Trade Law

This jurisprudential study provides a critical analysis for judicial officers tasked with distinguishing Culpable Homicide (S. 299) from Murder (S. 300) under the Penal Code, 1860, in Bangladesh. The distinction pivots on the "Degree of Probability Test"—established in State vs. Ashraf Ali and others—which mandates a heightened mens rea threshold for Murder. While Culpable Homicide is established by likely/probable death, Murder requires intention or knowledge approaching virtual certainty ("most probable"). The paper systematically analyzes the four stringent clauses of Section 300 and the five statutory exceptions that reduce the charge (S. 304). Furthermore, it critiques crucial systemic challenges, including issues with confessional evidence, vicarious liability (S. 34/149), and mandatory sentencing under special laws. The analysis advocates for strict judicial fidelity to the "most probable" standard, ensuring the capital charge of Murder is reserved exclusively for acts demonstrating the highest quantum of culpability, thereby safeguarding proportionality and due process.

Keywords: Culpable Homicide, Murder, Penal Code 1860, Mens Rea, Degree of Probability Test, Judicial Discretion, Bangladesh, Criminal Law, Section 300, Section 304.

Especializado en Derecho Procesal, ha impartido clases de esta materia también en diversos masters colegiales o de otras instituciones universitarias españolas. Ha escrito libros, colaborado con aportaciones a libros colectivos, así como publicado en diversas revistas científicas en relación a diversos aspectos relativos a la propiedad horizontal, a la nulidad de actuaciones, al proceso de revisión civil y a los aspectos de derecho internacional implicados en el Ley Concursal.

Directive 2008/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on certain aspects of mediation in civil and commercial matters provides an example of how to use EU policy to attempt to improve, standardise and harmonise the Member States' justice systems. The Member States have untilMay 2011 to transpose the directive. This paper intends to examine current Spanish legislation on family mediation —analysing its development and its strengths and weaknesses and focusing on its adaptation to Directive 2008/52/EC on mediation— to raise issues and make future suggestions with a view to introducing family mediation more widely and extending it to encompass civilmediation, within the framework of the EU.

This study presents a Sustainable Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Framework aimed at strengthening last-mile vaccine delivery in resource-constrained settings. Health systems in such settings face numerous challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, governance issues, and heavy reliance on donor funding, which undermine equitable access to vaccines. The proposed framework integrates pooled funding from the public and private sectors, leverages digital technologies such as IoT and GPS for real-time logistics optimization, and incorporates strategies to generate long-term financial sustainability. Using a mixed-methods design, the research combines a stakeholder perception survey (n = 128) and qualitative focus group discussions (FGDs) to assess stakeholder readiness for PPP implementation, identify barriers, and evaluate the framework's potential to improve vaccine access and reduce donor dependency. Results show strong support for PPPs across stakeholders, with technology universally regarded as essential for logistics efficiency. Key enablers for a successful framework include clear governance, robust cold chain infrastructure, and strong inter-sector collaboration. The study concludes that the proposed Sustainable PPP Framework offers a scalable, context-sensitive approach for enhancing last-mile delivery systems in health, promoting equity, operational efficiency, and financial sustainability. Although the framework is based on Nigeria's vaccine delivery system, it is designed to be scalable and applicable to other low-resource settings facing similar logistical and financial sustainability challenges.

Global commerce today is no longer a neutral domain of market exchange; it is a deeply constitutional enterprise where liberty, regulation, and justice continuously intersect. This research advances a doctrinal, comparative, and interdisciplinary analysis to explore how private law obligations, commercial transactions, and supranational frameworks are constitutionally structured across diverse jurisdictions. The study examines the jurisprudence of the United States, European Union, India, and South Africa, alongside international regimes such as the WTO, UNCITRAL, and investment arbitration, to reveal the constitutionalisation of trade at every level of governance.
The originality of this work lies in conceptualising a triadic structure of global commerce—private law, state regulation, and supranational constitutional orders—and demonstrating how doctrines of fairness, proportionality, and equality reframe contracts, corporate accountability, and arbitration as quasi-public functions. By theorising the duality of rights between economic freedoms and collective welfare, the study shows how constitutional values of justice, dignity, and equality are infused into global markets.
Ultimately, this research reimagines commerce not as mere profit-driven activity but as a constitutional practice that binds states, corporations, and international institutions within a common framework of legitimacy. It contributes both to the advancement of constitutional scholarship and to practical debates on corporate accountability, digital commerce, environmental sustainability, and global governance.

La reforma constitucional de 2011 en México marcó un hito en el reconocimiento del derecho a la alimentación como derecho humano fundamental, abriendo un proceso complejo de adecuación normativa, diseño institucional y revisión de políticas públicas. Este artículo presenta los resultados de la investigación “El derecho a la alimentación. Una nueva perspectiva tras el cambio constitucional”, realizada en el marco de la Convocatoria de Investigación 2011 del Observatorio del Derecho a la Alimentación en América Latina y el Caribe (ODA-ALC). A través de una metodología documental, el estudio analiza el estado del arte del derecho a una alimentación adecuada en México y, particularmente, en el estado de Coahuila, con énfasis en las poblaciones vulnerables. El maíz, como base alimentaria y cultural, constituye el eje simbólico y material de la reflexión, vinculando el arraigo histórico con los retos contemporáneos derivados del cambio climático, las sequías, la especulación de mercados y las limitaciones en el acceso a alimentos básicos. Se sostiene que, pese a los avances normativos y a la multiplicación de programas gubernamentales, los resultados son aún incipientes frente a la urgencia de garantizar la efectividad del derecho a la alimentación en clave de derechos humanos. La investigación concluye que el verdadero desafío no radica únicamente en la formulación de políticas, sino en su capacidad de traducirse en resultados tangibles que protejan a la población del hambre y la malnutrición.

A partir de la decada de los 70`s (siglo XX), el ser humano se encuentra viviendo un doble proceso: a) Por un lado, aprovechando los beneficios de la era de la globalizacion, viajando continuamente a lo largo y ancho de todo el planeta, no solamente en tiempo real (mejoria de los medios de transporte); sino tambien en tiempo virtual con el desarrollo de Internet, lo que es aprovechado principalmente por la mayor parte de la poblacion de paises desarrollados, y una pequena elite de poblacion de paises pobres (los que concentran la mayor parte de los precarios recursos e ingresos de estos paises). b) Por otro lado, se encuentra vedada la condicion y derecho humano mas basico (Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional y derecho a la Alimentacion). Elementos que afectan a mas de 800 millones de personas a nivel mundial y que no es exclusiva de paises pobres (aunque es mas marcado el problema). Con este panorama, propondremos reflexionar un poco respecto a estas dos tematicas que aparentemente...

Апстракт: Еколошка кривична дела, сама по себи представљају најтеже облике директног повређивања и угрожавања животне средине, али и индиректног угрожавања људских права, који проблем неретко може бити глобални. Ипак, значај еколошких кривичних дела још увек није досегао ниво који ауторка сматра да би требао да има, због тога што се као питање у пракси јавља: да ли су то дела без жртве, те као таква нису превише привлачна стручној јавности, а нарочито не онима који их требају откривати, доказивати и на крају кажњавати. Због тога је извршено истраживање на нивоу територијалног округа Републике Србије који је по значају такав да се граничи са две суседне државе, те са АП КиМ, па је опасност од еколошког криминала утолико већа, међутим, да ли су носиоци правосудне функције и стручњаци заиста заинтересовани за ову врсту криминала, остаје да истраживање да одговор на то питање. Кључне речи: заштита животне средине, еколошка кривична дела, еколошки криминалитет, злочини без жртве, загађење животне средине.

Poursuite de l’invasion de l’Ukraine, guerre dans la bande de Gaza, crise alimentaire, transition énergétique sans précédent, rééquilibrage géostratégique, montée du populisme, ingérence de toute sorte, explosion du recours à l’intelligence artificielle, inflation à maîtriser, voilà autant de traits caractérisant l’année 2023 et ayant eu le potentiel de redéfinir les relations commerciales mondiales. Dans ce contexte, mu par une nouvelle diplomatie pragmatique,1 le Canada tente d’innover tout en renouant avec son rôle d’antan: préserver ses partenaires usuels tout en développant de nouvelles relations d’opportunité (au risque parfois de piler sur ses valeurs), réinvestir les enceintes internationales avec le dessein de les moderniser, diversifier ses relations en déployant des forces diplomatiques dans de nouveaux territoires et réaffirmer sa souveraineté face à toute sorte de menaces que ce soit en Arctique ou dans le cadre électoral canadien. Ce contexte a nécessairement eu des impacts sur les choix que fait le Canada en matière commerciale.

Globalization has significantly reshaped trade and labor law systems at both international and national levels. These changes have created dynamic interactions between economic growth, investment flows, and the protection of workers’ rights.
Objective: This study aims to analyze the legal transformations driven by globalization and to identify the associated challenges and opportunities in trade and labor governance. Method: A literature review was conducted by analyzing international journals published within the last five years and relevant books published within the last ten years. The review focused on legal frameworks, institutional responses, and comparative perspectives between global and national contexts. Results: The findings reveal that globalization has fostered the emergence of new legal instruments integrating trade, labor, and sustainability concerns, such as the European Union’s Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD). In the Indonesian context, the Omnibus Law on Job Creation presents a dilemma between promoting investment and ensuring adequate worker protection.
Conclusion: The transformation of trade and labor law in the globalization era poses regulatory challenges while also offering opportunities to establish a more just, inclusive, and sustainable economic governance system. Harmonization of domestic law with international standards, alongside the active role of organizations such as the ILO, remains crucial in promoting decent work and sustainable development.

Keywords: globalization, trade law, labor law, legal transformation, sustainability

This paper explores the legal framework governing the inclusion of genetically engineered products (GEPs)-including genetically modified organisms (GMOs), in Indonesia’s Halal Positive List. As the use of GMOs-particularly genetically engineered maize—increases in agriculture, the Halal Product Assurance Agency (BPJPH) has declared certain GEPs as halal and exempt from certification. A notable example is the case of PRG maize in Lamongan, which was officially recognized as halal without requiring certification, demonstrating the practical application of the Positive List mechanism. Using normative and empirical juridical approaches, this study analyzes the regulatory implications, legal protections, and potential impacts on farmers and consumers. It specifically addresses two key questions: a) How does the Positive List for GEPs ensure compliance with Halal requirements? and b) What challenges arise in the application of this regulation? The findings reveal that while the Positive List simplifies compliance for GEPs, significant challenges remain, including public awareness, regulatory gaps, and the need for enhanced collaboration among stakeholders. The conclusion underscores the importance of strengthening legal frameworks and improving public education to enhance the effectiveness of Halal regulations concerning GEPs in Indonesia.

Keywords: Halal Regulation, Genetically Engineered Products, Positive List, Legal Framework, BPJPH

From December 5-7, 1997, the International Economic Law Interest Group ("IELIG") of the American Society of International Law ("ASIL") sponsored a conference on linkages, titled Linkage as Phenomenon: An Interdisciplinary Approach. While the fact of linkages between trade and other areas of social concern is not new, 1 the number of linkages asserted, studied, advocated, es-Assistant Professor, Florida State University College of Law. As Dr. Frieder Roessler points out in his article, links between trade and labor, for example, were explicitly recognized at the formation of the post-war trade system, and this and other links had been discussed considerably earlier. See also Virginia Leary, Workers' Rights and International Trade, in 2 FAIR TRADE AND HARMONIZATION 177, 183 (agdish Bhagwati & Robert E. Hudec eds., 1996)(notingthe link between trade and labor rights raised in mid-1 8th century); David P. Fidler, The Globalization of Public Health: Emerging Infectious Diseases and InternationalRelations, 5 IND. J. GLOBAL L. STUD. 11, 24 (1997) (noting that the relationship between trade and public health, involving the spreading of diseases throughinternational commerce, was recognized as early as at least 1851).

This article outlines a comprehensive and realistic preparation strategy for the Bangladesh Judicial Service (BJS) Preliminary Examination. It addresses common challenges faced by candidates, such as the extensive syllabus and maintaining focus, and emphasizes the importance of consistent, dedicated study over a superficial approach.

The author argues against relying on abbreviated study methods and "short suggestions," highlighting that the preliminary exam is designed to filter candidates and can include a wide range of questions, including those from less-prioritized topics. Drawing on personal experience as a Senior Judicial Magistrate and an author of BJS preparation materials, the article explains the unpredictable nature of exam questions. It asserts that a well-rounded preparation covering easy, moderate, and difficult topics is essential for success.

This work serves as a practical guide for aspirants, providing a framework for preparation that prioritizes comprehensive understanding and strategic engagement with the entire syllabus, rather than relying on guesswork or shortcuts.

This research monograph examines the harmonization of copyright and trademark damages within the context of Bangladesh's intellectual property (IP) law, focusing on the challenges and opportunities presented by digitalization. The paper analyzes the existing legal framework governing copyrights and trademarks in Bangladesh, highlighting its inadequacies and inconsistencies with international IP standards, particularly the TRIPS Agreement. It identifies key challenges, including rampant piracy, weak enforcement mechanisms, limited institutional capacity, and a pervasive lack of public awareness regarding IP rights. The study also explores the complexities of calculating damages in copyright and trademark infringement cases, emphasizing the need for clearer legal guidance and specialized expertise. Furthermore, it proposes the Intellectual Property Digitalization in Bangladesh (IPDB) initiative as a potential solution to enhance IP protection and enforcement in the digital realm. The paper concludes with specific recommendations for legal and institutional reforms, including updating existing IP laws, strengthening the capacity of the DPDT and Copyright Office, raising public awareness, and fostering international cooperation to promote harmonization and effective IP enforcement in Bangladesh. Ultimately, the research aims to contribute to the development of a robust and effective IP system in Bangladesh that fosters innovation, creativity, and economic growth in the digital age.
Keywords: Copyright, Trademark, Harmonization, Intellectual Property, Damages, WIPO, TRIPS Agreement, Digitalization, Bangladesh.

Market liberalization and increasing consumer demand in OECD countries offer attractive opportunities for agricultural exporters from developing countries. Trade in fishery products, exotics, pre-cut products, organic products and off-season fresh fruits and vegetables extend altogether new options for businesses. Yet, global market standards are stringent. Consumers in these countries and in urban areas in developing and transition economies demand safe and nutritional food, excellent quality and just-in-time delivery. This presents major challenges to producers and countries that lack state-of-the-art technologies and infrastructure. Particularly for producers in these countries, collaboration between trade partners has become increasingly important for the success of cross-border trade in the competitive market.

The Great Recession has provided a natural experiment and data for which to test Keynesian theory as well reignited the debate of the effectiveness of stimulus policy during recessions. In response to the proposition of expansionary stimulus, proponents of austerity have cited recent studies purporting austerity to also be expansionary. This paper provides an overview of the theoretical underpinnings and merits of these policy choices and argues based on current trends in economic indicators that stimulus was the appropriate action given the specific circumstances of the Great Recession. A comparative analysis is conducted of trends in economic indicators for the United States, United Kingdom, and euro area to evaluate which policy was more effective. Findings of this research show that initial stimulus measures in the U.K. and euro area were insufficient and austerity policy prolonged their recession’s impact. Findings of this research also support the narrative that the larger and...

პოსტსაბჭოურ ქვეყნებში ბიზნესის განვითარებისთვის მნიშვნელოვანია პასუხისმგებლობის ცენტრების მიხედვით დანახარჯთა აღრიცხვის სისტემის დანერგვა, რომელიც განსაზღვრავს დანახარჯების ეფექტიან კონტროლსა და მასზე ანგარიშვალდებულების იერარქიას. ის აძლევს საშუალებას პასუხისმგებლობის ცენტრის მენეჯერებს ან/და შემსრულებლებს, განავითარონ თავიანთი უნარები, რათა შეამცირონ ხარჯები, გაზარდონ ორგანიზაციის შემოსავალი და შესაბამისად მოგება. საქართველოში ამ სისტემის არსებობისა და მისი გამოყენებით მიღებული შედეგების შეფასებისთვის ჩატარებულია კვლევა. სტრატიფიცირებული შერჩევის მეთოდით შეირჩა კომპანიები საქმიანობის სფეროების მიხედვით და შერჩეული კომპანიებიდან გამოკითხვის მეთოდით შეგროვდა პირველადი მონაცემები. განხორციელებული კვლევის შედეგებიდან ჩანს, რომ საქართველოში ეს პროცესი ახალი დაწყებულია. კომპანიების ტოპ-მენეჯმენტი საკმარისად არ იცნობს ან საერთოდ არ იცნობს აღრიცხვის ამ სისტემის უპირატესობებს აღრიცხვის ერთიან ცენტრალიზებულ სისტემასთან შედარებით. ამიტომ ისინი არც გეგმავენ ახლო მომავალში ამ სისტემაზე გადასვლას, თუმცა რესპოდენტთა ნაწილი მზადაა გაიღრმავოს ცოდნა ამ მიმართულებით, რაც ხელს შეუწყობს კომპანიების წარმატებულ საქმიანობას და ბიზნესის განვითარებას. მიღებული მონაცემების ანალიზის შედეგად მივიჩნევთ რომ, ადგილობრივ კომპანიებში სასურველია ამაღლდეს პასუხისმგებლობის ცენტრების მიხედვით დანახარჯთა აღრიცხვის სისტემის ცნობადობა, რაც ხელს შეუწყობს მის ფართოდ დანერგვას.

This work is set out to make an appraisal of the contributions of World Trade Organization (WTO) towards enhancing trade in developing countries. Many developing countries have joined the WTO in order to protect themselves against the unfair market practices common in international trade. Developing countries represent the majority members of the institution and participate actively in the WTO trading system. The WTO has provided in its agreements, some Special and Differential (S&D) treatment to developing countries. It is rather a paradox that most of these provisions to a greater extent have not been effective towards enhancing trade in developing countries. The objective of this work is to examine the extent to which the WTO has contributed towards enhancing trade in developing-member countries. The method adopted in this research is doctrinal wherein, both primary and secondary sources of data were collected. The findings reveal among others that, the S&D treatment provisions accorded to developing countries who are vulnerable members of the institution have not been effectively implemented. The WTO lacks an efficient mechanism to ensure the effective implementation of its rules. It is therefore recommended that, the WTO should put in place an effective mechanism to ensure that developed member countries comply with the S&D treatment accorded to developing countries. The organization should equally provide more assistance (tariffs reduction) to developing countries to enable them achieve their economic growth and development. Developing countries on the other hand should establish transparent domestic trade policies necessary to implement the WTO rules.

W. Bowman Cutter: My inclination is to address the question that this panel's title poses narrowly, directly, and completely by saying, "Not much in the near term." The following remarks expand on that otherwise complete presentation. I talk about the narrow question and its implications and conclude with some thoughts about a possible way forward. Let me begin by explaining my "not much" response. My key point is that I see absolutely no visible support-either deep or superficial-for ongoing innovation and creativity in trade policy. This lack of support persists despite the fact that the United States is in the middle of what appears to be a profound transformation in growth and productivity that has made irrelevant most of the standard arguments against continued trade policy liberalization. Part of the left has launched itself into a campaign against the whole idea. American labor has reversed its historic pattern of support. American business, and particularly business linked to the new economy, has not emerged as a meaningful force on trade, probably cannot do so, and certainly does not want to. Furthermore, both political parties are deeply ambivalent. Where a force for liberalization of trade policy is going to emerge from is unclear to me. This assessment raises the question, why? Let me offer some of the reasons I have thought about over the past few years. First, the nature of trade and trade issues has changed. (Agriculture may be an exception, as an area that will never be resolved but instead managed from day to day.) As many other participants in this conference have already discussed, trade policy is no longer about tariffs. Neither is it really about arm's-length transactions that are clearly across borders. Instead, it is about nontariff barriers. Often this means that trade policy today is about an underlying set of transactions that occur between affiliated groups, and that are therefore by no means arm's length,

Donkey seh de worl' nuh lebble' (According to the donkey, the world is not a level playing field) -Jamaican proverb I. INTRODUCTION HIS article examines aspects of the proposed mechanisms for trade and investments dispute settlement under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative (FTAA), which will comprise thirty-four Member States, consisting of every country in the Western Hemisphere, except Cuba. Specifically, this article focuses on the trade and investment dispute settlement vulnerability of small Latin American and Caribbean states. It also includes recommendations that should both be considered and meaningfully represented in ongoing negotiations for the establishment of the FTAA. The proposed FTAA is primarily concerned with trade and investment.' Although it has been touted as a U.S.-led response to integration within the European Union (EU), 2 the FTAA does not represent an express intention for political unionism. Instead, it represents an intention for the establishment and maintenance of a "free zone" for trade and investments in the Western Hemisphere. 3 Beyond trade and investment, express parallels with the EU become blurred, or disappear, and it becomes clear that the socio-political objectives of the EU 4 are not aligned *Attorney-at-Law of Jamaica Bar and Dominica Bar.

Chapter 11: Exploring the impact of healthcare and pharmaceutical advances on agriculture 11.1. Introduction Advances in healthcare and pharmaceuticals play a major role in improving social, economic, and agrarian development across the globe. Healthier individuals-especially agricultural workers-show improved labor productivity and management abilities. Consumers with better knowledge of health, disease, and nutrition are able to demand new foods, stimulating new agricultural production and economic growth. Finally, as increased life expectancy creates an aging population that survives longer years, medical and health-related needs generate new demand for nonstaple food products, such as flowers and other ornamental goods, resulting in further economic and agricultural development. The work presented explores the effects of health and pharmaceutical advances on the agricultural sector and how agriculture generates a positive contribution to health (Pretty & Bharucha, 2015; Jeyaraj et al., 2016; Munir et al., 2020). In this paper we highlight several aspects of the interaction between health, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture, including both positive and negative links, and attempt to provide some empirical foundations for our explorations. Our goal is to show you, the reader, how the experimental evidence supports the idea that pharmaceutical and healthcare advances do have a significant and positive impact on agriculture, especially on developing nations. We present an overview of the various concepts and empirical findings about the interaction between health and agriculture, providing much of the theoretical background needed, in a systematic way. This survey neither attempts to be a completely exhaustive overview nor provides a comprehensive set of citations for previous work. Rather our treatment serves as a suitable introduction for researchers with an interest in the area (Singh et al., 2018; Riaz et al., 2020).

Digital assets are things that have been produced in digital field or transferred to digital environment in form of pictures, videos, photographs, content, games, documents and many other forms, which occupy a wide place in human life all over world. It is recognised that digital assets have taken place very rapidly in economic, social and legal fields, especially in developed countries, especially in USA. While some of these assets can be sold, exhibited or subject to licence agreements such as works of art, some of them are produced and used as cryptocurrencies digital environment such as currencies in the economic field. It cannot be ignored that use of these digital assets will diversify and become widespread in future, which makes us think about ownership of these rights in field of law, that is, qualifications of being subject to property. In article, concept of NFT, which is a digital asset, has been discussed and nature of this concept has been examined within framework of right ownership. While analysing subject, developments in German Law and Swiss Law have been mentioned and opinions have been discussed.

Anonim Şirketlerde Yönetim Kurulu Sorumluluğu: Zararın Tazmini Ve Karşılaştırmalı Hukuk İncelemesı
ÖZET
Bu çalışma, anonim şirketlerde yönetim kurulu sorumluluğunun hukuki çerçevesini ve ortaya çıkan zararın tazmini hususunu ayrıntılı biçimde ele almaktadır. İlk olarak, anonim şirketin temel özellikleri ve yönetim kurulunun hukuki niteliği açıklanmış; organ teorisi, temsil teorisi ve karma teori perspektiflerinden yönetim kurulunun şirket içi ve dışındaki işlevlerine değinilmiştir. Yönetim kurulunun görev ve yetkilerinin tanımlanmasıyla birlikte, genel kurulun kararları, şirket defterlerinin tutulması, yıllık faaliyet raporlarının hazırlanması ve temsil yetkisi gibi konuların iç hukuktaki düzenlenişi incelenmiştir.
Devamında, yönetim kurulu üyelerinin sorumluluğuna ilişkin hukuki dayanaklar, Türk Ticaret Kanunu ve Borçlar Kanunu başta olmak üzere diğer kanunlar (örneğin, vergi kanunları ve sermaye piyasası mevzuatı) doğrultusunda değerlendirilmiştir. Burada, kusur sorumluluğu ve daha istisnai bir alan olan kusursuz sorumluluk tartışılmış; sorumluluğu doğuran hukuka aykırılık, zarar, kusur ve illiyet bağı unsurlarının anonim şirket bağlamındaki somut görünümleri irdelenmiştir. Müteselsil sorumluluk ile farklılaştırılmış teselsül kavramlarının uygulamadaki işleyişi, kusurun her bir üye arasında nasıl paylaştırıldığına dair önemli ipuçları sunmuştur.
Çalışma, yönetim kurulu üyelerini sorumluluğa götüren hallerden kanuna, esas sözleşmeye ve genel kurul kararlarına aykırılık ile özen-bağlılık yükümlülüklerinin ihlalini ayrı başlıklarda detaylandırmıştır. Şirket defterlerinin usulüne uygun tutulmaması, sermaye koyma borcunun denetimindeki ihmaller, rekabet yasağının ihlali veya şirket sırlarının ifşası gibi uygulamada sıkça rastlanan örnekler yoluyla sorumluluğun hangi şartlarda ortaya çıktığı somutlaştırılmıştır.
Zarar kavramı, maddi (fiili zarar ve yoksun kalınan kâr) ile manevi (itibar zedelenmesi) unsurlar üzerinden tanımlanmış; zararın hesaplanmasında fark teorisi, nakit akışı indirgeme yöntemi ve piyasa değeri azalma yöntemi gibi tekniklerin kullanıldığı vurgulanmıştır. Tazminatın belirlenmesi aşamasında, tam tazmin ilkesi temel prensip olarak ortaya konmuş; müterafik kusur ve hakkaniyet indirimi gibi kurumların ise tazminat miktarını azaltabileceği belirtilmiştir.
Karşılaştırmalı hukuk incelemesinde, Anglo-Amerikan, kıta Avrupası ve Uzak Doğu (Japonya, Çin) örnekleri değerlendirilerek özen ve sadakat yükümlülükleri, business judgment rule, iş adamı kararı ilkesi ve toplumsal sorumluluk anlayışının farklı tezahürleri irdelenmiştir. Türk Ticaret Kanunu’nun ve ilgili içtihatların bu sistemlerle benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları üzerinde durulmuş; kurumsal yönetim ilkeleri, türev dava ve azınlık hakları gibi alanlarda Türk hukukunun geliştirilmesi yönünde öneriler sunulmuştur.
Sonuç kısmında, yönetim kurulu sorumluluğunun hem şirket menfaati hem de pay ve alacaklı hakları açısından kritik değeri vurgulanmış; ibra, zamanaşımı, sulh ve feragat gibi kurumların uygulanışı ve somut davalardaki etkileri özetlenmiştir. Yönetim kurulu üyelerinin şirketi yönetirken hukuka ve etik ilkelere uygun davranması, sadece hukuki uyuşmazlıkların önlenmesi değil, aynı zamanda kurumsal itibarın korunması ve yatırımcı güveninin sağlanması bakımından da son derece önemlidir.
Anahtar Kelimeler; Anonim şirket, Yönetim kurulu sorumluluğu, Zararın tazmini, Kusur ve illiyet bağı, Karşılaştırmalı hukuk

In the modern era, scholars across political science, international relations, sociology, and economics have scrutinized the ideologies and intellectual currents that favor transnational governance structures and global domination at the expense of traditional nation-state sovereignty. From early analyses of imperialism to contemporary critiques of neoliberalism, globalism, technocracy, and transnational capitalism, a rich body of literature traces how elite networks and ideologies have promoted forms of global rule that constrain or bypass nation-states. This report provides a comprehensive overview of key authors and their major works examining these trends. It details each author's arguments and frameworks, highlighting how their contributions illuminate the tension between global governance and national sovereignty. A summary table of authors, works, and thematic foci is also included for quick reference.

Very recently Reserve Bank of India has instructed all banks to implement the cheque Truncation system across the country. In this context, we made an attempt to study how CTS benefits to customers. With the introduction of imaging and truncation, the physical movement of instruments is stopped. The electronic movement of images of cheques speeds up the process of settlement and can facilitate reduction in the clearing cycles as well. Moreover, there is no fear of loss of instruments in transit.

ILCA's HIGHLANDS PROGRAMME aims to find ways of improving the overall productivity of mixed smallholder farms in the highlands by increasing the technical and economic efficiency of livestock enterprises. Particular emphasis is given to enhancing the complementarity of the livestock and crop components. A substantial part of the work of the Programme focuses on topics related to animal traction, including studies of the use of oxen worked as singles rather than pairs. Ploughing in the Ethiopian highlands is traditionally done using paired oxen; but surveys showed that half of the smallholder farmers in the highlands owned either one or no oxen. During 1983 ILCA's team developed a yoke and harness and modified version of the local wooden plough, the maresha, suitable for use by a single ox of local breed. On-station testing showed that an adequately fed ox could cultivate in a day 60 to 70% of the area ploughed by a pair. Field days were organised for local farmers from the Peasants' Associations around ILCA's research stations in the Ethiopian highlands. After the field days, farmers were invited to try the adaptation of the traditional method on their own farms at their own risk and expense. ILCA provided assistance in retraining oxen to work as singles, then closely monitored the use of single oxen on the test farmers' land through twice-weekly visits. By October 1983 more than 140 farmers had approached ILCA for assistance in ploughing with a single ox. Subsequent crop yields on the test farms were similar for land cultivated with single or paired animals. The time taken for cultivation by single oxen was around 30% more than by oxen pairs. Oxen worked as singles require more feed per head than paired oxen. Research is therefore planned to investigate whether a short duration forage legume can be sown during the early rains prior to the usual cereal or pulse crops in order to have high-quality feed available for draught oxen when it is most needed. The widespread use of the single ox method of ploughing could dramatically reduce the number of oxen needed to support food crop production, thereby increasing the feed resources available for each working animal. The technique does not put subsistence crop yields at risk and requires only minimal investment-the new yoke and harness can be made cheaply from local materials, while the modifications to the maresha can be done at home or by the village blacksmith. If uptake occurs on a large enough scale, the new technique will have far-reaching implications for the smallholder farmers of Ethiopia who are among the world's poorest people.

Coautores Mauricio Gallo Callejas María Victoria Fernández Molina Nicolás Cobo Romaní Laura Pautassi Carla Zibecchi Pilar Arcidiácono Lorena Balardini Ana María Bestard Maximiliano Carrasco Carolina Mouriño Laura Royo Delfina Beguerie Karina Carpintero Belén Donzelli Magdalena Inés García Rossi Joaquín Mogaburu Siro de Martini Úrsula C. Basset César Augusto Molina S. Mario Alonso Cadavid Ramírez Edilma Arteaga Ramírez Isabel Goyes Moreno Aura Torres Burbano Viviana Burgos Cárdenas Juan Fernando Sánchez Jaramillo Lina Escobar Martínez Indira Sotelo Díaz Margarita Cárdenas Olga Cecilia Restrepo-Yepes ISBN:978-958-8815-82-4 Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura Derecho a la alimentación:

Water for crop production as well as human and animal consumption is a limiting factor in most areas of Ethiopia. Due to restricted accessibility humans as well as animals spend a great amount of time and energy to reach and gather water. At the same time, Ethiopia has the greatest livestock population in Africa and about 14 million oxen available. These oxen are used almost exclusively for seasonal land preparation in cropping systems and remain unproductive during the remainder of the year. During the socialist regime in Ethiopia, community based work with draught oxen was used in two Peasant Associations to construct two ponds of 9,500 and 8,700 m3 capacity, respectively. For loosening of the soil, the traditional Ethiopian ox drawn plow "Maresha" was used, the soil was then removed by ox-drawn scoops with a capacity of 0.13 m3. The construction involved 140 oxen in one association and 90 oxen in the other, thus using a great part of the farmers and oxen available in th...

با ترویج و گسترش شبکه های اجتماعی، مسئله اخبار جعلی به صورت روزافزونی مورد توجه سیاست گذاران، روزنامه نگاران و حتی مردم عادی قرار گرفته است. وضعیت خاص کشور ایران و ساختار پیچیده آن باعث می شود مسئله اخبار جعلی در این کشور اهمیتی ویژه داشته باشد. در این پژوهش از روش تحقیق ترکیبی متوالی بهره گرفته شده است. ابتدا، پیمایشی بر روی ۱۳۷ روزنامه‌نگار و فعال شبکه‌های اجتماعی صورت گرفت که به سوالاتی پیرامون نگرش آن‌ها به گسترش اخبار جعلی در ایران و جهان و نقش‌های احتمالی دولت‌ها و نهادهای تصمیم‌گیر در مقابله با این اخبار پاسخ دادند. پس از تحلیل این پاسخ‌ها، مصاحبه‌هایی طراحی شد که در آن ۴۸ نفر از خبرگان حوزه خبر به سوالات بسته و باز پاسخ دادند. در پایان، با مقایسه نتایج حاصل از هر دو مرحله تحقیق، برخی نتایج و توصیه‌ها استخراج و ارائه گردید.

This paper reflects the study of such a fundamental principle as the features of the use of administrative and civil contracts in the process of implementing public governance and the conceptual aspects of their separation. The issue is quite relevant, since today administrative bodies are increasingly using contracts as a legal form of exercising public authority. The absence of a clear criterion for their separation leads to certain legal uncertainties in public governance and, accordingly, to the inefficiency of the activities of public bodies. State bodies conclude contracts with an individual or legal entity, as well as with another administrative body, in the form of civil-legal or public-

This paper reflects the study of such a fundamental principle as the features of the use of administrative and civil contracts in the process of implementing public governance and the conceptual aspects of their separation. The issue is quite relevant, since today administrative bodies are increasingly using contracts as a legal form of exercising public authority. The absence of a clear criterion for their separation leads to certain legal uncertainties in public governance and, accordingly, to the inefficiency of the activities of public bodies. State bodies conclude contracts with an individual or legal entity, as well as with another administrative body, in the form of civil-legal or public-

This paper reflects the study of such a fundamental principle as the features of the use of administrative and civil contracts in the process of implementing public governance and the conceptual aspects of their separation. The issue is quite relevant, since today administrative bodies are increasingly using contracts as a legal form of exercising public authority. The absence of a clear criterion for their separation leads to certain legal uncertainties in public governance and, accordingly, to the inefficiency of the activities of public bodies. State bodies conclude contracts with an individual or legal entity, as well as with another administrative body, in the form of civil-legal or public-

This paper explains the important idea of free consent in contract law, focusing on how undue influence can affect it under the Contract Act, 1872. It uses simple language and real examples to show when a contract is not truly agreed upon freely and can be canceled. This guide is made especially for candidates preparing for the 18th Bangladesh Judicial Service exam to help them understand the law clearly and apply it in real situations.

This Article discusses the importance of acceptance in contracting. The relation between acceptance and offer is encapsulated in the maxim “Acceptance is to offer as lighted match is to a barrel of gunpowder.” The paper focuses on the principles of consensus, the rule of concord and the theory of the summoned. It also examines the legal consequences of acceptance in applications such as business contracts and online agreements, and refers to important contract cases such as Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co and ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg. It is crucial not only for an acceptance, as it creates legal duties, but also it secures the validity of contracts.

U ovom radu autorka analizira pravne posledice koje nastupaju usled brisanja prinudno likvidiranog privrednog društva iz registra na osnovu rešenja srpskog Zakona o privrednim društvima (čl. 547b i 548) i retkih uporednopravnih sistema koji poznaju prinudnu likvidaciju u upravnom postupku (tzv. administrativnu likvidaciju). Kao reprezentativni primeri uporednopravnih sistema u tom smislu obrađeni su britanski Zakon o kompanijama iz 2006. godine i američki Model zakon o korporacijama. Posledice brisanja društva iz registra usled prinudne likvidacije grupisane su u četiri celine: a) posledice po društvo, b) posledice po imovinu društva, v) posledice po obaveze društva i g) posledice po sudske i upravne postupke u odnosu na društvo. Autorka zaključuje da se po svim navedenim posledicama srpsko pravo bitno razlikuje od britanskog prava i prava SAD. Najznačajnije razlike u tom pogledu tiču se (ne) mogućnosti vraćanja administrativno likvidiranog društva u registar, (ne)prelaska imovine društva na članove, (ne)odgovornosti članova za obaveze društva, a naročito (ne)postojanja posebnog pravila o odgovornosti kontrolnog člana.

Ključne reči: prinudna likvidacija, privredno društvo, brisanje iz registra, vraćanje u registar, neograničena odgovor-nost kontrolnog člana za obaveze društva.

As manifestações expressas por integrantes dos quadros da Fundação Getulio Vargas, nas quais constem a sua identificação como tais, em artigos e entrevistas publicados nos meios de comunicação em geral, representam exclusivamente as opiniões dos seus autores e não, necessariamente, a posição institucional da FGV.

Despite the well-documented counter-cyclical relationship between import protection and GDP growth, the deep economic recession that has been affecting Brazil since 2014 was followed by a decrease in the number of antidumping investigations. To investigate the relationship between import protection through antidumping (AD) filings and economic activity we updated and adapted the Bown and Crowley 2012 and 2013 papers. We run a negative binomial panel regression model where the independent variable and the main independent variable are on a country-bilateral basis. Our database included samples from both emerging economies and developed countries. The results suggest that the counter cyclical relationship between AD filings and imposing country GDP is valid only for developed countries, while emerging economies show rather a pro-cyclical trend. Results should be regarded with caution since the expected negative relationship between exporting country GDP and AD filings has not been con...

This review paper explains the latest advances in veterinary medicine from the perspective of sustainable animal health management and disease prevention. The objective of this study is to evaluate the integration of sustainability into veterinary practice with an emphasis on the role played by emerging technologies, preventive measures, and eco-friendly methods in improving animal health outcomes. Some of the key advances discussed include the use of the One Health principle, which integrates human, animal, and environmental health; the adoption of antibiotic stewardship to combat antimicrobial resistance; and the use of alternative and natural interventions in the management of animal health. The article also discusses the role of new diagnostic methods and genomic technologies in identifying and preventing disease at an early level. The article also highlights environmental sustainability in veterinary businesses, climate change mitigation, and promotion of sustainable farming and waste management. Furthermore, ethical and social considerations such as animal welfare and public education are presented with regard to sustainable veterinary medicine. The findings show that while there has been tremendous progress in veterinary medicine with sustainable strategies, some matters such as economic considerations and the spread of emerging diseases remain problems. Continued study, collaboration, and policy development are needed to enhance the sustainability of veterinary medicine practice, with the vision of advancing long-term improvements in animal and public health.

En este artículo se analizan los principales argumentos esgrimidos por la Sala "C" de la Cámara Nacional de Apelaciones en lo Comercial en el caso GARAN-TIZAR S.G.R. c/ DIB, ALBERTO EDUARDO Y OTRO s/ EJECUTIVO, en el que el Tribunal Mercantil Nacional entendió que media una relación de consumo en el contrato de garantía recíproca celebrado entre un socio partícipe y la sociedad de garantía recíproca por el solo destino que se le da a los bienes adquiridos a partir del mutuo bancario avalado. Palabras clave: sociedad de garantía recíproca-contrato de garantía recíproca-socio partícipeempresa-PyME-relación de consumo

The Great Recession has provided a natural experiment and data for which to test Keynesian theory as well reignited the debate of the effectiveness of stimulus policy during recessions. In response to the proposition of expansionary stimulus, proponents of austerity have cited recent studies purporting austerity to also be expansionary. This paper provides an overview of the theoretical underpinnings and merits of these policy choices and argues based on current trends in economic indicators that stimulus was the appropriate action given the specific circumstances of the Great Recession. A comparative analysis is conducted of trends in economic indicators for the United States, United Kingdom, and euro area to evaluate which policy was more effective. Findings of this research show that initial stimulus measures in the U.K. and euro area were insufficient and austerity policy prolonged their recession’s impact. Findings of this research also support the narrative that the larger and...

Сида представља једну од најсмртоноснијих заразних
болести данашњице од које сваке године премине близу милион људи у свету. Специфичност обољења и начина преношења ХИВ инфекције пред законодавце поставља незахвалан
задатак приликом инкриминисања преношења ове болести.
Од 2005. године, Србија је једна од земаља која Кривичним закоником прописује посебно кривично дело преношење инфекције ХИВ вирусом. Међутим, 17 година након увођења овог
кривичног дела у домаћи кривичноправни систем, у Србији
су постојала само два случаја осуде. Анализа кривичног дела
преношење инфекције ХИВ вирусом, ради бољег разумевања
и боље практичне примене, представља основни циљ овог рада. У централном делу рада аутор се бави анализом законског
описа предметног кривичног дела. Поред тога, аутор један
део рада посвећује објашњавању основних карактеристика
и начина преношења инфекције ХИВ вирусом, уз приказ мера
превенције од заражавања. На самом крају, аутор указује на
недостатке законске одредбе којом је прописано кривично дело преношење инфекције ХИВ вирусом, уз давање закључног
разматрања на ову тему