Water SA

The conservation status of inland fishery resources is vulnerable worldwide, and this threatens the livelihoods of fishing-dependent communities. This case study aimed to: (i) establish the use and perception of fisheries and ecosystem services by locals, (ii) undertake a monetary valuation of the fisheries, (iii) determine the potential threats to the fisheries, and (iv) examine the social drivers and barriers for citizen science involvement. Lastly, (v) we evaluated how the above factors affected the conservation of fisheries at Mushumbi Pools, Zimbabwe. A cross-sectional survey of 69 households was conducted. Results of the study showed that locals utilised 17 fish species for social, economic, cultural and religious purposes. Locals attach high intrinsic socio-economic value to the fisheries resources and wetland ecosystem services provided by the Mushumbi Pools. Despite the sustained income from fisheries, the local market in Mushumbi Pools is actually undervaluing fisheries re...

The aim of this study was to establish the level of water quality impairment along a mine effluent receiving river, Pote River in Zimbabwe, using Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) as an indicator organism. Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) enzyme and heat shock protein (HSP 70) expression in the stomach tissue of Nile tilapia were used as biomarkers of heavy metal pollution. Water and fish samples were collected at three sites in the Pote River. Metal concentration in tilapia tissues and water were measured using flame acetylene absorption spectrophotometry while enzymatic activity was determined using ultra-violet spectrophotometry. The concentration of Ni and Zn in water was significantly high compared to the World Health Organization aquatic effluent standards. Cd and Zn were strongly associated with high GST activity and low HSP 70 protein concentrations in fish tissues. Results of this study show that HSP 70 protein and GST enzyme activity can be useful biomarkers of metal contamination in lotic systems.

The purpose of the study was to analyze the impact of weather conditions and farming practices on the growth and yield performance of intercropped okra and cucumber (Abelmoschus esculentus and Cucumis sativus) under the humid climate of Akure, Nigeria. The research was carried out at the Federal University of Technology, Akure’s Research and Training Farm, employing a split-plot design replicated in three plots. Important agronomic practices for the study included staking, poultry manure application, weeding, and moisture monitoring with a PR2 soil sensor. Important weather data such as rainfall, temperature, pesticides, and evapotranspiration were measured during the cropping season and supplemented with detailed growth measurements stem girth, height, leaf area index (LAI) of the plant, canopy temperature, and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). The results obtained indicated high rates of crop emergence (>83%) where okra performed best in slightly acidic sandy loam soils with high phosphorus and potassium. Furthermore, bulk density analysis showed compaction at the 30–40 cm depth which may impede root penetration. Evapotranspiration peaked at 41.18 mm in week 11 which, coupled with rainfall maxima, marked evapotranspiration peak, while WUE (water use efficiency) peaked at 9.72 g mm⁻¹ for cucumber and 3.84 g mm⁻¹ for okra. Radiation use efficiency (RUE) was highest in Plot 3 for cucumber and Plot 2 for okra, both with values of 2.20 g MJ⁻¹. Agronomic indicators such as LAI, PAR, and stem girth demonstrated increases attributed to the application of manure and staking, illustrating favorable crop responses. Benefits of management inputs and favorable climatic windows were observed culminating in yields of 4830.4 g per cucumber and 2403.8 g per okra per plot. This study emphasizes the importance of addressing seasonal rainfall amending soil compaction while improving nutrient and canopy management for optimal elevation of the productivity and resilience within humid tropical vegetable systems by providing a replicable model for seasonal cropping in adapting climates.

Improved agricultural methods with reduced water requirements are essential due to urbanization and climate change in the rainforest region of Nigeria. Thus the objectives of this study were to determine the evapotranspiration (ETc), radiation use efficiency (RUE), and field water use efficiency (WUE) of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus) intercropping in a rainfed system operated at Federal University of Technology Akure (7°15’N, 5°10’E). A three-replica split-plot design was established on sandy loam soil (pH 6.5) within 3 x 6 m plots. Soil water content changes were measured weekly using PR2 capacitance probes, a 1×1 m runoff gauge, and a sand-filled lysimeter. ETc was calculated with the FAO56 water-balance method. RUE was calculated using canopy leaf area index and IPAR intel and was determined with an AccuPAR ceptometer. WUE was determined from fresh yield. The total precipitation within the sixteen week period was 645 mm, 44% transpired or evaporated, 27% was lost as runoff, and 29% drained below 0.5 m. Weekly ETc increased from 4.4 mm during early growth up to 41.2 mm at canopy closure. Mean WUE reached 9.31g mm⁻¹ for cucumber and 3.65 g mm⁻¹ for okra, granting a 2.6 fold intercrop advantage over sole okra. RUE reached a maximum value of 2.20 g MJ⁻¹ m⁻² on the most irradiated plots IPAR and ranged as low as 1.74. Yield strongly correlated (R² = 0.84) with RUE and not total ETc, which illustrates the dominance of light capture over water productivity in determining yield. These findings support the hypothesis that a rain-fed complementary canopy structure of an okra-cucumber intercropping system outperforms traditional methods of especially in terms of harvest-per-drop. Additional methods to improve system resilience and efficiency include targeted irrigation during brief dry periods along with organic-matter additions to alleviate the compaction of topsoil.

This study investigated the impact of varying levels of NPK fertilizer on the vegetative growth, yield, and economic return of Amaranthus spp. in Ngetta Ward, Lira City East Division. The general objective was to assess how different NPK rates influence plant performance, while specific objectives included evaluating effects on vegetative growth, yield, and profitability. An experimental design was implemented, applying NPK fertilizer at 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 kg/ha, and measuring parameters such as plant height, stem height, leaf number, leaf length, leaf width, leaf area index, yield, and economic returns. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, ANOVA, and regression models. The results showed that NPK fertilization significantly enhanced vegetative growth, with fertilized plants exhibiting up to 55% greater height, 45% more leaves, and higher leaf area index compared to unfertilized controls. Yield nearly doubled under optimal fertilizer application, while economic returns were highest at 500 kg/ha, demonstrating that fertilizer investment is cost-effective. The findings align with the Law of the Minimum and nutrient uptake theory, highlighting the critical role of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in promoting biomass accumulation, photosynthetic efficiency, and reproductive development. This study confirms that balanced NPK application is essential for maximizing Amaranthus productivity and profitability. Based on these findings, it is recommended that farmers apply NPK fertilizer at recommended rates, extension services train farmers on proper fertilizer management, policymakers ensure access to affordable quality fertilizers, and further research be conducted to identify the most costeffective NPK rates for smallholder production systems. Overall, the study underscores that strategic nutrient management enhances growth, yield, and economic returns, supporting sustainable and profitable Amaranthus cultivation.

Forecasting techniques are essential in the planning, design, and management of water resource systems. The numerical model introduced in this study turns governing differential equations into systems of linear or non-linear equations in the flow field, thereby revealing solutions. This one-dimensional hydrodynamic model represents the varied unsteady flow found in natural channels based on the Saint-Venant Equations. The model consists of the equations for the conservation of mass and momentum, which are recognized as very powerful mathematical tools for studying an important class of water resource problems. These problems are characterized by time dependence of flow and cover a wide range of phenomena. The formulations, held up by the four-point implicit finite difference scheme, solve the nonlinear system of equations using the Newton-Raphson iteration method with a modified Gaussian elimination technique. The model is calibrated using data on the Euphrates River during the early spring flood in 2015. It is verified by its application to an ideal canal and to the reach selected at the Euphrates River; this application is also used to predict the effect of hydraulic parameters on the river's flow characteristics. A comparison between model results and field data indicates the feasibility of our technique and the accuracy of results (R 2 = 0.997), meaning that the model is ready for future application whenever field observations are available.

To maintain desirable residual chlorine for a groundwater source, optimizing the chlorine dose in small-to medium-sized water distribution systems (SM-WDS) is a daunting task in developing countries. Mostly, operators add a random chlorine dose without recognizing the smaller size of their distribution network. In this research, a modelling framework for optimizing chlorine dose in SM-WDS is developed. In order to evaluate its practicality, the proposed framework has been applied in a case study of a residential neighbourhood in Lahore (Pakistan) with a small network spanning over 0.35 km 2 . Three datasets for residual chlorine were monitored at 6 locations spread over the study area. EPANET 2.0 software was used for hydraulic and residual chorine modelling. The bulk decay coefficient (K b ) was determined in the laboratory, whereas the wall decay coefficient (K w ) was estimated by calibrating the simulation results with the residual chlorine determined in the field. Based on the calibrated EPANET simulations, a fuzzy rule-based model was developed for pragmatic application of the proposed framework. Scenario analyses for different situations have also been carried out for achieving residual chlorine required at the consumer end. This exercise revealed that much lower chlorine doses than the existing practice can generate detectable chlorine residuals. Moreover, the model can be used to deal with emergency situations, which may arise in developing countries due to viral outbreaks and cross-contamination events in SM-WDS.

Arab countries are primarily situated in arid environments and face serious water scarcity challenges due to growing populations, urbanization, and climate change impacts. Reusing greywater, if adequately treated at the point of generation, poses less human health risk as compared to blackwater reuse. Consumers have several reasons for being unwilling to reuse greywater, including potential health risk, religious and cultural concerns, and feeling uncomfortable. There are several possible reuse applications of treated greywater, such as watering plants, floor cleaning, landscaping, toilet flushing, etc. Therefore, it is important to assess consumer perceptions about greywater reuse before its implementation in any region. In this research, a framework based on greywater reuse indicators (GWRI) was developed to assess consumer perceptions before and after introducing low-cost treatment (LCT). Later the framework was implemented for Muscat, Oman. A questionnaire survey was carried out...

Disinfection with chlorine is a common practice to ensure secured drinking water, but results in potentially harmful disinfection by-products (DBPs), when excess chlorination is done. The US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) has established Stage 1 and Stage 2 disinfection by-product Rules (DBP rules) to control DBP exposure. A modified version of the Canadian Council of Ministries of the Environment water quality index (CCME WQI) is used to assess water quality. CCME WQI is a globally accepted index to assess water quality, but is too generic to be used for DBP rules. The study developed a scheme to make the index suitable for DBP rules. A scoring method based on an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is applied to assign weights based on DBP rules. A previously modified CCME WQI (Islam et al., 2014) is adapted along with the weights to perform the assessment at the distribution network (DN). A case study was performed on 7 sampling stations in a Québec City DN. The spatial water quality variations are presented using kriging -a geostatistical method, which identifies the regions with relatively poor water quality and highlights the potential locations for re-chlorination points. The proposed assessment formulation is flexible to handle situations with limited data, which makes it especially suited to smaller municipalities.

In situ experimental studies were carried out aimed at the quantitative estimation of biological processes involved in nitrogen removal such as macro-algal assimilation and bacterial denitrification and their optimisation in two experimental phytotreatment ponds colonised by the macro-algae Ulva rigida in central Italy. Results from an in situ manipulative experiment estimate that Ulva carrying capacity defined as the macro-algal biomass in which the uptake of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) equals the production of oxygen (O 2 ), was close to 300g•m -2 dry biomass (dw). At this carrying capacity the experimental assessment of Ulva growth rates and Ulva assimilation rates and their optimisation with use of a logistic model estimated that maximum inorganic nitrogen removal (~0.04 mol N•d -1• m -2 ) was attained when Ulva biomass reached 150 g dw •m -2 and growth rate was 0.1•d -1 . Denitrification rates accounted for a small amount of total nitrogen removal (~150 µmol N•m -2 •h -1 ) although an intact core incubation experiment demonstrated that denitrification increased with increasing nitrate concentrations. Based on experimental results a series of calculations have been made by use of MATLAB algorithms to facilitate manipulation of easy-to-measure variables (infrastructural, chemical and biological) and subsequent gross estimates of their effect on biological nitrogen removal efficiency, thus providing a simple tool to help decision making for infrastructure planning and management of phytotreatment ponds.

We purposively selected 39 sampling sites along the Mara River and its two perennial tributaries of Amala and Nyangores and sampled snails. In addition, water physicochemical parameters (temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, alkalinity, salinity and pH) were taken to establish their influence on the snail abundance and habitat preference. Out of the 39 sites sampled, 10 (25.6%) had snails. The snail species encountered included Biomphalaria pfeifferi Krauss Á the intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni Sambon, Bulinus africanus Á the intermediate host of Schistosoma haematobium, and Lymnaea natalensis Krauss Á the intermediate host of both Fasciola gigantica and F. hepatica Cobbold. Ceratophallus spp., a non-vector snail was also encountered. Most (61.0%) of the snails were encountered in streamside pools. Schistosomiasistransmitting host snails, B. pfeifferi and B. africanus, were fewer than fascioliasis-transmitting Lymnaea species. All the four different snail species were found to be attached to different aquatic weeds, with B. pfeifferi accounting for over half (61.1%) of the snails attached to the sedge, followed by B. africanus and Lymnaea spp., accounting for 22.2 and 16.7%, respectively. Ceratophallus spp. were non-existent in sedge. The results from this preliminary study show that snails intermediate hosts of schistosomiasis and fascioliasis exists in different habitats, in few areas along the Mara River, though their densities are still low to have any noticeable impacts on disease transmission in case they are infected. The mere presence of the vector snails in these focal regions calls for their immediate control and institution of proper regulations, management, and education among the locals that can help curtail the spread of the snails and also schistosomiasis and fascioliasis within the Mara River basin.

Salmonella enterica ser. Typhimurium was isolated from freshwater sediments and chromosomally labelled with a stable variant of the green fluorescent protein (GFP). The pUT mini-Tn5 Km transposon was used to introduce the gfp gene onto the chromosome of the S. Typhimurium strain by tri-parental mating. Southern Blot hybridisation confirmed that the gene had integrated into the chromosome. The gfp gene was stably maintained and the labelled strain was not growth-rate impaired. The incorporation of the gfp gene did not convey any significant loss of phenotype which would affect the survival and behaviour of the tagged strains. The tagged S. Typhimurium strain was used to spike an established drinking water biofilm and was able to colonise and persist within the biofilm. The tagged strain was also successfully used to study the survival of S. Typhimurium in natural sediments under different temperatures. These tagged strains can therefore be used to study the fate and survival of different Salmonella strains in water environments.

Oil exploration generates produced water that is characterized as hazardous and toxic waste. Produced water contains a mixture of various pollutants, including monoaromatic hydrocarbons BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene), compounds that are carcinogenic even in small concentrations.  In this study, tannin iron complex (TA-FeIII), blended into polyethersulfone (PES) membrane was evaluated for the treatment of BTEX-containing wastewater. The membranes were fabricated using the non-solvent induced phase separation (NIPS) method and loading of the TA-FeIII complex on the membranes varied from 0–0.9 wt%. The fabricated membranes were characterized using various techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), water contact angle (WCA), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy (AFM) to check the surface morphology, hydrophilicity, surface functionality and surface roughness of the fabricated membranes, respectively. The TA-FeIII modi...

In this study, adsorptive removal of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) from synthetic water using activated carbon adsorbent derived from macadamia nut shells was investigated. The surface functional groups of the synthesized adsorbents were assessed by Fourier transform infrared spectra. The specific surface area, pore size and pore volume at 77 K nitrogen adsorption, surface morphology, and the crystalline structure of the adsorbents were determined using Brunauer-Emmett-Teller, scanning electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction, respectively. Batch adsorption mode was used to evaluate the performance of the activated carbon. The stock solutions of synthetic wastewater were prepared by dissolving 100 mg/L of each of the BTEX compound into distilled water in a 250 mL volumetric flask. Effect of initial concentration of BTEX compounds, contact time, and mass of adsorbent on the removal of BTEX compounds from the synthetic wastewater was investigated. The macadamia nut shell-derived activated carbon (MAC) proved to be an effective adsorbent for BTEX compounds, with a large surface area of 405.56 m 2 /g. The exposure time to reach equilibrium for maximum removal of BTEX was observed to be 20 min. The adsorption capacity of the BTEX compounds by MAC followed the following adsorption order: benzene > toluene > ethylbenzene > xylene.

The subject of this research is the analysis of flood dynamics in the Ukrina River Basin, Bosnia and Herzegovina, using a remote sensing-based approach and geographic information systems during the period 2016–2019. The aim is to identify the spatial and temporal patterns of floods by integrating satellite-derived precipitation data, hydrological data, and Sentinel-1 imagery processed through Google Earth Engine. The methodology included the use of CHIRPS precipitation data and the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) for identifying meteorological anomalies, while Sentinel-1 SAR data were used to map flood extent based on radar backscatter change detection. The approach combined temporal analysis with spatial overlays of land use and administrative boundaries to assess affected areas. Flood events were identified in January 2016 (89.98 ha), March 2017 (179.85 ha), March 2018 (58.81 ha), and May 2019 (195.38 ha), coinciding with periods of above-average precipitation (>125%), positive SPI values, and elevated water levels. The spatial analysis of flooded areas, overlaid with land use data, revealed that agricultural land was the most affected category, with 79.21 ha flooded in 2016, 169.15 ha in 2017, 48.89 ha in 2018, and 184.90 ha in 2019. Built-up areas were also significantly impacted, posing risks to infrastructure and economic stability. The cities and municipalities of Derventa, Prnjavor, and Stanari were most frequently affected by floods during the study period. The findings highlight the role of cumulative precipitation and hydrological conditions in triggering flood events and provide insights for flood risk management, including adaptive strategies, early warning, and sustainable land use planning.

This study was conducted to identify the available goat feed resources for smallholder farmers in the semi-arid region of Zimbabwe. An ecological rangeland assessment was combined with participatory research methods to determine the diversity of feed resources in two wards of the Beitbridge District, namely Chamunangana and Joko. One hundred and twenty households were surveyed. All farmers depended on rangeland as the main feed resource. Some 87% of the respondents indicated that rangeland was not adequate, yet only 54% practiced supplementation. Participants predominantly used crop residues (40%), browse tree foliage (28%) and commercial feeds (22%) as supplements. Of the 46% who did not apply supplements, 53% attributed this to unavailability of feeding material and 29% were not aware of the importance, whereas the rest thought it unnecessary. Farmers in Chamunangana and those who milked their goats were more likely to supplement feed (p < 0.05). Respondents who supplemented had received training in goat husbandry (p < 0.05). The Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H′) was higher in Chamunangana (1.29), compared with Joko (1.19). There was no difference in biomass production between the study sites (p > 0.05). Improved goat nutrition could be achieved through farmer trainings in goat husbandry and incorporating available feeds into balanced rations.

In this paper, the feasibility of quaternized activated carbon derived from Macadamia nutshells was explored in the removal of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) from aqueous solutions. The amino-modified activated carbon was achieved by cross-linking native Macadamia activated carbon (MAC) with epichlorohydrin and grafting diethylenetriamine and triethylamine (EDT) on the surface and the product was labelled as MAC-EDT. The adsorbent was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Bruemer-Emmett-Teller (BET), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the CHNS analyzer. The optimum parameters for Cr(VI) removal found were pH (5), contact time (120 min) and sorbent mass (0.10 g) where removal efficiencies were >90 % in all cases. Langmuir model fitted the data best and the adsorption capacity was 145.5 mg g -1 after surface modification with EDT. The Cr(VI) ion was found to be adsorbed more as compared to other anions, and the sorption order was: SO 4 2-< PO 4 3 -»NO 3 -< Cr 2 O 7 2 . The removal mechanism involved adsorption of Cr(VI) and/or subsequent reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III).

South Africa, currently categorised as water stressed country is forecasted to experience physical water scarcity by the year 2025 with an annual freshwater availability of less that 1 000 m 3 per capita. With the trends in population growth and its attributes and continuous pollution of the available water sources, there is bound to be increased pressure on the available water probably resulting in increased conflict over its allocation and a further stress on this resource leading to scarcity. Most countries in the world including South Africa have developed most of their water resources with very little scope for further expansion. This study attempted to establish possible solutions to this scenario. Possible solutions would be as follows. First is the demand management of the water through developing and or improving existing systems that improve water use efficiency in the various demand sectors thereby increasing access to more users and uses for a given volume of water. Second is identifying and developing alternative supply systems suitable for the various demand sectors in order to augment the conventional supply volumes. Third is the application of feasible, special management techniques to improve water quality to appropriate standards for particular uses in areas where natural poor quality water occurs. Fourth is the reallocation of some water from low benefit uses to higher benefit uses. Fifth is the possibility of water transfer from surplus areas to deficit area. A water management tool/model suitable for the various sectors of demand and suitable areas of application in each sector is envisaged as the output of this study. If found to be practicable, and eventually utilised, this model will have the potential to increase the water availability for the various sectors and avert possible conflicts in water allocation. The impact of this economically, socially and environmentally in South Africa and possible application in other water stressed countries with similar conditions will be significant.

Wegelin's design criteria founded on the "1/3 -2/3" filter theory are still to date the most comprehensive models applied in design of roughing filters. This study aimed at verifying these criteria based on gravel as a filter medium and two other possible alternative filter media, namely broken burnt bricks and charcoal maize cobs. Gravel was used as a control medium since it is one of the most commonly used roughing filter media and also because it was used in developing these criteria. The per cent reduction in raw water suspended solids (SS) concentration was compared against the expected model prediction. SS was used as a parameter of choice since the "1/3 -2/3" filter theory is based on SS reduction. A pilot plant study was undertaken to meet this objective. The pilot plant was monitored for a continuous 85 days from commissioning till the end of the project. Results showed that in general, filters filled with charcoal maize cobs and broken burnt bricks were off model prediction by 13% compared to gravel's 15%. The performances also varied in both low-and high-peak periods. It is concluded that the Wegelin's design criteria should be used as a guideline step followed by actual field and laboratory tests to establish the actual filter design parameters in line with the filter media in use and the quality of the raw water to be treated.

This study was aimed at introducing multistage filtration (MSF) (a combination of slow-sand filtration (SSF) and pretreatment system -horizontal flow roughing filter (HRF)) as an alternative water treatment technology to the conventional one. A pilot-plant study was undertaken to achieve this goal. Evaluating the MSF performance vs. the existing conventional system in removing selected physical and chemical drinking water quality parameters together with the biological water quality improvement by the MSF without chemical use was done. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the MSF system utilizing locally available material, i.e. gravel, improved agricultural waste (charcoal maize cobs) and broken burnt bricks as pretreatment filter material was also done The benchmark was the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) values for the selected parameters. Results showed that with proper design specifications, MSF systems perform better than conventional systems under similar conditions of raw water quality and environmental conditions. The tested locally available materials can also be effectively used as pretreatment media with each allowing a filter run greater than 82 d and therefore could serve as alternatives where natural gravel is not readily available. With special reference to the bacteriological quality improvement, the MSF greatly improved the bacteriological quality of the water recording removal efficiencies of over 99% and 98% respectively for E. coli and total coliforms. Despite the observed performance, MSF should be complemented with chlorination as a final buffer against water-borne diseases. However, in this case, the dosing will be greatly reduced when compared to the conventional system.

A harmonised in-stream water quality guideline was constructed to develop a water quality index for the Upper and Middle Vaal Water Management Areas, in the Vaal basin of South Africa. The study area consisted of 12 water quality monitoring points; V1, S1, B1, S4, K9, T1, R2, L1, V7, V9, V12, and V17. These points are part of a Water Board's extensive catchment monitoring network but were re-labelled for this paper. The harmonised guideline was made up of 5 classes for NH 4 + , Cl -, EC, DO, pH, F -, NO 3 -, PO 4 3-and SO 4 2-against in-stream water quality objectives for ideal catchment background limits. Ideal catchment background values for Vaal Dam sub-catchment represented Class 1 (best quality water), while those for Vaal Barrage, Blesbok/Suikerbosrand Rivers and Klip River represented Classes 2, 3 and 4, respectively. Values above those of Klip River ideal catchment background represented Class 5. For each monitoring point, secondary raw data for the 9 parameters were cubic-interpolated to 2 526 days from 1 January 2003 to 30 November 2009 (7 years). The IF-THEN-ELSE function then sub-classified the data from 1 to 5 while the daily index was calculated as a median of that day's sub-classes. Histograms were constructed in order to distribute the indices among the 5 classes of the harmonised guideline. Points V1 and S1 were ranked as best quality water (Class 1), with percentage class frequencies of 91% and 60%, respectively. L1 ranked Class 3 (34%) while V7 (54%), V9 (53%), V12 (66%) and V17 (46%) ranked poorly as Class 4. B1 (76%), S4 (53%), K9 (41%), T1 (53%) and R2 (61%) ranked as worst quality (Class 5). The harmonised in-stream water quality guideline resulted in class frequency distributions. The surface raw water quality index system managed to compare quality variation among the 12 points which were located in different sub-catchments of the study area. These results provided a basis to trade pollution among upstream-downstream users, over a timeframe of 7 years. Models could consequently be developed to reflect, for example, quality-sensitive differential tariffs, among other index uses. The indices could also be incorporated into potable water treatment cost models in order for the costs to reflect raw water quality variability.

This study was performed to find the best experimental conditions for the electrochemical removal of the insecticide dimethoate (C 5 H 12 NO 3 PS 2 ) from aqueous solutions using a lead dioxide niobium anode. The process was studied under galvanostatic polarisation mode. The influence of applied current density (10-50 mA•cm -2 ), initial chemical oxygen demand COD 0 (100-550 mg•ℓ -1 ), temperature (30-70°C) and pH (3-11) on COD and instantaneous current efficiency (ICE) was studied. The results showed that almost 90% of COD removal was achieved under optimal experimental conditions, indicating that electrochemical oxidation on a PbO 2 anode is a suitable method for treatment of water polluted with dimethoate. It was found that the decay of COD generally followed a pseudo first-order kinetic and the oxidation rate was favoured by increasing the applied current density, temperature, pH and initial COD. The greatest COD removal (90%) was obtained when using an applied current density of 50 mA•cm -2 , COD 0 = 320 mg•ℓ -1 , pH = 11, T = 70°C and electrolysis time = 8 h.

This paper reports the results of the first experimental investigations carried out on the only existing full-scale plant that makes use of the biological treatment system known as ANANOX ® . This system was first set up by the Italian research staff at ENEA (Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Environment) and consists of two biological stages in series: a two-section ABR and an anoxic section followed by an activated sludge process. The investigation aimed primarily to assess system performance under uncontrolled load conditions. In particular, system efficiency was assessed with regard to carbonaceous and nitrogen compounds in the anaerobic and anoxic phases, and the role of sulphides in the denitrification process was examined. The results obtained show the system's ability to ensure efficiency levels that comply with stringent effluent regulations while also allowing considerable savings in running costs.

This paper describes the experimental and theoretical activities developed to study the biomass transport phenomena occurring in upflow anaerobic reactors influencing the biomass washout. Particularly, the experimental investigations have been carried out on a full-scale ABR and on a pilot UASB intermittently fed with the aim to determine the extent to which washout is affected by: daily flow distribution; upflow velocity; concentration and sedimentation properties of the biomass. The theoretical study focused on the proposal of a mathematical model able to simulate the sludge transport phenomena in the above cited reactors, in order to obtain a tool to estimate sludge washout in different influent flow conditions. The research has shown the considerable influence on the biomass behaviour of the time interval occurring between two successive feeds of the reactors. In fact, if this period is more than 1 h considerable losses of biomass into the effluent were found, independent of the upflow velocity. On the other hand, shorter periods give rise to a regular sludge expansion of the interface even with very high upflow velocities (up to 4 m•h -1 ), and consequently to limited sludge washout.

A careful appraisal of piggery wastewaters should be made mainly because of their high content of organic constituents together with the nitrogen and stringent effluent fimitations involved. Specific emphasis should be given to the COD of the wastewater as it contains, aside from a biodegradable portion, a residual fraction which persists throughout the treatment process. Experimental evaluations indicated that the effluent of a laboratory-scale SBR contained significant amounts of non-biodegradable COD. Since SBR was primarily operated to achieve nitrification-denitrification, a method previously developed for the assessment of the influent soluble inert COD, S 1 was modified in a way to reflect the possible impact of the nitrification and denitrification processes. The paper also summarizes the performance of SBR with respect to its nitrogen removal potential from piggery wastewaters.

The addition of powdered activated carbon (PAC) has been proposed as a suitable technique to protect activated sludge against toxic wastewaters. However, the literature data describing the combined effect of PAC addition on Cr(VI) removal using activated sludge are scarce. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effect of the initial Cr(VI) concentration, PAC and an electron donor addition on Cr(VI) removal using aerobic activated sludge batch reactors. The following Cr(VI) removal systems were tested: activated sludge alone; activated sludge with an external electron donor (5 g/ℓ of lactose); activated sludge with PAC addition (4 g/ℓ); activated sludge with both PAC and lactose; and PAC alone. The results reported here showed that activated sludges are capable of removing Cr(VI) via its reduction to Cr(III) only if a suitable electron donor (such as lactose) is available. For initial Cr(VI) concentration lower than 10 mg/ℓ, biomass alone can remove 100% of the Cr(VI). However, for higher initial Cr(VI) concentrations, removal efficiencies (R E ) of the system with PAC were higher than R E corresponding to the system without PAC. In addition, as the initial Cr(VI) concentration increased, the rate of Cr(VI) removal and R E values decreased reflecting loss of metabolic activity of the activated sludge due to the toxicity of Cr(VI); however, this inhibition was less in systems with PAC. Whereas the removal of Cr(VI) using powdered activated carbon (PAC) alone is negligible, the addition of PAC can improve the biological reduction of Cr(VI) due to the stimulating or protective effect against the Cr(VI) toxicity. This protective effect was also observed in respiratory activity of the biomass.

Global access to sanitary water is of utmost importance to human health. Presently, textile dye water pollution and cigarette pollution are both plaguing the environment. Herein, waste cigarette filters are converted into useful carbon-based adsorbent materials via a facile, microwave-assisted carbonization procedure. The cigarette filters are co-doped with phosphorus and nitrogen using ammonium polyphosphate to enhance their surface characteristics and adsorbent capability. The adsorbents are characterized physically to examine their surface area, elemental composition, and surface charge properties. Batch adsorption experiments were performed to determine the maximum adsorption capacity of the adsorbents. Additionally, the effects of various adsorption parameters— temperature, adsorbent dosage, pH, and time—on adsorption process were examined. The doped adsorbent showed a maximum adsorption capacity of 303.3 mg g− 1 respectively, which is three times that of the methylene blue ads...

Extremely-low discharge events of the Paranaı ´ba River basin during the austral summer season (December-February, DJF), are found to be associated with the Pacific sea surface temperature anomalies resembling the recently identified El Nin ˜o Modoki phenomenon. Extreme discharge events are identified based on their persistent flow for 7 days and more after taking retention time into consideration. Ninety percent of the extremely low discharge events during peak streamflow seasons of DJF, are found to occur during the El Nin ˜o Modoki years. A diagnostics study of atmospheric anomalies has shown a clear connection between the modified Walker circulation, associated with the El Nin ˜o Modoki, and the precipitation anomalies over the Paranaı ´ba River basin. The climate variations have direct relationship with the rainfall. Streamflow variations are considered as the surrogates to rainfalls. Thus, El Nin ˜o Modoki phase is important component to understand and predict the streamflow variations in the Paranaı ´ba River basin.

The Indo-Pacific lionfish is a saltwater fish that inhabits the Red Sea waters and the Indian and Pacific oceans; it is an invasive species in the western Atlantic and was recently introduced into the local diet in the USA, Central and South America, and the Caribbean with the aim of controlling the invasion of this species. Due to its predatory nature, it tends to bioaccumulate metals and other contaminants via the marine food web and could thus constitute a suitable species for monitoring aquatic ecosystems. The presence and distribution of 23 trace elements and 16 rare earth elements (REEs) were investigated by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in the muscle, liver, and kidneys of lionfish from Cuba. Significant differences in metal concentrations were found in the different fish organs. The liver and kidneys registered the highest concentrations for most trace elements and for ΣREE, thus demonstrating that they are effective bioindicators of possible pollution on the environment in which fish live, and assuming great importance in the choice of early biomonitoring. Trace element concentrations in the muscle are instead of crucial interest for consumer safety. The limits set by EU regulations and Cuban guidelines for Cd and Pb in fish muscle were never exceeded, suggesting that lionfish from Cuba could therefore represent a good source of minerals and proteins for the local population.

This study assessed the presence of key requirements for sustainable O&M and rehabilitation of rural small-scale water infrastructure in Makhudutamaga Municipality in South Africa. The study found a significant correlation between the requirements for sustainable O&M and rehabilitation of rural small-scale water infrastructure and continuity of service provision (p &lt; 0.001) by the small-scale water infrastructure as well as functionality (p &lt; 0.001) of the small-scale water infrastructure hardware. The study concludes that the presence of the key requirements varies as a function of social dynamics of communities and the presence of these requirements has an impact on the functionality and continuity of the small-scale water infrastructure hardware.

Farmer satisfaction with using an irrigation service can be used as a measure of performance of an irrigation scheme. An investigation was instituted to determine factors that significantly influence the satisfaction status of farmers at the Mooi-River Irrigation Scheme (MRIS) in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. A multinomial Logit regression model was employed to analyse the response of the farmers. It was established that about 57% of the farmers are satisfied with using the irrigation service, 30% are not and 13% are neutral. The majority of farmers, accounting for 85%, either never went to school or had only primary level schooling and these are mostly women, who own close to 80% of the plots in the scheme. Statistically significant results show that 6 household-level factors affect the satisfaction of farmers with using an irrigation service, i.e., gender of head of household, level of education attained by the household head, training received in water management, farmers' perception of the fairness of water distribution, the number of days in a week that plotholders receive water, and the participation of farmers in the inspection of irrigation infrastructure on the scheme. This study recommends formulation of policies to train farmers in water management and to support farmer participation in scheme management.

The need for the optimal use of land, without a yield penalty, in urban and peri-urban (UP) settlements is vital. This study investigated the effect of intercropping madumbe and rice with respect to yield and land productivity when irrigated with anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) effluent under different irrigation water management techniques. It was hypothesized that intercropping under different irrigation water management techniques has no effect on the yield and land productivity. Field trials were conducted in the 2017 and 2018 cropping seasons with ABR effluent (without fertilizer) at the Newlands Mashu Experimental Site, Newlands East, Durban, South Africa. A randomized complete block design with 3 replications; cropping treatments of sole madumbe, sole rice and madumbe + rice (intercrop) and irrigation treatments of alternate wetting and drying (AWD), continuous flood irrigation (CFI) and wetting without flooding (WWF) was used. Growth and yield parameters at harvest were determined. Thereafter, land equivalent ratio (LER) was calculated to evaluate the productivity of the intercrop. The effect of intercropping was significant (P < 0.05) on the total number of irrigation events and total water use. There was a significant reduction (P < 0.05) in plant heights of both madumbe and rice at intercrop. However, the effect on plant height for treatment CFI was positive but not significant (P > 0.05) for both seasons. A significant (P < 0.05) reduction also occurred in the number of madumbe leaves/plant, and panicles/plant and tillers/plant for rice. Intercropping significantly reduced (P < 0.05) madumbe corm and rice grain yield over the two seasons relative to sole cropping. LER showed that intercropping madumbe with rice was not more productive (LER < 1) than sole cropping of madumbe. It was concluded that over the two-season period, intercropping madumbe and rice do not yield appreciably under any of the three irrigation management techniques applied and the study hypothesis is thus rejected.

The need for the optimal use of land, without a yield penalty, in urban and peri-urban (UP) settlements is vital. This study investigated the effect of intercropping madumbe and rice with respect to yield and land productivity when irrigated with anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) effluent under different irrigation water management techniques. It was hypothesized that intercropping under different irrigation water management techniques has no effect on the yield and land productivity. Field trials were conducted in the 2017 and 2018 cropping seasons with ABR effluent (without fertilizer) at the Newlands Mashu Experimental Site, Newlands East, Durban, South Africa. A randomized complete block design with 3 replications; cropping treatments of sole madumbe, sole rice and madumbe + rice (intercrop) and irrigation treatments of alternate wetting and drying (AWD), continuous flood irrigation (CFI) and wetting without flooding (WWF) was used. Growth and yield parameters at harvest were dete...

Mitigation of global climate change impact on the agricultural production is the major priorities in future research. Cowpea as a drought tolerant plant is interesting for growing in semi-arid climate of the Vojvodina region. The effect of water stress on yield of cultivated plants can be obtained by calculating the yield response factor (Ky) which represents the ratio between the relative evapotranspiration deficit (1-ETa/ETm) and the relative decline in yield (1-Ya/Ym). The values of Ky ranged from 0.91 to 1.17 for genotype G1 and G2 respectively. Genotype G1, with a value lower than 1 of Ky, shows a good tolerance to water deficit, on the contrary, genotype G2, with a greater Ky than 1, expresses some sensitivity to water stress. Obtained results will be used in breeding programs to develop cowpea cultivars tolerant to stressful conditions, primarily to water stress, as well as more productive in water use.

In recent years the use of remote sensing imagery to classify and map vegetation over different spatial scales has gained wide acceptance in the research community. Many national and regional datasets have been derived using remote sensing data. However, much of this research was undertaken using multispectral remote sensing datasets. With advances in remote sensing technologies, the use of hyperspectral sensors which produce data at a higher spectral resolution is being investigated. The aim of this study was to compare the classification of selected vegetation types using both hyperspectral and multispectral satellite remote sensing data. Several statistical classifiers including maximum likelihood, minimum distance, mahalanobis distance, spectral angular mapper and parallelepiped methods of classification were used. Classification using mahalanobis distance and maximum likelihood methods with an optimal set of hyperspectral and multispectral bands produced overall accuracies greater than 80%.

Multispectral imagery has been used as the data source for water and land observational remote sensing from airborne and satellite systems since the early 1960s. Over the past two decades, advances in sensor technology have made it possible for the collection of several hundred spectral bands. This is commonly referred to as hyperspectral imagery. This review details the differences between multispectral and hyperspectral data; spatial and spectral resolutions and focuses on the application of hyperspectral imagery in water resource studies and, in particular the classification and mapping of land uses and vegetation.

The estimation of design floods is necessary for the design of hydraulic structures. Commonly used event-based approaches to design flood estimation have several limitations, which include the estimation of antecedent soil moisture conditions and the assumption that the exceedance probability of the design flood is the same as the exceedance probability of the design rainfall. Many of the limitations of event-based approaches may be overcome by the use of continuous simulation modelling for design flood estimation. This paper contains a brief summary on the development and assessment of a continuous simulation modelling system for design flood estimation in ungauged catchments. These developments include an investigation into the appropriate spatial scale of model configuration for optimum performance of the system, the temporal disaggregation of daily rainfall for hydrograph generation, flood routing in ungauged catchments and the use of radar information and rain-gauge data to improve the estimation of catchment rainfall. Results from the application of the system for design flood estimation in the Thukela Catchment in South Africa are presented and discussed. The results from the study highlight the challenges of hydrological modelling in an operational catchment and the need for reliable rainfall and runoff data. From the results obtained, it is concluded that reasonable and consistent estimates of design floods in the Thukela Catchment, particularly in smaller sub-catchments, can be obtained using the ACRU model.

The Borena basin is located in southern Ethiopia, in a semi-arid climate, on the eastern shoulder of the south Main Ethiopian Rift (MER). The study area covers 18,000 km2 and is characterized by a lack of perennial surface waters that can be used for domestic and agricultural purpose. As a result, groundwater, which occurs in complex volcanic settings, is the only source for water supply in the study area. This work is focused on the basaltic aquifers, which are intensely fractured, resulting in strong connectivity within the system. All available data (geology, hydraulic head, hydraulic parameters, well inventory and discharge, etc.) were compiled in a GIS database. The overall objective of this work is the assessment of groundwater potential, its spatial distribution and factors controlling its movement using numerical groundwater modeling to enhance groundwater management and use in the Borena basin. The modeling task was conducted at two scales: (i) regional scale; (ii) wellfiel...

Aeration helps improve water quality and make it favorable to fish. SPFTAS was designed based on the environment and characteristics of freshwater ponds. SPFTAS consist of floating platform, power source, sensors, signaling and aeration system. It functions to disperse and increase dissolved oxygen (DO). It possessed capability to monitor real time condition of water, store data and send it through short messaging service (SMS). The SPFTAS oxygen transfer rate was 0.07 kg of oxygen using four diffusers and the standard aeration efficiency of 0.2710 kg oxygen/hp-hr. The standard oxygen transfer efficiency was 0.36 at 18 kg of oxygen transferred. SPFTAS increased DO level to 1.32 ppm and rated highly effective during the test. DO levels using 1, 2, 3 and 4 diffusers at different depths, distances and time results were significantly different. The DO level using different diffusers at time intervals was highest at 7.16 ppm in three hours operation. The total cost of automated SPFTAS was ₱170,385.75. The cost analysis of using the machine indicated a breakeven point of 1,440 hours per year. The annual operation expected save ₱32,737.39 and expected recover the investment in 5.33 years. Finally, machine was found beneficial to increase DO concentration in fishponds.

In this study, the factor analysis technique is applied to the large water quality data sets of the Buyuk Menderes River Basin in analyzing the surface water contamination and determining the correlations between water quality parameters. The technique is believed to be a useful tool in identifing practical pollution indicators for delineating the domestic and agricultural pollution in the basin. It could also help the local decision-makers on the suitable management of the surface water quality within the basin.

Research on the use of human urine as fertilizer has confirmed the presence of disease-causing pathogens and pharmaceuticals, which is a serious concern for consumers, farmers, and researchers. Various studies have focused on the treatment and removal of micropollutants from urine, such as the use of powdered activated carbon and chemical

Large-scale sustainable agriculture presents a formidable challenge globally, resulting in severe food insecurity for approximately 52%
and 48% of people living in rural and urban areas, respectively. An estimated 690 million individuals suffer from hunger annually
due to the high cost of chemical fertilizers and other factors. To reduce costs, source-separated urine offers a promising alternative
for crop production, despite containing more nitrogen and phosphorus than traditional fertilizers. However, human urine also
contains pharmaceuticals and micropollutants with adverse effects on human health and the environment. Human urine provides
essential micronutrients for plant growth, with studies showing similar nutrient concentrations between concentrated urine and
mineral fertilizers. Nevertheless, the presence of heavy metals and other contaminants in urine raises safety concerns. While urine
diversion toilets can safely collect urine, their use as a liquid fertilizer requires careful consideration due to the presence of diseasecausing
organisms, pharmaceuticals, and metabolites that contribute to water and soil contamination. Consumers and farmers alike
worry about the safety of crops fertilized with urine, given the perception of disease-causing pathogens. This review explores the
impact of urine and chemical fertilizers on plant yield as well as the effects of heavy metals, pharmaceuticals, and microplastics on
human health and the environment. Various methods to remove antibiotics from urine, such as membrane bioreactors combined
with complex chemicals and physicochemical processes, were also examined. These methods, including activated powdered carbon,
nano-filtration, ozone, and ozone/UV, target specific antibiotics and their metabolites to ensure the safety of urine-derived fertilizers.
Key words: Urine, Pharmaceuticals, Fertilizer, Nutrients, Microplastics, Heavy metal

Rapid industrial development is one of the leading causes of environmental degradation. The textile industries and the domestic activities in Majalaya District produce wastewater directly discharged into the Cikakembang River. As a result, the Cikakembang River's water quality has decreased to the point that the water quality cannot be used for daily needs. This study modeled three main parameters in water quality modelling, namely Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). Using MATLAB, the three-water quality governing equations originating from the Advection-Dispersion Equation were solved using the Runge Kutte-4 discretization scheme. The numerical modelling was carried out along 2.36 km of the Cikakembang River. All water quality coefficients, such as the DO Saturation (DO sat ), the Reaeration Rate (ka), the Dispersion Coefficient (D), the Deoxygenation Rate (k d ), and the Decomposition Rate (kc), for the Cikakembang River were estimated using equations developed by existing studies. The estimation of ka and D coefficients requires hydraulic parameters, which in this study were estimated using the HEC-RAS simulation. Meanwhile, k d and kc values were obtained from the calibration and verification process. The Relative Root Mean Square Error (RRMSE) objective function was used to evaluate the results of water quality modelling at three sampling points. In the calibration process, the results of water quality modelling produced RRMSE values for the DO, BOD, and COD parameters of 1.99%, 0.36% and 0.92%, respectively. Meanwhile, for the verification process, the RRMSE values for the DO, BOD, and COD parameters are 1.95%, 1.02% and 1.86%. All water quality parameters produce small RRMSE values in the calibration and verification processes. Hence, the water quality model created has good accuracy and stability.

A study was conducted in the Ambo district of western Ethiopia in 2006 to understand the poverty reduction impacts of small‐scale irrigation development, using the Indris irrigation system as a case study. The study was based on a survey of representative farm households with and without access to irrigation. The total sample size for the study was 222 (107 households with access to irrigation and 115 without). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, the Foster, Greer and Thobeck poverty indices, and Heckman&#39;s selectivity model. Results indicate that the incidence, depth, and severity of poverty are significantly lower among those farm households with access to irrigation. In addition to irrigation, other variables such as farm size, livestock holding size, land productivity, and family size significantly influence the level of household consumption expenditure. However, the proportion of poor people in the overall sample, notwithstanding access to irrigation, is alarmi...

Pumpkin has a huge potential to provide nutrition, food security and cash income to rural households in Kenya but its production remains low. The crop has been given little research attention and not promoted as a viable enterprise. Socioeconomic factors and gender issues in smallholder pumpkin production, consumption and marketing have not been studied nor documented. The overall objective of carrying out the study was to assess socioeconomic factors and gender issues related to smallholder pumpkin production, consumption and marketing. A household survey of 260 households was conducted in Eastern and Central Kenya. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS and Stata computer software. The research showed that pumpkins were grown in same plots with a mixture of other crops such as pulses, bananas and sweet potatoes. Majority of the pumpkin farmers were female and most did not have access to market information. Women contributed more family labour while men contributed more hired labour in pumpkin production and marketing. Women played a greater role in making decisions on access and control in pumpkin consumption, sales and income. Pumpkin fruits and leaves were mainly used as food while seeds were mainly used for planting by majority of the households. Pumpkins were perceived as food for the poor, children and rural dwellers by most of the sampled households. Pumpkin market participation by farm households was influenced by membership in groups, gender of household head, market price, household size and distance to market. The proposed research and policy interventions included developing and availing technologies, commercializing the crop and enhancing smallholder farmers' market participation. Other interventions include promoting pumpkin as a viable enterprise, farmers training and awareness creation on pumpkin medicinal and nutritional values. Further research is required on pumpkin value chain analysis.

Cape Town faces “Day Zero,” the date when the city could run out of water. The proximate cause is a three-year drought, considered to be a roughly 1-in-400-year hydrological event. By end of February 2018, the Theewaterskloof dam fell to ~11%, highlighting the importance of obtaining water from diverse sources in adequate storage volumes for assurance of supply, especially in variable and less predictable climate. Development of the Cape Flats Aquifer as an emergency and long-term source was initiated in 2017. This combination of shortand long-term horizons necessitated adopting a ‘No Regrets’ and ‘Build Back Better’ approach, inherent in Disaster Risk Response and Reduction best practice. The integration of remote sensing mapping, GIS modelling, and geological (process) understanding informed the aquifer geometry and properties (product). This aquifer geometry and properties was innovatively combined with of landand air-borne geophysics, parallel exploration and production drilling...

The Cape Flats Aquifer (CFA) is a primary coastal aquifer under the low-lying eastern suburbs and townships in the City of Cape Town (South Africa). It was identified as a major groundwater source since the 1970s but only intermittently explored and monitored until 2018, when Cape Town initiated an emergency programme in response to a prolonged drought. The objectives in this programme-still in progress-include detailed mapping of aquifer extent and properties, establishment and maintenance of a monitoring programme, and design and implementation of a Managed Aquifer Recharge abstraction scheme. Sustaining the potential of the CFA requires a holistic approach, considerate of the social, cultural and economic context. Support from the local communities is essential if this natural resource is to be harnessed for the benefit of all, as a supply and a means to store water for reuse from wastewater treatment works situated above the aquifer. CFA development can potentially help heal many of the historic societal wounds arising from the apartheid system of segregation and discrimination. The practices of transformative art may provide a practical and useful way to consider and structure the necessary "edges of engagement" in the socio-hydrogeological and environmental context.

Soil water evaporation is an important parameter that needs to be accurately measured for the design of water-efficient agricultural systems. With this study, the abilities of the DFM capacitance probes and a neutron water meter (NWM) to measure evaporation from the soil surface were compared. Measured evaporation was compared to the control values measured with mini-lysimeters. Calibration of DFM capacitance probes and the NWM was done in the laboratory using the topsoil of a Bainsvlei soil form. Field measurements of soil water content were done on the same Bainsvlei soil. Calibration results indicated a good correspondence (r 2 = 0.99) between the measured values and known volumetric soil water contents. There was no significant difference (p = 95%) between the DFM evaporation measurements and the control, whereas the NWM and control differed significantly. It was concluded that the DFM capacitance probe is a better tool than the NWM in measuring evaporation from the topsoil surface.