents). Furthermore, many publications combined methodological approaches, averaging 1.4 approaches per publication. per publication.
Figure 9. Distribution of studies assessed (N=218) in relation to topics covered: NbS only, ET only or NBS+E7
Figure 9. Distribution of studies assessed (N=218) in relation to topics covered: NbS only, ET only or NBS+E7
Figure 10. Overview of the ecosystem types addressed in NbS and ET studies for coastal resilience. Coastal ecosystems (69%; N=150) were dominantly represented in studies, followed by marine ecosystems (37%, N=80), urban ecosystems’ (30%; N=66), and wetlands (18%; N=29; Figure 11). The most frequent combination of ecosystems were coastal and marine ecosystems (N=62), coastal and urban ecosystems (N=44), and coastal and wetland ecosystems (N=24). Other ecosystem types (9%; N= 20; Figure 11) found in the literature comprised rivers, or aquatic ecosystems, multiple ecosystems, or all ecosystems without distinction. Studies focusing only on ET (without NbS co-implementation) addressed only coastal, urban, marine, wetland, lakes, and other ecosystem types (Figure 10).
Figure 10. Overview of the ecosystem types addressed in NbS and ET studies for coastal resilience. Coastal ecosystems (69%; N=150) were dominantly represented in studies, followed by marine ecosystems (37%, N=80), urban ecosystems’ (30%; N=66), and wetlands (18%; N=29; Figure 11). The most frequent combination of ecosystems were coastal and marine ecosystems (N=62), coastal and urban ecosystems (N=44), and coastal and wetland ecosystems (N=24). Other ecosystem types (9%; N= 20; Figure 11) found in the literature comprised rivers, or aquatic ecosystems, multiple ecosystems, or all ecosystems without distinction. Studies focusing only on ET (without NbS co-implementation) addressed only coastal, urban, marine, wetland, lakes, and other ecosystem types (Figure 10).
Figure 11. Overview of the scale of assessments related to NbS and ET for coastal resilience.
Figure 11. Overview of the scale of assessments related to NbS and ET for coastal resilience.
Figure 12. Overview of the countries of interventions related to NbS and ET for coastal resilience. Color is relative to the number of records found for that specific country. Other studies representing supranational scales (e.g., multiple countries, Europe, Baltic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, global) are not depicted here.
Figure 12. Overview of the countries of interventions related to NbS and ET for coastal resilience. Color is relative to the number of records found for that specific country. Other studies representing supranational scales (e.g., multiple countries, Europe, Baltic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, global) are not depicted here.
Figure 13. Distribution of studies according to the type of addressed resilience. The approaches to define resilience on social ecological terms tend to follow common patterns and take on board a variety of terms such as disturbance, systems, function, ability, capacity, or change. The approaches to define resilience on social ecological terms tend to follow common patterns
Figure 13. Distribution of studies according to the type of addressed resilience. The approaches to define resilience on social ecological terms tend to follow common patterns and take on board a variety of terms such as disturbance, systems, function, ability, capacity, or change. The approaches to define resilience on social ecological terms tend to follow common patterns
Figure 14. (A) Number of studies reporting different NbS approaches for the NbS literature (N=199) and for NbS+ET literature (N=132). (B) Other categories considered as NbS approaches; other categories (in %) include studies describing infrastructure implementations, specific conservation measures, planning studies (before NbS implementation), specific decision-making initiatives on NbS and application of combined approaches.
Figure 14. (A) Number of studies reporting different NbS approaches for the NbS literature (N=199) and for NbS+ET literature (N=132). (B) Other categories considered as NbS approaches; other categories (in %) include studies describing infrastructure implementations, specific conservation measures, planning studies (before NbS implementation), specific decision-making initiatives on NbS and application of combined approaches.
restoration) can protect vulnerable communities from increasing coastal climate risks. Figure 15. Prevailing global societal challenges addressed in the reviewed NbS (N=199) and NbS+ET studies (N=132
restoration) can protect vulnerable communities from increasing coastal climate risks. Figure 15. Prevailing global societal challenges addressed in the reviewed NbS (N=199) and NbS+ET studies (N=132
Figure 16. Levels of stakeholder engagement achieved in the reviewed NbS (N=199) and NbS+ET literature (N=132). Furthermore, evidence of co-creation was revealed in only 41 NbS studies (21%), from which 40 co-demonstrated the application of ET. Robinson et al. (2020) demonstrated the effectiveness of structured decision making in facilitating EbM for range extending species like the long- spined sea urchin (Centrostephanus rodgersii) in Australia. This co-creation approach involved engaging stakeholders at all levels, including the empowerment level, guiding them through each step towards implementing management strategies, and fostering collective learning. In regard to the directions of the governance process addressed in the reviewed NbS records, only a few studies provided no evidence or no information on the directional governance mechanisms in place (84%; N=67; Figure 17). Among those studies reporting governance processes (66%; N=132), most utilised a top-down direction (35%; N=70); while both directions (top-down and bottom-up) (23%; n=46) and a bottom-up direction (8%; N=16) were less prevalent among records (Figure 17). Ramalho et al. (2022) studied the relevance of NbS in local climate adaptation strategies by surveying all municipalities across Portugal, and found evidence that NbS are increasingly implemented through top-down approaches. These authors indicate that community-based adaptation is a concept that many municipalities may either be unaware of or undervalue. Conversely, Mollmann et al. (2014) combine both tactical and strategic management aspects into a single strategy that supports the present Baltic Sea fish stock advice. The authors describe a bottom-up approach in their study, in which expert knowledge was leveraged and stakeholders participated in the design of ecosystem-based fisheries management strategies, aiming to transition from single-species to integrated ecosystem assessments, ultimately providing valuable advice for managing Baltic Sea fish stocks. Though, none of the aforementioned studies analysed the impact of the employed approaches.
Figure 16. Levels of stakeholder engagement achieved in the reviewed NbS (N=199) and NbS+ET literature (N=132). Furthermore, evidence of co-creation was revealed in only 41 NbS studies (21%), from which 40 co-demonstrated the application of ET. Robinson et al. (2020) demonstrated the effectiveness of structured decision making in facilitating EbM for range extending species like the long- spined sea urchin (Centrostephanus rodgersii) in Australia. This co-creation approach involved engaging stakeholders at all levels, including the empowerment level, guiding them through each step towards implementing management strategies, and fostering collective learning. In regard to the directions of the governance process addressed in the reviewed NbS records, only a few studies provided no evidence or no information on the directional governance mechanisms in place (84%; N=67; Figure 17). Among those studies reporting governance processes (66%; N=132), most utilised a top-down direction (35%; N=70); while both directions (top-down and bottom-up) (23%; n=46) and a bottom-up direction (8%; N=16) were less prevalent among records (Figure 17). Ramalho et al. (2022) studied the relevance of NbS in local climate adaptation strategies by surveying all municipalities across Portugal, and found evidence that NbS are increasingly implemented through top-down approaches. These authors indicate that community-based adaptation is a concept that many municipalities may either be unaware of or undervalue. Conversely, Mollmann et al. (2014) combine both tactical and strategic management aspects into a single strategy that supports the present Baltic Sea fish stock advice. The authors describe a bottom-up approach in their study, in which expert knowledge was leveraged and stakeholders participated in the design of ecosystem-based fisheries management strategies, aiming to transition from single-species to integrated ecosystem assessments, ultimately providing valuable advice for managing Baltic Sea fish stocks. Though, none of the aforementioned studies analysed the impact of the employed approaches.
Figure 17. Proportion of papers focusing on NbS (N=199) in relation to the directions of governance processes addressed in the NbS process.
Figure 17. Proportion of papers focusing on NbS (N=199) in relation to the directions of governance processes addressed in the NbS process.
Figure 18. Stages of the project cycle addressed by NbS reviewed studies (N=199). Note: the “any two phases” category refer to studies that focus on any combination of design, implementation, and/or evaluation stages or phases. Regarding the project cycle stages (e.g. design, implementation, and/or evaluation stages), it must be noticed that the majority of the analysed studies (68%; N=136) describe results from research projects, and primarily focused on the initial phases of NbS design and planning (33%; N=65), followed by the evaluation stage (25%; N=50; Figure 18). Only few records reported to NbS implementation (4%; N=8; Figure 18). For example, Kiddle et al. (2021) reviewed how urban design agendas linked ecosystem services, NbS, traditional ecological knowledge and wellbeing for more effective designing of NbS projects in New Zealand and other Pacific islands.
Figure 18. Stages of the project cycle addressed by NbS reviewed studies (N=199). Note: the “any two phases” category refer to studies that focus on any combination of design, implementation, and/or evaluation stages or phases. Regarding the project cycle stages (e.g. design, implementation, and/or evaluation stages), it must be noticed that the majority of the analysed studies (68%; N=136) describe results from research projects, and primarily focused on the initial phases of NbS design and planning (33%; N=65), followed by the evaluation stage (25%; N=50; Figure 18). Only few records reported to NbS implementation (4%; N=8; Figure 18). For example, Kiddle et al. (2021) reviewed how urban design agendas linked ecosystem services, NbS, traditional ecological knowledge and wellbeing for more effective designing of NbS projects in New Zealand and other Pacific islands.
Sand dunes in Sligo Coastal City Living Lab witt marram grass, as an example of Nature-based Solutions to fight against erosion. Effects of storm Emma, 2018, Praia de Faro Ria Formosa, Portugal.
Sand dunes in Sligo Coastal City Living Lab witt marram grass, as an example of Nature-based Solutions to fight against erosion. Effects of storm Emma, 2018, Praia de Faro Ria Formosa, Portugal.
™ Socio-economic ™ Ecological/ecosystemic ™ Legal/regulatory ® Knowledge, well-being & socio-cultural Figure 19. Challenges in coastal communities in Europe categorised by domain (socio-economic, ecological legal and knowledge, wellbeing and culture) found in the NbS literature screened (N=199). NbS LITERATURE
™ Socio-economic ™ Ecological/ecosystemic ™ Legal/regulatory ® Knowledge, well-being & socio-cultural Figure 19. Challenges in coastal communities in Europe categorised by domain (socio-economic, ecological legal and knowledge, wellbeing and culture) found in the NbS literature screened (N=199). NbS LITERATURE
Figure 20. Numbers of studies related to NbS (N=199) and ET literature (N=151) addressing distinct coastal challenges grouped in different domains. The literature on ET intricately outlines the coastal challenges it tackles. On average, each study grapples with approximately 8.01 challenges. Notably, ecological and ecosystemic challenges emerge as dominant themes, featuring in a significant portion of studies (85%, N=128), garnering a total of 498 mentions (Figure 20). Challenges concerning Knowledge, wellbeing, and socio- cultural challenges are prevalent in 68% of the studies (N=103), tallying 290 mentions (Figure 20). Following closely, legal and regulatory hurdles manifest in 65% of the records (N=98), with 221 mentions (Figure 20). Conversely, socio-economic challenges receive comparatively less attention, appearing in only half of the empowerment literature (N=76), with a total of 200 mentions (Figure 20).
Figure 20. Numbers of studies related to NbS (N=199) and ET literature (N=151) addressing distinct coastal challenges grouped in different domains. The literature on ET intricately outlines the coastal challenges it tackles. On average, each study grapples with approximately 8.01 challenges. Notably, ecological and ecosystemic challenges emerge as dominant themes, featuring in a significant portion of studies (85%, N=128), garnering a total of 498 mentions (Figure 20). Challenges concerning Knowledge, wellbeing, and socio- cultural challenges are prevalent in 68% of the studies (N=103), tallying 290 mentions (Figure 20). Following closely, legal and regulatory hurdles manifest in 65% of the records (N=98), with 221 mentions (Figure 20). Conversely, socio-economic challenges receive comparatively less attention, appearing in only half of the empowerment literature (N=76), with a total of 200 mentions (Figure 20).
How are the challenges for coastal communities addressed in the ET literature? The scopes of action give information on the nature of approaches taken in the literature relating to ET (N=151). The majority of studies (57%, N=86) applied actions within the community scope, encompassing preference assessments and the implementation of local NbS interventions (Figure 22). Following closely were actions based on science and research, with 68 publications (45%), and actions rooted in the political sphere, with 58 publications (88%) (Figure 22). The latter category includes studies targeting policy impact, enhanced governance, or democratisation. Subsequently, actions based on resource management ranked fourth (31%; N=47), followed by actions focusing on socio-environmental justice (18%; N=27), economy-based actions (14%; N=22), actions geared toward public and/or environmental health (10%; N=15), and funding-related actions (7%, N=11) (Figure 22). Figure 22. Number of studies related to ET (N=151) reporting different scopes of action
How are the challenges for coastal communities addressed in the ET literature? The scopes of action give information on the nature of approaches taken in the literature relating to ET (N=151). The majority of studies (57%, N=86) applied actions within the community scope, encompassing preference assessments and the implementation of local NbS interventions (Figure 22). Following closely were actions based on science and research, with 68 publications (45%), and actions rooted in the political sphere, with 58 publications (88%) (Figure 22). The latter category includes studies targeting policy impact, enhanced governance, or democratisation. Subsequently, actions based on resource management ranked fourth (31%; N=47), followed by actions focusing on socio-environmental justice (18%; N=27), economy-based actions (14%; N=22), actions geared toward public and/or environmental health (10%; N=15), and funding-related actions (7%, N=11) (Figure 22). Figure 22. Number of studies related to ET (N=151) reporting different scopes of action
Figure 23. Levels of stakeholder engagement achieved in the reviewed ET literature (N=151) 5.4.4. Proposed classification of Empowerment Tools
Figure 23. Levels of stakeholder engagement achieved in the reviewed ET literature (N=151) 5.4.4. Proposed classification of Empowerment Tools
Table 3. Empowerment Tools classified from the literature review on “Building coastal community resilience through NbS and ET”, based on their aims, methods, level of stakeholder engagement, and respective method descriptio (and method description sources).
Table 3. Empowerment Tools classified from the literature review on “Building coastal community resilience through NbS and ET”, based on their aims, methods, level of stakeholder engagement, and respective method descriptio (and method description sources).
Figure 24. Combinations of NbS and ET (scopes of action) approaches considered in NbS+ET studies (N=13z
Figure 24. Combinations of NbS and ET (scopes of action) approaches considered in NbS+ET studies (N=13z
Figure 26. Distribution of papers reviewed, addressing NbS+ET and referring to the ‘empowerment level’ of stakeholder engagement.
Figure 26. Distribution of papers reviewed, addressing NbS+ET and referring to the ‘empowerment level’ of stakeholder engagement.
Marina del Rey, United States Scenic view of the harbour, Barcelona, Spain. Gann et al. (2019) propose a more comprehensive five-star system to evaluate progress of restoration projects towards social goals and a social wheel to assist in this tracking process. Box 5 presents this approach in detail.
Marina del Rey, United States Scenic view of the harbour, Barcelona, Spain. Gann et al. (2019) propose a more comprehensive five-star system to evaluate progress of restoration projects towards social goals and a social wheel to assist in this tracking process. Box 5 presents this approach in detail.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EMPOWERMENT IN COASTAL COMMUNITIES Figure 28. Recommendations for Empowerment (including ET) in Coastal communities While individual approaches can be effective, combining different tools and adopting multi-tierec approaches involving various stakeholders at different levels of empowerment can be beneficia (Figure 28; Table 4). Utilising participatory tools can foster active engagement by all members of a group in decision-making processes (Chatty et al., 2003). Co-design and co-production ot research and implementation can promote ownership among urban communities. Through the implementation of communication strategies, including educational ET, general awareness of the importance of coastal ecosystems can be raised, as demonstrated in various studies (Jones et al., 2013; Bousquin et al., 2019; Miller et al., 2020) and through the Horizon Europe EmpowerUs project. The application of Living Labs (LL) related to NbS can ensure broad acceptance of EbM and EbA by the coastal population, with high levels of participation, as well as the creation of sustainable and transformative governance structures. However, only one study applying NbS ir LL was found in the literature review (Tiwari et al., 2022).
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EMPOWERMENT IN COASTAL COMMUNITIES Figure 28. Recommendations for Empowerment (including ET) in Coastal communities While individual approaches can be effective, combining different tools and adopting multi-tierec approaches involving various stakeholders at different levels of empowerment can be beneficia (Figure 28; Table 4). Utilising participatory tools can foster active engagement by all members of a group in decision-making processes (Chatty et al., 2003). Co-design and co-production ot research and implementation can promote ownership among urban communities. Through the implementation of communication strategies, including educational ET, general awareness of the importance of coastal ecosystems can be raised, as demonstrated in various studies (Jones et al., 2013; Bousquin et al., 2019; Miller et al., 2020) and through the Horizon Europe EmpowerUs project. The application of Living Labs (LL) related to NbS can ensure broad acceptance of EbM and EbA by the coastal population, with high levels of participation, as well as the creation of sustainable and transformative governance structures. However, only one study applying NbS ir LL was found in the literature review (Tiwari et al., 2022).
Thus, by integrating participatory approaches and ET at various stages and levels within NbS initiatives, we can effectively foster empowerment (see Figure 29). Figure 29. Different tools and approaches can add to community empowermen
Thus, by integrating participatory approaches and ET at various stages and levels within NbS initiatives, we can effectively foster empowerment (see Figure 29). Figure 29. Different tools and approaches can add to community empowermen
Figure 30. Linkages between ecological and social systems via ET and NbS through social-ecologic« resilience.
Figure 30. Linkages between ecological and social systems via ET and NbS through social-ecologic« resilience.
Table 5. Key features of NbS and ET that can act as catalysts for resilience.
Table 5. Key features of NbS and ET that can act as catalysts for resilience.
Sand nourishment in a coastal sandy barrier, Ria Formosa, Portugal Ocean Literacy project for young pupils on Traena
Sand nourishment in a coastal sandy barrier, Ria Formosa, Portugal Ocean Literacy project for young pupils on Traena
A comprehensive array of support mechanisms, encompassing political, finan- cial, technical, and relational aspects, is established to uphold an integrated multi-level framework for the coastal community. Strong local ties with region- al and national levels mitigate the adverse effects of political discontinuity on environmental and social initiatives aimed at bolstering resilience. It is only by fostering connections between these communities and various hierarchical levels and external entities that robust mechanisms can be developed to sustair strategic actions.
A comprehensive array of support mechanisms, encompassing political, finan- cial, technical, and relational aspects, is established to uphold an integrated multi-level framework for the coastal community. Strong local ties with region- al and national levels mitigate the adverse effects of political discontinuity on environmental and social initiatives aimed at bolstering resilience. It is only by fostering connections between these communities and various hierarchical levels and external entities that robust mechanisms can be developed to sustair strategic actions.
The salt lakes of an EmpowerUs Transition Coastal Lab, Burgas, Bulgaria.
The salt lakes of an EmpowerUs Transition Coastal Lab, Burgas, Bulgaria.
Scenic views from the island El Hierro, in the Canary Islands, Spain
Scenic views from the island El Hierro, in the Canary Islands, Spain
ANNEX 2. Table of definitions for the ‘resilience concept found in the screened literature
ANNEX 2. Table of definitions for the ‘resilience concept found in the screened literature
Figure A3.1. Distribution of global societal challenges tackled by distinct NbS approaches in NbS studies (N=199).
Figure A3.1. Distribution of global societal challenges tackled by distinct NbS approaches in NbS studies (N=199).
Figure A3.2. Levels of stakeholder engagement achieved according to different NbS approaches in the NbS literature (N=199).
Figure A3.2. Levels of stakeholder engagement achieved according to different NbS approaches in the NbS literature (N=199).
Figure A3.4. Stages of the project cycle addressed by different NbS approaches in the NbS literature (N=19S Furthermore, it was observed that NbS approaches such as EbA and ‘Climate adaptation services’ were relatively more represented by studies focusing on the evaluation stage; while only approaches like ‘Ecological restoration’, and ‘Natural, green infrastructure’ provided evidence of studies focusing on all stages of the NbS project cycle (Figure A3.4). A study by Wong et al (2020) evaluated the role of green infrastructure in addressing coastal storm damage in New York City- specifically, they found evidence on the various types, sizes, and configurations of green infrastructure that had helped reduce storm damage from Hurricane Sandy.
Figure A3.4. Stages of the project cycle addressed by different NbS approaches in the NbS literature (N=19S Furthermore, it was observed that NbS approaches such as EbA and ‘Climate adaptation services’ were relatively more represented by studies focusing on the evaluation stage; while only approaches like ‘Ecological restoration’, and ‘Natural, green infrastructure’ provided evidence of studies focusing on all stages of the NbS project cycle (Figure A3.4). A study by Wong et al (2020) evaluated the role of green infrastructure in addressing coastal storm damage in New York City- specifically, they found evidence on the various types, sizes, and configurations of green infrastructure that had helped reduce storm damage from Hurricane Sandy.
ensure greater success of NDS-ET initiatives. In our analysis of how various NbS approaches contribute to addressing coastal challenges in European LL/TCL, we noticed that the majority of these approaches concentrated on ecological/ecosystemic challenges, with socio-economic and knowledge-related challenges receiving comparatively less attention. Notably, legal/regulatory challenges were proportionately more tackled in approaches such as EbM, EbA, and ‘Natural/green/blue infrastructure’. On the other hand, socio-economic challenges garnered more relative relevance in EbM (Figure A3.5). A study by Nelson et al (2020) argues that the key challenges relating to the implementation of NbS-ET approaches include lack of clear understanding, limited stakeholder involvement, unclear relations amongst actors, incomplete frameworks, lack of importance of sociocultural co-benefits, lacking long-term objectives, lacking political will, and complex knowledge gaps. The TCL can help address some of these challenges through their LL infrastructure, and thus ensure greater success of NbS-ET initiatives. Figure A3.5. Contribution of distinct NbS approaches in addressing coastal Living Lab challenges groupec by domains.
ensure greater success of NDS-ET initiatives. In our analysis of how various NbS approaches contribute to addressing coastal challenges in European LL/TCL, we noticed that the majority of these approaches concentrated on ecological/ecosystemic challenges, with socio-economic and knowledge-related challenges receiving comparatively less attention. Notably, legal/regulatory challenges were proportionately more tackled in approaches such as EbM, EbA, and ‘Natural/green/blue infrastructure’. On the other hand, socio-economic challenges garnered more relative relevance in EbM (Figure A3.5). A study by Nelson et al (2020) argues that the key challenges relating to the implementation of NbS-ET approaches include lack of clear understanding, limited stakeholder involvement, unclear relations amongst actors, incomplete frameworks, lack of importance of sociocultural co-benefits, lacking long-term objectives, lacking political will, and complex knowledge gaps. The TCL can help address some of these challenges through their LL infrastructure, and thus ensure greater success of NbS-ET initiatives. Figure A3.5. Contribution of distinct NbS approaches in addressing coastal Living Lab challenges groupec by domains.
Figure A3.6. Distribution of scopes of action of ET in papers addressing ET (N=199), and NbS and ET (N=132
Figure A3.6. Distribution of scopes of action of ET in papers addressing ET (N=199), and NbS and ET (N=132
Figure A3.7. Levels of stakeholder engagement achieved according to different scopes of action of ET For the predominant scopes of action types, community and/or political scope(s) and those based on science and research, the number of studies decreased as the level of stakeholder engagement showed ascended (i.e., from ‘inform’ to ‘collaborate’ or ‘empower’). Conversely, other less dominant scopes of action, such as those centred on public and environmental health, economy-based initiatives, and funding-related actions, displayed more equitable proportions across each level of stakeholder engagement (Figure A3.7).
Figure A3.7. Levels of stakeholder engagement achieved according to different scopes of action of ET For the predominant scopes of action types, community and/or political scope(s) and those based on science and research, the number of studies decreased as the level of stakeholder engagement showed ascended (i.e., from ‘inform’ to ‘collaborate’ or ‘empower’). Conversely, other less dominant scopes of action, such as those centred on public and environmental health, economy-based initiatives, and funding-related actions, displayed more equitable proportions across each level of stakeholder engagement (Figure A3.7).
Related topics:
Community ResilienceCommunity EmpowermentNature based Solutions NbS
580 California St., Suite 400
San Francisco, CA, 94104
© 2025 Academia. All rights reserved