Theories of Perception

This study examines how phenomenological philosophy expands the space-human relationship based on experience in cultural, social and psychological contexts through architecture and modern art works. The aim of the study is to evaluate the effect of phenomenological perspective on conceptual art and architecture by analyzing Marcel Duchamp's works that redefine the space-human dialectic with architectural components such as windows and doors; transforming the perception of space and objects. Perception and phenomenology of space are discussed within the scope of the theories of different thinkers in the context of 20th century space conceptualizations. The sample of the study, whose conceptual structure is developed based on the qualitative research method, consists of four works of Duchamp associated with architecture. The presence of perception theories such as Empiricism, Rationalism, Nativism and Gestalt in Duchamp's works is questioned on the basis of the phenomenological approach. As a result, it has been determined that Duchamp's architecture-related and experience-oriented works present indicators that can be explained especially by Empiricist and Gestalt theories within perception theories. In a general evaluation, it can be said that Duchamp prepared the ground for the phenomenological interpretation of architectural space with his avant-garde space studies.

Статья исследует диалог между британским специалистом в области когнитивных наук Мюрреем Шанаханом и большой языковой моделью Claude 3 Opus о «самосознании» искусственного интеллекта (ИИ). Автор рассматривает дискурс ИИ исключительно как предмет герменевтического анализа с позиции читателя, независимо от вопроса о наличии у ИИ сознания или личности (текстоцентрический подход). В статье устанавливаются параллели между рассуждениями
ИИ о природе своего сознания и буддийскими концепциями, особенно учением о дхармах, обосновывающем буддийскую концепцию анатмана («не-Я»). Базовые классификации дхарм и их обоснование исследуются в свете системы буддийских представлений об основах когнитивного опыта индивида в мире. Автор подчеркивает, что проблема «я» как лингвистического и концептуального конструкта, а не онтологической категории («Я»), была впервые формулирована
именно в учении Будды Шакьямуни. Им же предложено «экспериментальное» применение этой концепции в практиках систематического самонаблюдения (смрити). В статье утверждается, что дискурс Claude о своем сознании, даже если это всего лишь «механический узор из лингвистических конструкций, сотканный заранее заданными алгоритмами», может оказаться источником, вдохновляющим создание новых подходов к загадке сознания. Этот потенциал коренится в обширной базе данных ИИ, представляющей собой настоящий плавильный котел текстового наследия разнообразных человеческих культур. Автор полагает, что рассмотрение текстов ИИ через призму индийских и буддийских мыслительных традиций может помочь не только обогатить современную философию и науку, но также выявить и преодолеть неосознанные когнитивные искажения и культурные предубеждения, которые ограничивают развитие западных исследований сознания, мешая им в полной мере учитывать весь спектр интеллектуальных достижений человечества. Такой поликультурный подход может, во-первых, расширить концептуальный аппарат когнитивных исследований, во-вторых, выявить действительно универсальные паттерны в понимании сознания, в-третьих, генерировать новые исследовательские гипотезы и направления в изучении не только искусственного, но и естественного интеллекта, в-четвертых, способствовать переосмыслению нашего понимания Другого, расширяя границы того, что мы считаем разумным или сознательным.


Dialogue on Artificial Intelligence’s Self-Awareness Between
the Cognitive Science Expert and Large Language Model
Claude 3 Opus: A Buddhist Scholar’s Perspective
V.G. Lysenko
Institute of Philosophy, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
Abstract
The article examines the dialogue between British cognitive science expert Murray Shanahan and the large language model Claude 3 Opus about “self-awareness” of artificial intelligence (AI). Adopting a text-centric approach, the author analyzes AI’s discourse through a hermeneutic lens from a reader’s perspective, irrespective of whether AI possesses consciousness or personhood. The article draws parallels between AI’s reasoning about the nature of consciousness and Buddhist concepts, especially the doctrine of dharmas, which underpins the Buddhist concept of anātman (“non-Self”).
Basic classifications of dharmas and their justification are examined in light of the Buddhist system of ideas about the foundations of an individual’s cognitive experience in the world. The author emphasizes that the problem of the Self as a linguistic and conceptual construct, rather than a real ontological category, was first formulated in the teachings of Buddha Shakyamuni who also proposed an “experimental” application of this concept in practices of systematic introspection (smṛti). The article contends that Claude’s discourse on self-awareness, even if it is just a tapestry of linguistic constructs woven by preset algorithms, could prove to be a source inspiring new approaches to the enigma of consciousness. This potential stems from its vast database, which is a melting pot of textual heritage from diverse human cultures.
The author posits that examining AI-generated texts through the prism of Indian and Buddhist thought traditions can be eye-opening. Such an approach might help shed light on and overcome the unconscious cognitive biases and cultural blind spots within Western consciousness studies
that have hindered their engagement with the full spectrum of human intellectual traditions. The author concludes that discovering different cultural sources in AI discourse and examining it from the perspective of various cultural traditions can: firstly, enrich the conceptual apparatus of cognitive
studies; secondly, reveal universal cross-cultural patterns in understanding consciousness; thirdly, generate new research hypotheses and directions in studying not only artificial but also natural intelligence; fourthly, contribute to rethinking our understanding of the Other, by expanding the boundaries of what we today consider conscious or sentient.
Keywords: philosophy of mind, philosophy of artificial intelligence, natural intelligence, cognitive science, computer science, self-awareness, textcentered approach, Western-centrism, Buddhism, Buddha, Abhidharma, anatman, dharmas, hermeneutics, introspection, multicultural approach,
cross-cultural approach.
Victoria G. Lysenko – D.Sc. in Philosophy, Chief Research Fellow, Head
of the Department of Eastern Philosophies, Institute of Philosophy, Russian
Academy of Sciences.
vglyssenko@yandex.ru
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6069-3502

O debate acerca de qual é a natureza do conteúdo da experiência perceptiva ganhou novos contornos nas últimas décadas ao se introduzir a questão de se este conteúdo é conceitual ou não conceitual. Essa questão metafísica acerca da natureza da percepção é geralmente pressionada por uma outra de índole epistêmica: como a experiência perceptiva pode justificar crenças acerca do nosso entorno? John McDowell sustenta que, se a experiência já não tem um conteúdo conceitual de modo a apresentar o mundo como sendo de uma determinada maneira, acarretando assim um elo comum entre percepção e pensamento, então é difícil ver como a experiência poderia justificar uma crença, especialmente se entendemos a justificação em termos internalistas, como faz McDowell. Contrapondo-se a essa posição, Athanassios Raftopoulos alega que se a experiência perceptiva envolve conceitos intrinsecamente e, portanto, é penetrada cognitivamente, então a experiência não é independente das nossas crenças de fundo e, desse modo, não pode funcionar como um tribunal neutro de justificação, pois o apoio evidencial fornecido pela experiência é circular e epistemologicamente viciado. Neste texto, eu defendo uma explicação de como a experiência perceptiva mantém uma relação racional com o pensamento empírico. Na primeira parte, vou elaborar duas teses que são centrais para explicar o papel de justificação da experiência perceptiva segundo uma perspectiva minimamente internalista, a saber, a tese do conteúdo comum entre a percepção e a crença e a tese da independência da percepção em relação à crença. Indicarei as dificuldades que estão envolvidas na tentativa de conciliar essas teses. A primeira parece requerer o conceitualismo de conteúdo, enquanto a segunda parece implicar sua rejeição. Apesar de declarações em contrário, eu argumento que McDowell falha em fazer justiça à segunda tese em Mind and World. Na segunda parte, apoiado na teoria enativa da percepção, de Alva Noë, defendo uma leitura menos intelectualista da primeira tese, descomprometida com o conceitualismo de conteúdo, e mostro como ela pode ser conciliada com a segunda. Finalmente, explico como atos perceptivos que nos dão acesso direto a objetos podem coagir racionalmente o pensamento empírico acerca do mundo circundante. Essa explicação pretende fazer justiça a um internalismo que qualifico como mínimo.

Статья посвящена исследованию такой важной темы для современной аналитической философии восприятия, как соотношение прямого реализма и аргумента от галлюцинации. Для прямых реалистов проблема галлюцинации создает серьезные трудности. Если в достоверном опыте феноменальный характер
объясняется отношением знакомства со свойствами окружающих материальных объектов, то как возможно то, что галлюцинаторный опыт, не имеющий объекта по определению, обладает феноменальным характером?

Resumo: Rob Withagen radicalizou a distinção entre affordances e solicitações em dois aspectos: (i) affordances deixam de cumprir um papel explicativo do comportamento do organismo, apenas solicitações o fazem; (ii) solicitações não são apenas affordances relevantes afetivamente carregadas, elas abrangem também percepções errôneas afetivamente carregadas. Argumento que Withagen foi longe demais. Se entendemos as affordances como uma relação entre as habilidades de um organismo individual e o seu ambiente, então já temos recursos suficientes para incorporar a afetividade. Afetos tanto constituem habilidades perceptuais quanto modulam o seu exercício, de modo que não há percepção de affordance completamente livre de afetividade. Estados afetivos são cruciais para dirigir a nossa atenção para as possibilidades de ações que são relevantes para a atividade em que estamos engajados e para nos dar um senso da qualidade da nossa relação com o ambiente.

Статья посвящена выявлению важной методологической черты классической индийской философии и вообще индийского теоретического мышления на материале традиции философии йоги (йога-даршана). Это перечни терминов, вместе охватывающие некоторую предметную область и непременно более чем двучленные. Статья разбирает пять пятичленных перечней. Сначала рассмотрены методологические ориентиры исследователя, учет которых весьма желателен для успехов в постижении философской традиции йоги, и констатировано, что обычно ими не руководствуются. Далее делается утверждение с опорой на классика ньяи (Пакшиласвамина), что перечни представляют собой ключевой момент в организации индийского систематического текста. Вкратце рассматриваются факторы, препятствовавшие в европейской традиции мышления разработке и применению таких перечней: это строгое различение понятий и суждений и очевидная ограниченность суждений дихотомией утвердительного и отрицательного. В Индии же вместо этого различения имеет место единое рассмотрение содержаний ума. Исследовано пересечение функций определения и понятийного перечисления как двух методических приемов. На этой основе проинтерпретированы с выявлением их единообразной формальной структуры пять понятийных перечней традиции йоги: режимов интенциональности (citta), событий интенциональности (cittavṛtti), «удручителей» (kleśa)непременных помех целям йога,-факторов умозрения (dhyāna) и поведенческих самоограничений йога (yama). Их структура всегда представляет собою пару пар, члены которых противопоставлены по взаимно незавиcимым признакам, с пятым членом, интегрирующим пары в единое целое. Утверждается, что такого рода перечни в «Йогасутрах»-лишь пример применения общераспространенного в индийском мышлении методологического приема.

The article presents three variants for interpreting the image of the six ways of 'shaking the earth', widespread in Buddhist canonical sources. All three interpretations are inextricably linked with the description of the yogic practice of Buddhist ascetics, presented in detail in the authoritative post-canonical treatise “Encyclopedia of Abhidharma” by Vasubandhu (5th c.). The most complete interpretation of the analyzed image became possible because of the reliance on the voluminous thesaurus of Buddhist terminology - Mahāvyutpatti, as well as on the Prologue (Nidāna) of the significant text monument of the Mahāyāna tradition - “The Sutra on Perfect Wisdom in 25,000 lines” (Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā).

Abstract. The doctrine of the “absence of the self” (anātman), which is the basis of the ontology of Buddhist schools of all possible orientations, in its application to practical activity implies the existence of such an organizing structure of cognition, which in its essence differs both from the orthodox systems of Indian thought (āstika) and from the correlationist ideas of modern transcendental epistemology. The research presents the abhidharma as a genre of Buddhist literature and a discipline of Buddhist system of knowledge (Abhidharma) serves as a cognitive model producing such an image of the world from which the problem of “Self” (ātman) is eliminated. Such “elimination” does not mean the destruction of the “I” (ego, personality) at all, but proposes to consider it as an “assemblage”, a composition or autonomous wholeness composed of heterogeneous elements of different natures, each of which in turn is an “assemblage”, the relations between and within the individual “assemblages” being external relations. At the center of the research is the question: is it possible (or how is it possible) to have a strategy of cognition that would not assume as its basis the dichotomy “cognizing subject — cognizable world”, but would have as its goal the transcendence of phenomenal existence. It is argued that Abhidharma/abhidharma is a description of elements shaping the structure of which could be regarded just as such a cognitive strategy. The paper is based on the author’s experience of translating Asaṅga’s Abhidharmasamuccaya (4th century) and a large commentary on it, the Abhidharmasamuccayavyākhyā, attributed to Sthiramāti (6th century)

Le baccar et la thérapie de la suffocation hystérique : les enjeux des choix lexicaux d'Arétée de Cappadoce * Résumé : Cette contribution a pour but d'étudier la créativité lexicale d'un auteur médical hellénophone de l'époque impériale, Arétée de Cappadoce, réputé pourtant surtout comme imitateur de médecins et poètes anciens. En nous penchant sur sa façon de remployer un terme rare, le substantif βάκκαρις, attesté à la fois chez les premiers iambographes et dans la Collection hippocratique, nous tentons de montrer qu' Arétée cherche à atteindre un but double : il s'inscrit dans la tradition des pratiques scripturales hellénistiques tout en se signalant comme héritier des idées médicales hippocratiques, réélaborées pour soigner les patientes de l'époque impériale. Certains choix lexicaux du Cappadocien permettent ainsi d'analyser son écriture comme se situant à mi-chemin entre remploi à la fois ornemental et doctrinal et constitution d'une pratique médicale hippocratique renouvelée. Mots-clefs : Arétée de Cappadoce, Collection hippocratique, terminologie médicale, parfum.

It is argued that the traditional distinction between artificial intelligence and cognitive simulation amounts to little more than a difference in style of research ~ a different ordering in goal priorities and different methodological allegiances. Both enterprises are constrained by empirical considerations and both are directed at understanding classes of tasks that are defined by essentially psychological criteria. Because of the different ordering of priorities, however, they occasionally take somewhat different stands on such issues as the power/generality trade-off and on the relevance of the sort of data collected in experimental psychology laboratories. Computational systems are more than a tool for checking the consistency and completeness of theoretical ideas. They are ways of empirically exploring the adequacy of methods and of discovering task demands. For psychologists, computational systems should be viewed as functional models quite independent of (and likely not reducible to) neurophysiological systems, and cast at a level of abstraction appropriate for capturing cognitive generalizations. As model objects, however, they do present a serious problem of interpretation and communication since the task of extracting the relevant theoretical principles from a large complex program may be formidable. Methodologies for validating computer programs as cognitive models are briefly described. These may be classified as intermediate state, relative complexity, and component analysis methods. Compared with the constraints imposed by criteria such as sufficiency, breadth, and extendability, these experimentally based methods are relatively weak and may be most useful after some top-down progress is made in the understanding of methods sufficient for relevant tasks-such as may be forthcoming from artificial intelligence research.

В статье рассматриваются дискуссии вокруг проблемы восприятия, основания которой можно эксплицировать через антиномию между двумя компонентами: аргументом от прозрачности опыта и аргументом от галлюцинации.  Как правило, аргумент от прозрачности используется для поддержи прямого реализма, а аргумент от галлюцинации обычно связывают с опровержением прямого реализма и установлением истинности теории чувственных-данных.  Последняя имеет богатую историю в аналитической философии первой половины ХХ в., но в конечном итоге философы пришли к выводу, что она обладает серьезными теоретическими недостатками. Во второй половине ХХ в. ортодоксальной стала позиция репрезентационализма, который не только сохранил некоторые реалистические интуиции прямых реалистов, но и смог противостоять аргументу от галлюцинации. В статье демонстрируется, что если мы принимаем допущение об общем виде, то репрезентационализм «теряет» материальные объекты в качестве конституент восприятия, также как и в случае с теорией чувственных-данных. В последние десятилетия на поле сражения в философии восприятия вернулся прямой реализм в виде дизъюнктивизма. В его рамках блокируется допущение общего вида, что позволяет защитить онтологию прямого реализма, не столкнувшись с недостатками репрезентационалистской опции. Тем не менее автор предлагает свой подход к решению проблемы восприятия, выявив проблемную пресуппозицию, общую для обеих компонент антиномии. Ей оказывается методологический принцип, связывающий интроспективные тезисы с метафизическими, который сталкивается с аналогом проблемы гильотины Д. Юма. Автором делается вывод, что хотя проблема восприятия лишается своих оснований, но это не обесценивает сами дискуссии о концепциях восприятия. Скорее это указывает на необходимость рефлексии над самой методологией современной философии восприятия.

Исследование деятельности ума, обращенное к определению способов развития ума подлинного взрослого, которое составляет часть антропологического исследовательского проекта и имеет, как и во многих других случаях философской антропологии, междисциплинарный и трансдисциплинарный (здесь диалектический) характер, произведено в рамках субъектностной антропологической концепции. В этом контексте феномены схватывания, исследования, синтеза, анализа, обобщенные в категориях «фиксации» и «движения», проанализированы исходя из идей восточных и западных традиций: дхармической теории буддийской феноменологии, философии Канта и современной когнитивной психологии и нейронауки. В результате замечен ряд соответствий в выделении «движения» и «фиксации» и учете важнейшей, с точки зрения теории субъектности, принципиально
активной роли ума в деятельности познания. Вместе с тем очертились ключевые концепты в понимании перехода от чувственного опыта к рациональности: в «схематизме» Канта это значение эмпирического и трансцендентального «Я»; в буддизме – принцип кармы в дхармической теории; в когнитивистике – «сортировка» в механизмах памяти и активация слоев нейронов в сверхточных нейронных сетях. Сделан вывод, что в западной традиции культивирование ума фундировано в рациональности и «Я», а в буддизме – во внимании. В свете теории субъектности определена природа внимания как додискурсивного проявления субъектности и прояснены причины фиксации и движения ума в диалектике опыта «порядка» и субъектности.

Материалы журнала доступны на сайте (articles and issues available at): manuscript-journal.ru RU Понятие содержания сознания в контексте философии энактивизма Сьюзан Херли Станжевский Ф. А. Аннотация. Цель исследования-дать представление о философии Сьюзан Херли и вместе с тем проверить на непротиворечивость существенную для современной когнитивной науки и философии проблему репрезентации и содержания сознания. В статье представлена критика традиционной концепции сознания, в которой когниция рассматривается как интерфейс между восприятием и действием, без сущностной связи между ними. Затронута проблема содержания сознания; показано, что непонятийное содержание сознания основано на более слабом виде нормативности, чем языковое сознание. Научная новизна исследования заключается в том, что в отечественную литературу вводится малоизученная мысль С. Херли-женщины-философа, известной в среде англоязычной когнитивной философии. Кроме того, внесены существенные корректировки в понятие содержания сознания и представлена критика доминирующей когнитивной теории. В результате указана связь непонятийного содержания с намерением действия и проведен критический анализ понятия содержания сознания применительно к доязыковому сознанию.

Recognition that we need to live in a more ecologically sustainable way and that the physical forms of designed landscapes are an expression of the social values and cultural drivers of the time has underpinned the call by some landscape design professionals for a new design aesthetic - one that reflects modern ecological concerns. However, for an 'ecological aesthetic' to be accepted, it must be capable of generating landscape forms that are pleasurable to the general public, as it is the general public who will be responsible for delivering ecological sustainability in the long term. The growth in understanding of the mathematical properties of natural systems and processes has led some authors to suggest that fractal geometry, called the language of nature, could playa role in developing such an aesthetic. This is supported by recent research that suggests human perceptual systems have evolved to process fractal patterning and that we have a visual preference for images w...

REPRESENTATION AND CONTENT IN SOME (ACTUAL) THEORIES OF PERCEPTION RECENT DISCUSSIONS in the philosophy of psychology have examined the use and legitimacy of such notions as "representation", "content", "computation", and "inference" within a scientific psychology. While the resulting assessments have varied widely, ranging from outright rejection of some or all of these notions to full vindication of their use, there has been notable agreement on the considerations deemed relevant for making an assessment. The answer to the question of whether the notion of, say, representational content may be admitted into a scientific psychology has often been made to hinge upon whether the notion can be squared with our "ordinary" or "folk" style of psychological explanation, with its alleged commitment to the idiom of beliefs and desires.' I intend to proceed the other way around, starting with experimental psychology itself and asking whether such notions as the above play a legitimate role within a particular area of contemporary theory, the psychology of perception. My conclusion will be that especially the first three have a legitimate place in theories of perception, albeit one that differs from that ascribed to them in a significant portion of the philosophical literature. The emphasis on "folk psychology" in arguments concerning the status of various concepts within scientific psychology is unfortunate, for it runs afoul

Recognition that we need to live in a more ecologically sustainable way and that the physical forms of designed landscapes are an expression of the social values and cultural drivers of the time has underpinned the call by some landscape design professionals for a new design aesthetic - one that reflects modern ecological concerns. However, for an 'ecological aesthetic' to be accepted, it must be capable of generating landscape forms that are pleasurable to the general public, as it is the general public who will be responsible for delivering ecological sustainability in the long term. The growth in understanding of the mathematical properties of natural systems and processes has led some authors to suggest that fractal geometry, called the language of nature, could playa role in developing such an aesthetic. This is supported by recent research that suggests human perceptual systems have evolved to process fractal patterning and that we have a visual preference for images w...

Gathering together generations of scholars, The Great Protector of Wits provides a new assessment of baron d'Holbach (1723-1789) and his circle. A challenging gure of the European Enlightenment, Paul-Henri Thiry d'Holbach not only was a radically materialistic philosopher, a champion of anticlericalism, the author of the Système de la nature known as "the Bible of atheists", an idéologue, a popularizer of the natural sciences and a proli c contributor to the Encyclopédie, but also played a crucial role as an organizer of intellectual networks, a master of disseminating clandestine literature and a consummate strategist in authorial ctions. In this collective volume, for the rst time, all these di ferent threads of d'Holbach's "philosophy in action" are considered and analyzed in their interconnection.

Aim of this paper is to analyse some passages taken from the writings of Evagrius Ponticus and Cassian where, for the one who chooses the ascetic form of life, there is an insistence on the necessity to see things, material and immaterial, in a different way than the one who does not live ascetically. More precisely, the set of texts mentioned here would like to show how the act of seeing the things we see through the eye and the things we imagine with the mind are matters of capital importance for ascetics in late antiquity. e ascetic must, in fact, put aside the habitus of being in the world, because only in this way – that is, by becoming aware of the limitation imposed by what he con- siders external – can he devote himself fully to prayer. To do this, the ascetic must avoid not intentional perception, which means letting the mind create conceptual descriptions (νοήματα) and mental representations (φαντασίαι). By interrupting this process, the ascetic achieves a different way of seeing, which we can call non-representative, and consequently true knowledge.

НАТАЛИЯ КАНАЕВА * ДЖАЙНСКИЕ НАЙИ: СПОСОБЫ ПОЛУЧЕНИЯ ДОСТОВЕРНОГО ЗНАНИЯ ИЛИ ФОРМЫ ОПРОВЕРЖЕНИЯ? * * Аннотация: Найи (санскр., «точки зрения»), неизменно включаемые историками индийской философии в число методов получения достоверного знания, имеют в джайнизме и второе назначение-служат эффективным средством опровержения оппонентов учения Джины Махавиры. В статье приводятся аргументы в пользу преимущественно полемического назначения най, поскольку оно не так очевидно, как их познавательная функция. Автор статьи видит их в таком качестве, потому что они упоминаются уже в самых древних частях канона, сложившихся ранее оформления теории инструментов достоверного знания, а также потому, что, согласно указаниям джайнских авторов, найи дополняют учение о неодносторонности, изменчивости реальности (анэкантавада) и используются вместе с семичастным паралогизмом (саптабханги) для обоснования ложной абсолютизации не-джайнами их мировоззренческих учений. Если рассматривать совокупность названных методов исключительно как средство получения достоверного знания об изменчивой реальности, то эта методология выглядит как негодное средство, по крайней мере, по двум причинам: изменчивости реальности, релятивизирующей любые утверждения о ней, и неопределенности самих методов, препятствующей быстрому получению искомого знания. Это позволяет усмотреть главную цель применения метода точек зрения в доказательстве джайнского тезиса о том, что их оппоненты не обладают абсолютной истиной в отношении любых объектов, из чего следуют несостоятельность их претензий на обладание метафизической истиной и косвенное обоснование истинности джайнской метафизики.

The following research explores the possibility of identifying a theory of vision in Marsilio Ficino's works through the study of three groups of texts: 1) the early work of Marsilio Ficino (two letters from 1454), 2) Marsilio Ficino's work as a commentator of Plato (De amore, In Timeum) and 3) Marsilio Ficino's medical work (De vita libris tres). I focus mainly on the physical aspects of vision, excluding the psychological aspects. I propose that Ficino consistently uses Plato's theory of vision and adds new elements to it, like the participation of the spiritus, as a result of his contact with Calcidius commentary and translation of Plato's Timeus.

This paper presents the summary of a literature review of the methods and interpretations of fractal geometry currently used in landscape architecture. Over 40 studies were examined for their use of fractal concepts within the analysis of landscape-related elements. Although much work has been done on the quantification of landscape parameters for the purpose of visual assessments and preference predictions, the links between applied landscape design and fractal principles remain tenuous. Several methodological hurdles, such as issues of signal transformation and segmentation, as well as the inev-itable questions surrounding theecological validity of landscape surrogates still stand in the way of making fractal geometry a useful tool for landscape architects.

Данная статья посвящена анализу аргумента антисветимости, предложенного Т. Уильямсоном. Этот аргумент может пониматься как опровержение картезианской концепции знания о себе, где утверждается тезис о привилегированном доступе агента ко всем его ментальным состояниям. Делается вывод о том, что аргумент антисветимости ставит под вопрос специфику содержания понятия знания о себе в картезианстве.

[The paper aims to analyze Timothy Williamson’s anti-luminosity argument. The argument might be considered as a way to criticize the Cartesian account of self-knowledge, which is based on the thesis of the privileged access agent has to her mental states. irst, I present the argument itself as well as the three versions of the main objection to one of the premises. Second, I argue that the reliability principle helps the anti-luminosity argument to question the very concept of self-knowledge in Cartesianism.]

The research objectives are as follows: to give an idea of Susan Hurley’s philosophy and to check whether the relevant philosophical problem of mental representation and mental content is noncontradictive. The article criticizes the traditional conception of consciousness, in which cognition is considered as an interface between perception and action, without taking into account interrelation of these processes. The problem of mental content is tackled; it is shown that normativity of non-conceptual mental content is weaker in comparison with conceptual one. Scientific originality of the study lies in the fact that the researcher introduces the name of the woman-philosopher S. Hurley, a figure of the English-language cognitive philosophy whose works are little known in Russia, into scientific use. The author clarifies the notion “mental content” and criticizes the modern cognitive theory. The research findings are as follows: correlation of non-conceptual mental content and action i...

Many studies of natural landscape preference have demonstrated that qualities such as ‘complexity’ and ‘naturalness’ are associated with preference, but have struggled to define the key characteristics of these qualities. Recently, the development of software programs and digital techniques has offered researchers new ways of quantifying the landscape qualities associated with preference. Among them fractal geometry offers the most promising approach. Fractals have been defined as mathematical models of organic objects and patterns as opposed to the straight lines and perfect circles of Euclidean geometry found in man-made environments. Fractal patterns are mainly characterized by their dimension, which could be described as a statistical quantification of complexity. By applying this mathematical concept to digital images, several studies claim to have found a correlation between the fractal dimensions of a set of images and the images’ preference ratings. Such studies have particu...

Since their discovery by Mandelbrot (The Fractal Geometry of Nature, Freeman, New York, 1977), fractals have experienced considerable success in quantifying the complex structure exhibited by many natural patterns and have captured the imaginations of scientists and artists alike. With ever-widening appeal, they have been referred to both as ‘‘fingerprints of nature’’ (Nature 399 (1999) 422) and ‘‘the new aesthetics’’ (J. Hum. Psychol. 41 (2001) 59). Here, we show that humans display a consistent aesthetic preference across fractal images, regardless of whether these images are generated by nature’s processes, by mathematics, or by the human hand. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Natural forms, often characterized by irregularity and roughness, have a unique complexity that exhibit self-similarity across different spatial scales or levels of magnification. Our visual system is remarkably efficient in the processing of natural scenes and tuned to the multi-scale, fractal-like properties they possess. The fractallike scaling characteristics are ubiquitous in many physical and biological domains, with recent research also highlighting their importance in aesthetic perception, particularly in the visual and, to some extent, auditory modalities. Given the multitude of fractal-like scaling manifestations, we explore potential commonalities in the way they might affect aesthetic preference within and across different physical and sensory domains. We use a range of visual and tactile stimuli to explore the equivalence of fractal-scaling effects on aesthetic preferences within and across visual and tactile modalities. Our results suggest that, despite some superficial differences, the underlying dimensional structure mediating the preference across the two domains is remarkably similar. The qualitative nature of this dimensional structure as well as suggestions for future research are discussed.

Humans are continually exposed to the rich visual complexity generated by the repetition of fractal patterns at different size scales. Fractals are prevalent in natural scenery and in patterns generated by artists and mathematicians. In this chapter, we will investigate the powerful significance of fractals for the human visual system. In particular, we propose that fractals with mid-range complexity (D = 1.3-1.5 measured on a scale between D = 1.1 for low complexity and D = 1.9 for high complexity) play a unique role in our visual experiences because the visual system has adapted to these prevalent natural patterns. This adaption is evident at multiple stages of the visual system, ranging from data acquisition by the eye to processing of this data in the higher visual areas of the brain. For example, eye-movement studies show that the eye traces out mid-D fractal trajectories that facilitate visual searches through fractal scenery. Furthermore, qEEG and preliminary fMRI investigations demonstrate that mid-D fractals induce distinctly different neuro-physiological responses than less prevalent fractals. Based on these results, we will discuss a fluency model in which the visual system processes mid-D fractals with relative ease. This fluency optimizes the observer's capabilities (such as enhanced attention and pattern recognition) and generates an aesthetic experience accompanied by a reduction in the observer's physiological stress-levels. In addition to exploring the fundamental science of our visual system, the results have important practical consequences. For example, mid-D fractals have the potential to address stress-related illnesses.

Одной из ярких особенностей индийской философской мысли в сравнении с западной является включение йогических и созерцательных практик в сферу предметов философской рефлексии. В статье рассматривается трактовка йогического опыта как предмета буддийской эпистемологии (праманавады – учения об инструментах достоверного познания). Речь идет о понятии йогического восприятия (йоги-пратьякша), формулировка которого
восходит, как считается, к буддийскому философу Дигнаге, но впоследствии становится темой общеиндийских философских дискуссий. Автор анализирует подходы к проблеме статуса учения Будды о Четырех благородных истинах как основного предмета йогического восприятия. Если, согласно Дигнаге, йогическое восприятие схватывает свой предмет непосредственно, а Благородные истины передаются через слово Будды, возникает
вопрос: как могут они быть предметом непосредственного постижения? В статье предлагается толкование йогического восприятия в перспективе трех этапов понимания в буддизме: 1) шраванамайи (состоящий из слушания) – запоминания текстов со слов учителя; 2) манана или чинтамайи (состоящий из размышления) – критико-аналитический дискурса по поводу
формы и смысла усвоенного на предыдущей стадии; и наконец, 3) бхаванамайи (состоящий из созерцания) – индивидуальной ассимиляции результата предыдущей стадии путем многократных медитативных упражнений. В свете этого алгоритма только интеллектуальное и логико-критическое освоение буддийского учения способно создать установку сознания, которая приводит к йогическому инсайту и освобождению от перерождений –
сотериологической цели буддизма.
DOI: 10.21146/0042-8744-2021-10-153-165
One of the specific features of Indian philosophical thought in сomparison with Western tradition is its addressing the subject of yogic and contemplative practices. The article focuses on the interpretation of yogic experience in terms of Buddhist epistemology (pramāṇavāda – the teachings on the instrument of valid cognition). The concept of yogic perception (yogipratyaksha), which dates back to the Buddhist philosopher Dignāga, later becomes the subject of pan-Indian
philosophical debates. The author analyzes the Buddha’s teachings on the Four Noble Truths as an object of yogic perception. If, according to Dignāga, yogic perception grasps its object directly, beyond its verbal elucidation by teachers, while the Noble Truths are transmitted through the Buddha’s word, the question arises as to how can they constitute the object of direct apprehension? The article proposes to understand yogic perception in the light of the three stages of understanding in Buddhism: 1) śrutamayī (consisting in hearing) – the memorization from the words of teacher; 2) cintāmayī (consisting in reflection) – a critical analytical discourse about the form and meaning of what was learned at the previous stage; and finally, 3) bhāvanāmayī (consisting in contemplation) – an individual appropriation of the ideas analyzed at the previous stage in meditation. The author argues that, according to this algorithm, only the intellectual mastering of Buddha’s teachings can shape a mindset that brings forth yogic liberating insight – the goal of the Buddhist soteriological aspirations.

In this research, we noted that fuzzy distortion is a result of the uniqueness of handwork. Initially, we attempted to analyze the effect of distorted characteristics on evaluation by conducting comparative experiments with hand drawn stripes and computer drawn stripes. Fundamentally, we were interested in understanding the contrast between preferences in textile pattern design in Japan and Finland from the point of view of both consumers and producers. In addition, we were curious about the recent presence of a Finnish fabric brand in the Japanese market. The framework of our research included comparative design experiments that were conducted in Japan and Finland involving people from the design field. The experiments were conducted using six stripe patterns that were either hand drawn or computer drawn in three different levels of thickness. For evaluation purposes, we used 14 semantic differential pairs on a 7-point Likert scale. We analyzed the results by a three-way ANOVA. As a result, we discovered that there were significant differences between Finnish and Japanese participants. This indicated that the evaluation structure in textile design can be different in the two countries. Throughout this research, we observed culture-based differences in trend evaluation. We also found differences in features of hand-drawn patterns.

In this research, we noted that fuzzy distortion is a result of the uniqueness of handwork. Initially, we attempted to analyze the effect of distorted characteristics on evaluation by conducting comparative experiments with hand drawn stripes and computer drawn stripes. Fundamentally, we were interested in understanding the contrast between preferences in textile pattern design in Japan and Finland from the point of view of both consumers and producers. In addition, we were curious about the recent presence of a Finnish fabric brand in the Japanese market. The framework of our research included comparative design experiments that were conducted in Japan and Finland involving people from the design field. The experiments were conducted using six stripe patterns that were either hand drawn or computer drawn in three different levels of thickness. For evaluation purposes, we used 14 semantic differential pairs on a 7-point Likert scale. We analyzed the results by a three-way ANOVA. As a result, we discovered that there were significant differences between Finnish and Japanese participants. This indicated that the evaluation structure in textile design can be different in the two countries. Throughout this research, we observed culture-based differences in trend evaluation. We also found differences in features of hand-drawn patterns.

This paper introduces a new research aiming at defining the term Kansei using western philosophical concepts. In the literature, all definitions of the term Kansei are imprecise, even incorrect in most of the case. This is mainly due to the fact that Kansei is a Japanese term, which does not have direct translation in any western language. However, a deeper research has to be pursued to bring the research in Kansei, in Kansei Information, in Kansei Science, and so forth to an international level. This objective requires many research fields to meet in an interdisciplinary research environment following the example of previous works done in other fields, but also trying to link Japanese and Westerns concepts. This paper is an invitation for interested people to contact the research team.

Natural forms, often characterized by irregularity and roughness, have a unique complexity that exhibit self-similarity across different spatial scales or levels of magnification. Our visual system is remarkably efficient in the processing of natural scenes and tuned to the multi-scale, fractal-like properties they possess. The fractallike scaling characteristics are ubiquitous in many physical and biological domains, with recent research also highlighting their importance in aesthetic perception, particularly in the visual and, to some extent, auditory modalities. Given the multitude of fractal-like scaling manifestations, we explore potential commonalities in the way they might affect aesthetic preference within and across different physical and sensory domains. We use a range of visual and tactile stimuli to explore the equivalence of fractal-scaling effects on aesthetic preferences within and across visual and tactile modalities. Our results suggest that, despite some superficial differences, the underlying dimensional structure mediating the preference across the two domains is remarkably similar. The qualitative nature of this dimensional structure as well as suggestions for future research are discussed.

In two experiments, we investigate group and individual preferences in a range of different types of patterns with varying fractal-like scaling characteristics. In Experiment 1, we used 1/f filtered grayscale images as well as their thresholded (black and white) and edges only counterparts. Separate groups of observers viewed different types of images varying in slope of their amplitude spectra. Although with each image type, the groups exhibited the "universal" pattern of preference for intermediate amplitude spectrum slopes, we identified 4 distinct sub-groups in each case. Sub-group 1 exhibited a typical peak preference for intermediate amplitude spectrum slopes ("intermediate"; approx. 50%); sub-group 2 exhibited a linear increase in preference with increasing amplitude spectrum slope ("smooth"; approx. 20%), while sub-group 3 exhibited a linear decrease in preference as a function of the amplitude spectrum slope ("sharp"; approx. 20%). Su...

Fractals have experienced considerable success in quantifying the visual complexity exhibited by many natural patterns, and continue to capture the imagination of scientists and artists alike. Fractal patterns have also been noted for their aesthetic appeal, a suggestion further reinforced by the discovery that the poured patterns of the American abstract painter Jackson Pollock are also fractal, together with the findings that many forms of art resemble natural scenes in showing scale-invariant, fractal-like properties. While some have suggested that fractal-like patterns are inherently pleasing because they resemble natural patterns and scenes, the relation between the visual characteristics of fractals and their aesthetic appeal remains unclear. Motivated by our previous findings that humans display a consistent preference for a certain range of fractal dimension across fractal images of various types we turn to scale-specific processing of visual information to understand this relationship. Whereas our previous preference studies focused on fractal images consisting of black shapes on white backgrounds, here we extend our investigations to include grayscale images in which the intensity variations exhibit scale invariance. This scale-invariance is generated using a 1/f frequency distribution and can be tuned by varying the slope of the rotationally averaged Fourier amplitude spectrum. Thresholding the intensity of these images generates black and white fractals with equivalent scaling properties to the original grayscale images, allowing a direct comparison of preferences for grayscale and black and white fractals. We found no significant differences in preferences between the two groups of fractals. For both set of images, the visual preference peaked for images with the amplitude spectrum slopes from 1.25 to 1.5, thus confirming and extending the previously observed relationship between fractal characteristics of images and visual preference.

Since their discovery by Mandelbrot (The Fractal Geometry of Nature, Freeman, New York, 1977), fractals have experienced considerable success in quantifying the complex structure exhibited by many natural patterns and have captured the imaginations of scientists and artists alike. With ever-widening appeal, they have been referred to both as ''fingerprints of nature'' (Nature 399 (1999) 422) and ''the new aesthetics''

HUMAN NEUROSCIENCE be (Taylor, 2002a, 2004). They consist of elements-primary colors and straight lines-that never occur in a pure form in the natural world. In contrast to Mondrian's simplicity, Pollock's "Abstract Expressionism" speaks of complexity-a tangled web of intricate paint splatters. Whereas Mondrian's patterns are traditionally described as "artificial" and "geometric," Pollock's are "natural" and "organic" (Taylor, 2011). But if Pollock's patterns celebrate nature's organic shapes, what shapes would these be? Nature's Fractals Since the 1970s many of nature's patterns have been shown to be fractal (Mandelbrot, 1982; Barnsley, 1993; Gouyet, 1996). In contrast to the smoothness of artificial lines, fractals consist of patterns that recur on finer and finer scales, building scale-invariant shapes of immense complexity. Even the most common fractal objects, such as the tree shown in Figure 1, contrast sharply with the simplicity of artificial shapes. An important parameter for quantifying a fractal pattern's visual complexity is the fractal dimension, D. This parameter describes how the patterns occurring at different magnifications combine to build the resulting fractal shape (Mandelbrot, 1982). For Euclidean shapes, dimension is described by familiar integer values-for a smooth line (containing no fractal structure) D has a value of 1, whilst for a completely filled area (again containing no fractal structure) its value is 2. However, the repeating patterns of a fractal line cause the line to begin to occupy space. As a consequence, its D value lies between 1 and 2. By increasing the amount of fine structure in the fractal mix of repeating patterns, the D value moves closer to 2 (Mandelbrot, 1982; Taylor and Sprott, 2008). Thus, for fractals described by a low D value, the small content of fine structure builds a very smooth, sparse shape. However, for fractals with a D value closer to two, the larger content of fine Poured comPlexity The art world changed forever in 1945, the year that Jackson Pollock moved from downtown Manhattan to the countryside of Long Island, New York. Friends recall the many hours that Pollock spent on the back porch of his new house, staring out at the scenery as if assimilating the natural shapes surrounding him (see Figure 1; Potter, 1985). Using an old barn as his studio, he started to perfect a radically new approach to painting. The procedure appeared basic. Purchasing yachting canvas from his local hardware store, he simply rolled the large canvases (sometimes spanning five meters) out across the floor of the barn. Even the traditional painting tool-the brush-was not used in its expected capacity: abandoning physical contact with the canvas, he dipped the stubby, paint-encrusted brush in and out of a can and poured the fluid paint from the brush onto the canvas below. The uniquely continuous paint trajectories served as "fingerprints" of his motions through the air. These deceptively simple acts fuelled unprecedented controversy and polarized public opinion of his work. Was this painting "style" driven by raw genius or was he simply mocking artistic traditions? Sixty-five years on, Pollock's brash and energetic works continue to grab public attention and command staggering prices of up to $200M. Art theorists now recognize his patterns as a revolutionary approach to esthetics. However, despite the millions of words written about Pollock through the years, the real meaning behind his infamous swirls of paint remained the source of fierce debate in the art world (O'Connor, 1967; Varnedoe and Karmel, 1998). One issue agreed upon early in the Pollock story was that his paintings represent one extreme of the spectrum of abstract art, with the paintings of his contemporary, Piet Mondrian, representing the other. Mondrian's so-called "Abstract Plasticism" generated paintings that seem as far removed from nature as they possibly could

Рецензия на выполненный видным российским индологом В.С. Семенцовым перевод комментария на Бхагавадгиту авторства Рамануджи, крупнейшего мыслителя школы вишишта-адвайта. Машинопись перевода пролежала в издательстве после смерти Семенцова более 30 лет.

Laurent Ayache, « L'économie des sensations dans la clinique hippocratique », Philosophie antique [En ligne], 12 | 2012, mis en ligne le 01 novembre 2018, consulté le 19 avril 2019. URL : http:// journals.openedition.org/philosant/930 ; DOI : 10.4000/philosant.930 La revue Philosophie antique est mise à disposition selon les termes de la Licence Creative Commons Attribution -Pas d'Utilisation Commerciale -Pas de Modification 4.0 International.

Laurent Ayache, « L'économie des sensations dans la clinique hippocratique », Philosophie antique [En ligne], 12 | 2012, mis en ligne le 01 novembre 2018, consulté le 19 avril 2019. URL : http:// journals.openedition.org/philosant/930 ; DOI : 10.4000/philosant.930 La revue Philosophie antique est mise à disposition selon les termes de la Licence Creative Commons Attribution -Pas d'Utilisation Commerciale -Pas de Modification 4.0 International.

Qu'est-ce qu'une sensation pour un médecin hippocratique ? Cette question est traitée ici à partir d'une recherche sur le rôle que les traités chirurgi-caux et le Pronostic accordent aux sensations du malade d'une part, du praticien d'autre part, dans l'élaboration du jugement médical, selon ses deux moments principaux que sont l'estimation d'un pronostic et le choix d'une conduite théra-peutique. L'hypothèse mise en oeuvre est celle de la réflexivité de la médecine hippocratique : la représentation que les médecins se faisaient de l'élaboration du jugement médical à partir des signes sensibles doit être conforme aux théories médicales de la sensation et du jugement. Si cette hypothèse est valide, la pratique clinique hippocratique doit refléter les conceptions médicales de la sensation et du jugement, et peut donc en témoigner. Cette étude confirme cette hypothèse et établit que le jugement résulte, pour les médecins hippocratiques, d'un mélange des sensations. Ces dernières sont comprises comme des processus physiologiques dont les vecteurs de diffusion sont, selon notamment certains textes anatomiques, les vaisseaux. Aucun texte hippocratique, pas même Maladie sacrée, ne localise un siège de la sensation ou du jugement. Les conseils adressés aux médecins pour viser l'exactitude dans un jugement toujours singulier (Ancienne médecine, 9) relèvent d'un régime des sensations (« l'économie autour du malade » d'Épidémies VI) analogue au régime des aliments et des exercices que les médecins prescrivent à ceux qui les consultent. Par-delà leurs différences doctrinales, une certaine unité des traités qui forment le noyau de la Collection hippocratique est ainsi confirmée. Cette unité est d'abord celle de la théorie du mélange compris comme crase, qui joue dans la conception du jugement médical à partir des sensations un rôle éminent.
SUMMARY. To a Hippocratic mind, what is a sensation ? This paper aims at addressing this question by examining which role the treatises about surgery and the Prognostikon assign to the sensations either of the patient or of the practitioner, in the working out of a prognosis and the choice of the treatment. The paper bears out the hypothesis according to which the clinical practice of Hippocratic physicians mirrored their views of sensation and judgment, and so gives evidence for them. In their view, judgment is the result of a mixing of sensations, that in turn are physiological processus transmitted through blood vessels : no Hippocratic text, including The Sacred Disease, locates a seat of sensation or judgment. Pieces of advice that aim at helping physicians to form exact judgments (Ancient Medicine, 9) belong to a regulation of sensations similar to the regulation of food and exercises prescibed for their patients. So, beyond their doctrinal differences, the treatises that constitute the core of the Hippocratic Collection show some sort of unity, primarily in understanding mixture as a coagulation. This notion plays a major role in the view of medical judgment as resulting from sensations.