Soil Tillage

In southern Chile, grazing systems over volcanic ash soils play an important role for the development of the region. The productivity of these grazing systems should be improved by Pasture Improvement Strategies (PIMs), which in the case of the present study were established 5 years before this analysis. Often topsoil properties were measured while those for describing the functioning of the pore system (e.g., air permeability) in the subsoil (> 0.45 m) are missing. For subsoil samples, these parameters were determined to compare the long-term effect of three PIMs (i.e., NFNP: not-fertilized and not-ploughed, FNP: fertilized but not-ploughed or fertilized and CP: ploughed). Two depth intervals (D1: 0.45 -0.55 m, D2: 0.55 -0.65 m) within the same subsoil horizon of a Duric Hapludand were considered. Results show that the subsoil was influenced by tillage. The transformation to an improved pore system was e.g. indicated by increased means of pore indices (C 3 ) for FNP (123.5%) and CP (46%) as compared to NFNP for D1 (Ψ m = -6 kPa). The soil air diffusivity values in these subsoil samples were in a range comparable to those reported for non-volcanic but sandy soils in Europe and were generally larger in D2 than in D1. We concluded that soil properties were still in transition to a new equilibrium. Thus, measurements of subsoil properties should be repeated in time intervals to better understand gas transport processes in cultivated Chilean soils that origin from volcanic ash.

Two field experiments were carried out at the Research and Production Station of the National Research Centre, Nubaria District, Beheira Governorate, Egypt during the two successive winter seasons 2011/2012 and 2012/2013. The aim of the study was to evaluate the growth, yield and seed quality of three introduced canola (Brassica napus L.) varieties (HE You 46, HE You 56 and Wan You 25) under different levels of nitrogen fertilizer (0, 45 and 60 kg/faddan, one faddan= 0.42ha) in newly reclaimed sandy soil. The results showed that the variety Wan You 25 surpassed the other two varieties in plant height, number of leaves, branches and also dry matter accumulation/plant at 90 days after planting (DAP). Application of nitrogen fertilization at the highest rate (60kgN/faddan) significantly increased plant height, number of leaves and branches/plant, as well as, dry weight/plant at 90 DAP. The best increment in plant height, number of leaves, branches and dry weight/plant was shown with all canola varieties as received more nitrogen fertilizer rates. The greatest increase in seed yield (kg/faddan) was obtained by Wan You 25 variety with 60kg N/faddan. The determination of lipid profile indicated that HE You 46 variety contained the highest values of Palmitic, Oleic and Linoleic acids, while HE You 56 variety had the highest values of Stearic, Behenic and Erucic acids. Wan You 25 variety scored the best values for Arachidic and Linolenic acids. Canola plants which received 45 kg N rate contained the highest Arachidic, Behenic, Linoleic and Erucic acids values, while Palmitic and Oleic acids values were the highest when the plants were fertilized with 60 kg N rate. On the other hand, zero N rate showed the most increment in Stearic and Linolenic acids.

Organic farming systems are increasingly recognized as sustainable alternatives to conventional agriculture due to their minimal reliance on synthetic inputs and their emphasis on ecological balance. One of the most significant benefits of organic farming lies in its positive effects on soil biological properties and microbial diversity. This paper explores the influence of organic farming practices on soil health, focusing on microbial biomass, activity, community composition, and functional diversity. It evaluates the key organic techniques-such as compost application, green manuring, crop rotation, and reduced chemical usage-that enhance the soil food web and foster microbial richness. A comprehensive review of empirical studies, mechanisms of microbial enhancement, comparative analyses with conventional systems, and future directions for research are also discussed to underline the critical role of organic farming in sustainable land management.

Understanding of the process of soil C accumulation under introduced pastures on the savannas of South America is limited by lack of information on production, turnover and decomposition of roots. We estimated below-ground net primary productivity (BNPP), assessed the rate of root decomposition, and calculated the annual input of soil organic carbon (SOC) under native savanna vegetation (NS), a degraded pasture of the introduced grass Brachiaria humidicola (Bh), and well-managed pastures of the introduced grass B. dictyoneura alone (Bd) and in mixture with the legume Arachis pintoi (Bd + Ap). Responses were estimated using an in-growth mesh tube method and a flow model for C accumulation. The BNPP of the well-managed pastures was twice that of either NS or Bh. Turnover losses of the well-managed pastures were 1-2 times greater than NS and Bh. Decomposition constant of roots of Bd was lower than that of either NS or Bd + Ap, which resulted in higher residence time for Bd roots. The amount of BNPP remaining in the soil after 1 year of decomposition was about 2.3 times higher under wellmanaged pastures compared to that under NS. Higher C accumulation under well managed introduced pastures resulted, to some extent, from the high BNPP of the introduced species, possibly stimulated by fertilizer applied at establishment and regularly for maintenance and coupled with lower litter quality as indicated by high C:N and C:P ratios and decomposition dynamics of the below-ground residues.

Includes bibliographical references.June, 1974.This thesis represents an investigation of soil water recharge and depletion phenomena on a shortgrass prairie site in northeastern Colorado. Soil type, grazing intensity, and various topographic variables were all studied to determine their influence on the soil water balance. The soil water balance was subdivided into three periods: recharge due to snowmelt, recharge due to spring rainfall, and growing season depletion. It was estimated that over 60% of the winter precipitation was lost to a combination of evaposublimation and wind transport of snow; it is highly likely that wind-transported snow accounts for over half of this loss. Despite this loss, approximately 48% of the total soil water recharge received between growing seasons 1970 and 1971 was derived from snowmelt. On some optimum sites snowmelt accounted for over 70% of the total recharge. Of the many topographic variables affecting snow retention on the prairie, slope expos...

The teams of researchers established at respective partner institutions are complimentary because of different kind of research equipment they have as well as of different nature of existing field research programs under their management. Colleagues from Godollő have field research sites distributed to different parts of Hungary, primarily related to tillage, while Croatian partners have few research sites in Croatia with studies related to tillage but also to fertilization and liming as necessary practices. Field assessment objectives of the project are · Comparisons of soil parameters regarding different land use methods (arable land, pasture, plantation) · Comparisons of soil parameters considering different agro-ecological conditions (Pannonian basin, Mediterranean karst, Balaton Uplands – stony soils, chernozem, meadow and alkalic soils in Trans Tisza region and at Tisza lake), and different soil developing processes (Figure 1). · Meeting regional farmers, discussion about soil...

Indonesian people love to consume bananas as fruit. Many sources of nutrients, including minerals and carbohydrates, are contained in this fruit. Various UMKM (Usaha Mikro, Kecil dan Menengah) have grown by developing processed banana foods such as sale and banana chips. An important step in making processed banana dishes is cutting the bananas. In general UMKM still process bananas using conventional techniques, namely cutting using manual human power. The purpose of this study is to utilize gravity to design a banana cutting machine. Gravity will cause the banana pieces to fall into the storage container. The dimensions of the cutting machine are designed with a small size to facilitate mobility. The results showed that the use of a cutting machine increased the efficiency of banana cutting. A more uniform cutting thickness was achieved.

Delineating soil management zones in cocoa cultivation areas can help optimize production and minimize ecological and environmental risks. This research assessed the spatial distribution of heavy metal concentration and soil fertility indicators in Cross River State, Nigeria, to delineate soil management zones (MZs). A total of n = 63 georeferenced, composite soil samples were collected at the 0-30 cm depth increment, air-dried, and subjected to physicochemical analysis. The soil data were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA), and the selected principal components (PCs) were used for fuzzy c-means clustering analysis to delineate the MZs. The result indicated that soil pH varied from 4.8 (strongly acidic) to 6.3 (slightly acidic), with high average organic carbon contents. The degree of contamination was low, while the ecological risk indicator (RI) of the environment under cocoa cultivation ranged from low risk (RI = 18.24) to moderate risk (RI = 287.15), with moderate risk areas mostly found in patches around the central and upper regions. Higher pH was associated with increased levels of exchangeable Ca, Mg, and K, and TN and OC. Strong spatial dependence was observed for silt, pH, OC, Mg, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Cr, and DC. The result showed the first six principal components (PCs) with eigenvalues >1 accounting for 83.33% of the cumulative variance, and three MZs were derived via the selected six PCs using fuzzy c-means clustering analysis. The results of this study further indicated that MZ3 had the highest pH (6.06), TN (0.24%), OC (2.79%), exchangeable Ca (10.62 cmol/kg), Mg (4.01 cmol/kg), and K (0.12 cmol/kg). These were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those observed in MZ2 and MZ1, and they represent the most fertile parts of the study area. Furthermore, 40.6% of the study area had marginal soil (i.e., soil under MZ2).

Large scale, quantitative information about the variability of target soil properties is required for forest management. This project is attempting to determine whether or not the New Zealand Soil Classification system (NZSC), when used in combination with a soillandscape model, adequately communicates this information. In the first phase of this project a soil-landscape model was developed and a pilot variability study conducted. The soils in the study area, located in the W oodlaw Block of the Longwood Range, are formed from either Permian andesite or greywacke on moderately steep to steep hill slopes under a moist cool climate and a vegetation cover of beech and podocarp forests. The soil-landscape model was developed using the land systems approach. The model consists of predictive relationships between topographic features and soil classes. There is a clear relationship between slope steepness, the abundance of surface boulders and the gravel content of the soil. A soil-landscape unit map showing the distribution of predicted soil classes has been produced. The results of the pilot variability study have showed that the soils sampled are acidic and have moderate to high P-retention values. An analysis of variance indicated that both of these properties are significantly variable between sites and between horizons. There appears to be a relationship between land component type and the magnitude and variability of these properties. The clay mineralogical analysis revealed that the dominant clay minerals present in all the soils sampled are chlorite-vermiculite, kaolinite, sepiolite, and allophane. The presence of allophane and kaolinite may be related to the moderate to high P-retention values.

Bombay hills east of SH1 in late summer (23 March 2007)  irrigators were operating in some fields. Photo: David Lowe Potatoes growing in Pukekohe soils on gently sloping shoulder of Pukekohe Hill, 10 October, 2008. View towards southwest where the hills (some basaltic) are bounded by Waikato Fault. Waikato River flows in valley with its mouth at top right (Port Waikato

O intervalo hídrico ótimo (IHO) destaca-se como um dos melhores indicadores da qualidade física do solo, sob sistemas intensivos de produção. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a qualidade física de um Latossolo Vermelho distrófico típico por meio do IHO, após três safras agrícolas de lavoura e o primeiro ano de sistema integração lavoura-pecuária, em Xambrê, noroeste do Paraná. O experimento foi implantado em blocos casualizados, com três repetições. Os tratamentos consistiram de quatro alturas de pastejo (0,10; 0,20; 0,30; e 0,40 m) e um tratamento testemunha sem pastejo. A braquiária (Brachiaria ruziziensis) foi semeada em março de 2010 e o pastejo contínuo de bovinos foi realizado durante 110 dias (março-setembro). Em outubro desse ano, coletaram-se 90 amostras de solo com cilindros metálicos (0,05 m de altura e 0,05 m de diâmetro) no centro das camadas de 0-0,10; 0,10-0,20; e 0,20-0,30 m. Essas amostras foram utilizadas para obter a curva de retenção de água, a curva de resi...

The impacts of land use on soil biodiversity are still poorly understood, although soil fungi and macrofauna are recognized to provide benefits to ecosystems. Here, we tested whether land use practices used to control shrub density influences the fruiting macromycetes (ectomycorrhizal-forming fungi-ECMF-and saprobes) and soil macrofauna diversity and abundance in Montado ecosystems. To address this influence, we conducted a 2-years' period monitoring of fungi fruitbodies and macrofauna in sixteen experimental plots in Montado landscape in southern Portugal. A total of 4,881 frutibodies (57 taxa of ECMF and 64 taxa of saprobic fungi) and 3,667 soil invertebrates (73 species and morphospecies) were monitored in the experimental plots. There was greater losses in sporocarps production and taxa composition, particularly the ECMF, in plots where shrub density was controlled by permanent grazing (Ca) or involving cutting practices followed by soil tillage (M), in comparison with cutting practices with no soil tillage (Cu) and the control (C). The ECMF Laccaria laccata and Xerocomus subtomentosus exhibited a close relation with C and Cu plots while the saprobes, e.g., Entoloma conferendum, were associated to Ca and M plots. Most species associated to Cu plots were present in C plots during the 2 years, but not in Cu after the cutting practices (in the second year of sampling). Regarding soil macrofauna, higher values of taxa and species richness were observed in C and Cu plots in the first year of sampling. The ant species Aphaenogaster senilis and several Staphylinid morphospecies exhibited a close relation with M plots, whilst most spider families were directly associated to C and Cu plots. After the shrub cutting practices, higher values of taxa and species richness of soil macrofauna were observed in M and Ca plots; the presence of species with a high competitive ability to colonize disturbed areas faster might explain the results. Contrary to the frutibodies production and diversity, species richness and abundance within soil macrofauna were identical between Cu and C in 2004. Thus, fruiting macromycetes and soil macrofauna diversity and abundance in Montado's, appear highly sensitive to land use and somewhat reflected a trend of severity to the current shrub management practices.

The study examined aggregate size distribution and related structural indices in soils of natural forest, Cupressus lusitanica plantation and cultivated land through dry and wet sieving techniques. Variations in aggregate size distribution and structural indices were observed among land uses which might be ascribed to soil organic carbon (SOC) content and tillage practices. Alteration from natural forest to Cupressus lusitanica plantation and cultivated land apparently reduced the quantity of SOC and water stable aggregates (WSA) (&gt; 1mm) but increased the quantity of WSA (1-0.25 mm) and micro-aggregates (&lt; 0.25 mm). Long term cultivation leads to deterioration of soil structure and formation of clods. The mean percent by mass of agronomically most valuable aggregates (AVA) in soils of natural forest, Cupressus lusitanica plantation and cultivated land to the whole investigated depth were 86.61, 80.42 and 74.44%, respectively. Coefficient of stability (K ) ranged from 2.48 in s...

(Under the direction of H. Lee Allen). Upper Coastal Plain forest sites are characterized by highly weathered soils and intensive agricultural use. These conditions may predispose intensively managed sites to second rotation declines if managed carelessly. This study compared aboveground biomass and nutrient content changes between successive rotations of loblolly pine on the same site in the Upper Coastal Plain of Alabama and examined what first rotation factors were important in the biomass and nutrient accumulation in the second rotation. Individual tree biomass and nutrient content equations were compared for the first and second rotation. In addition, within tree nutrient concentration relationships were explored to evaluate their significance for whole tree nutrient content determinations. Representative trees from the diameter distribution were destructively sampled from each rotation. Foliage, branch, stemwood, and stembark tissues, were separated, sampled, and analyzed for nutrient concentrations. Green-field and oven-dry weights were used to calculate nutrient contents. Regression equations for individual tree tissues biomass and nutrient contents as a function of tree diameter and height were fitted for each rotation. Stand biomass and nutrient contents were estimated by applying these equations to stand inventory data for each rotation. Forest floor biomass and nutrient contents were evaluated for both rotations. Soil samples obtained when the first rotation stand was harvested were used to characterize total N and available pools for other mineral soil nutrients. Analyses of nutrient concentration relationships within the tree indicated that mobile nutrients concentrations of stemwood, bark, and branches decreased with distance from the top of the tree. Foliar nutrient concentrations and non-mobile nutrients for other tissues showed no patterns with tree height. Stemwood biomass regression equations were the same for the two rotations but nutrient content regressions differed. Foliage, branch, and bark biomass and nutrient content regressions also differed. Major differences between rotations were found for stemwood N and P; foliage, branch, and bark B concentrations, indicating reduced availability of these nutrients in the second rotation stand. Considering harvesting removals, micronutrient availability, especially B availability may be severely affected as a larger proportion of B, relative to other micronutrients was allocated to stemwood. Biomass and nutrient accumulation in the second rotation stand was highly correlated with soil exchangeable P at the end of the first rotation.

Farming practices are the key to maintaining and restoring farmland biodiversity. Selected farm management indicators, regarded as scientifically sound, practicable and attractive to stakeholders, were tested against species indicators in various farm types in 12 case studies across Europe. A set of eight farm management indicators is recommended, reflecting the pressure on biodiversity by farm management via energy and nutrient input, mechanical operations, pesticide use and livestock. Landwirtschaftliche Intensivierung gilt als einer der hauptsächlichen Verursacher des Artenrückgangs. Landwirtschaftlich genutzte Flächen beherbergen spezifische Habitate und Arten, die in ihrem Fortbestand auf eine angemessene landwirtschaftliche Bewirtschaftung angewiesen sind (Kleijn und Sutherland 2003). Auf landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben werden die wesentlichen Entscheidungen getroffen, welche die Biodiversität in Agrar-Ökosystemen maßgeblich beeinflussen. Betriebliche Bewirtschaftungsmaßnahmen sind daher der Schlüssel zur Erhaltung und zur Wiederherstellung der Artenvielfalt. Indirekte Biodiversitätsindikatoren, die auf der Ebene des betrieblichen Managements ansetzen und die auf Einzelbetrieben eingesetzt werden können, fehlen aber weitgehend. Deshalb wurde im EU FP7-Projekt "BIOBIO" ein Set von Bewirtschaftungsindikatoren für Biodiversität auf der Ebene landwirtschaftlicher Betriebe im Ökologischen Landbau und in extensiven Anbausystemen entwickelt und erprobt (www.biobio-indicator.org).

This research aimed to determine the effects of conservation tillage practices on the soil quality parameters and productivity of winter wheat (WW) followed by soybean (SB) in a conventionally irrigated arid environment. Field experiments were conducted in 2020-2023 in a split-plot design with the following four land management practices: conventional tillage (CT: moldboard plow + harrow), RT1 (chisel + harrow), RT2 (disk + harrow), and NT (no-till-without tillage). After three experimental cycles, the soil humus content increased by 10, 12, and 15% (p < 0.05) in the CT, RT1, and RT2 plots, respectively, while the highest soil humus was detected in the NT plot. Soil bulk density decreased from 1.6 g/cm 3 to 1.33, 1.42, and 1.34 g/cm 3 (p < 0.05) in the CT, RT1, and RT2 plots, respectively. A significant increase was found at the NT plot in terms of soil quality indicators such as total N and P, available N-NO 3 , P 2 O 5 , and K 2 O. The application of NT increased the yield components of WW and SB by 20 and 12%, respectively, compared to CT. This study showed that the highest WW (6.84 Mg ha-1) and SB (2.12 Mg ha-1) grain yields were achieved in the NT plot, most likely due to enhanced moisture and nutrient conservation, facilitated by the high amount of crop residues on the soil surface. The implemented NT method combined with the legume-based cropping system appears to be a more sustainable and environmentally friendly land management system to achieve a favorable soil environment that generates higher crop yield in the arid ecosystem.

This study was conducted at Agricultural Research Farm, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar during 19992000 to appraise the effect of water regime at various growth stages on the performance of wheat production. The irrigation treatments given to four wheat varieties, Ghaznavi, Fakhre Sarhad, Tatara-96, and Bakhtawar-92 were (I0) no irrigation, by adding subsequently each with (I1) single irrigation at germination, (I2) two irrigations up to tillering, (I3) three irrigations up to anthesis and (I4) four irrigations up to milk stage. Irrigations significantly affected spikes m, spikes weight, 1000 grain weight, days to maturity and biological yield. Among varieties, days to heading, spikes m, plant height, spike weight, number of grains spike, 1000 grain weight, days to maturity, biological yield and grain yield was significantly different. The interactive effect of irrigation and varieties was only affected biological and grain yield. Hence all the irrigation levels produced sign...

Tree seedling root growth rate can be limited by any one of three soil physical factors: mechanical resistance, water potential or soil aeration. All three factors vary with soil water content and, under field conditions, root growth rate will depend on the soil water content as a result of its relationship to each factor. For a specific site, the relationship between soil water content and each factor can be developed from periodic measurement in the field or estimated from intact soil core samples. A STELLA TM model of first-year pine seedling growth response to soil tillage was developed using previously established relationships between root growth and these growth-limiting factors. The model predicts reductions in root growth below optimal conditions from soil water content. Accumulated root length is then used to estimate aboveground size from an available allometric relationship. Model predictions were compared to results from a site preparation tillage study on an upland site for which soil water content had been measured bi-weekly. Treatments used for this comparison were: no tillage, bedded, subsoiled and bedded plus subsoiled. Seedling height predicted by the model differed from measured mean seedling height by À1 to +14% with absolute differences in height of 0.1 m or less. Predicted aboveground biomass was À12 to +41% of mean measured biomass. Our results suggest that this modeling approach is useful for integrating results from controlled greenhouse experiments with field results and may prove useful for predicting soil tillage response in young loblolly pine plantations.

To address the progressive increase in farmed land and the decline in labor, cotton production in more developed agricultural systems has seen a movement towards larger, heavier machinery with increased capacity. Recent innovation of on-board module building technology for cotton harvesters follows this trend, which has caused concern for the potential impact of the machine on the farming system. This review acknowledges past and present developments within the cotton harvesting system from both the machine-and soil-management perspectives to inform land managers, machinery manufacturers, technical advisors, and the scientific community of the incidence of soil compaction associated with technology uptake in cotton-based systems. Emphasis is made on the need to ensure that the effects of traffic-induced soil compaction are minimized. For this, the feasibility of confining compaction to the least possible area of permanent traffic lanes is examined along with engineering design const...

Agricultural Machinery performance program that predicts field efficiency, field capacity, selection of optimum equipment, draft power required to operate machines and PTO power was developed to meet the user requirements for machinery management and as educational and research tool. The program was written in Visual Basic programming language as user-friendly interactive program. The program provides an intuitive user interface by linking to built-in databases were made available for the standard values of machinery specifications parameters to predict the performance of a selected agricultural machine otherwise, the user is prompt to enter his relevant input data for the model. The program has been statistically validated in comparison to the published data from the ASAE ( ) and proven to be user friendly and efficient. The program was applied successfully to Gezira and Rahad irrigated schemes in the central clay plains of Sudan for predicting technical performance of three tillage implements: Standard Disk Plow, Offset and Tandem Disk Harrows.

No-till (NT) management has been a successful soil management practice for many decades due to its ability to increase sustainable agricultural production practices through reduced soil erosion. Utilizing this NT conservation practice helps enhance the sustainability of crop production systems. No-till management practices can also improve soil water storage, which optimizes the use of this critical water resource for plant production. No-till management has been found to improve soil organic carbon, soil water retention, plant available water capacity, soil hydraulic conductivity, and water infiltration in soils, resulting in major improvements with water use efficiency. These improvements in soil properties and processes can translate into a more efficient system for sustainable food, fiber and biofuel production for future generations. Conserving and efficiently utilizing soil and water resources is critical for sustaining the world's current growing population. Minimizing soil erosion has been one of the main reasons to utilize NT conservation management systems. No-till systems allow the soil to remain undisturbed, reducing soil detachment and transport, two of the principal mechanisms of erosion . Efforts over the past 50 years in applying NT have been instrumental in reducing soil erosion and improving the long-term sustainability of agricultural management systems (Islam and Reeder 2014). Since NT management systems have been found to reduce runoff

Organic and conventional cropping systems differ in the nature and amounts of nitrogen (N) inputs, which may affect efficiency and sustainability of N use. In the DOK (bio-Dynamic, bio-Organic, Konventionell) field experiment, organic and conventional cropping systems have been compared since 1978 at two fertilization levels. Nitrogen inputs via manure and/or mineral fertilizers, and N exports from plots with harvested products have throughout been recorded. For all treatments, N outputs with harvests have exceeded the inputs with fertilizers. Over the past years, symbiotic N2 fixation by soybean and clover grown in the trial has additionally been assessed, indicating average annual inputs of about 100 kg ha-1 yr-1 of N fixed from the atmosphere. Soil surface budgets opposing N inputs via fertilization, symbiotic fixation, seeds and deposition to N outputs via harvested products have been computed at the plot level for the duration from 1985 to 2012. The resulting balances range fro...

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The water erosion research was carried out in the lowland type of hilly landscape. The aim was to monitor and evaluate the importance of environmental factors (steepness of slope, relief shapes, aspect, slope length, combination slope length (L) and slope (S)—LS factor, types of land use changes) for the development of water erosion. We focused on the identification of areas threatened by erosion by interpreting aerial photographs from several time periods. This was followed by verification of erosion using soil probes. We identified 408.44 ha of areas affected by erosion, and measured the depth of soil and “A” horizons thickness. The environmental factors were modeled in geographical information systems by tools for spatially oriented data. Subsequently, the influence and significance of individual environmental factors were compared, and the probability of erosion was statistically estimated. The decisive factors in the formation of erosive surfaces are the LS factor and the slope...

Fig. 1. Canola plots of non-uniform (left) and uniform (right) plant stands at 80 plants m -2 . Non-uniform plant stands are often caused by many factors, including environmental conditions and agronomic practices (Photo taken at Swift Current in 2013).

The assessment of soil attributes affected by land use changes or different cultivation management strategies is commonly based on a comparison between agricultural elds, neglecting the natural soil spatial variability. This study aimed to develop a methodology based on improved space series to differentiate between spatial variability of soil attributes and the effect of tillage direction when the evaluation is based on comparison between adjacent elds. The study area consists of two adjacent elds of different tillage directions, i.e. up-down tillage (UDT) and contour tillage (COT). Soil sampling was performed at 40 points in each led at 5 m intervals along a contour line at the mid-slope position. All measured soil attributes, i.e. sand, silt, clay, MWD, GMD, bulk density; SP, CCE, OM, of UDT were signi cantly (P<0.05) different from those of COT compared by independent sample T test. This analysis could not differentiate between the spatial variability of the soil and the changes induced by tillage. To determine the net effect of UDT on soil attributes, we (i) performed space series analysis on COT data, (ii) used autoregressive, moving average and autoregressive-moving average models to model the space series data on COT eld, and (iii) used the best model obtained for each soil attributes on COT to forecast the value of the property in ten adjacent points in the UDT eld. Comparison between the forecasted and measured data in UDT showed that the evaluation of tillage direction effect on soil attributes based on comparison between adjacent elds can be over or under estimated when the sampling coordinates and the spatial correlation among adjacent observations of data are ignored. The methodology used was able to differentiate between natural and management induced differences of soil attributes. Overall, the use of this methodology will improve the prediction and understanding of the effects of different cultivation practices on soil quality.

Inland excess water (IEW) is surplus water in the soil, resulting in long lasting (2-3 months) inundation of areas. The aim of this study is to establish a method to detect differences amongst undisturbed soil cores collected in inundated and non-inundated study plots, in order to reveal the potential effects of IEW on bulk density. In the same patch of Chernozem, two intact soil cores (height 28-32 cm, diameter 19 cm) were sampled in PVC cylinders in an inundated area and, as the control, two more in a non-inundated area. X-ray computed tomography (XRCT) measurements were carried out at a spatial resolution of 660 × 660 μm 2 . Higher bulk density, compaction, calculated from the Hounsfield units were recorded by XRCT in the case of the inundated soil columns. As a potential reason for the more remarkable shrinkage observed in the samples affected by inland excess water, the mineralogical composition was analysed by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD). The measurement confirms the higher proportion of expandable clay mineral phase in the inundated samples compared to the control. Experiments revealed that due to water inundation, secondary clay mineral formation and translocation occurred in the upper horizon of the soil samples, and they can trigger unfavourable structures that enhance the risk of IEW formation.

In conducting analysis of systems that have failed as a result of lightning and transients, we have observed repeated incidences associated with corrugated flexible tubing. The nature and frequency of lightning strokes is considered. The failure process is investigated. Standards and articles provide adequate minimum design for installation.

Nitrogen fertilization plays a very important role for crop productivity. New developed wheat varieties need proper fertilization for improved crop productivity. The present study was carried out to quantify, the effects of nitrogen derived from urea and FYM on the four newly developed wheat varieties i.e. Siran-2009, Ata Habib, Janbaz-2009 and Pirsabak-2008 for yield improvement, quality and soil fertility status. The N treatments were control, 100% of the recommended nitrogen from urea as well as FYM, and 50% from each source. The experiment was carried out at New Developmental Farm, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Agricultural University Peshawar Pakistan, during Rabi 2011-12. Results of the data showed that Janbaz-2009 was more responsive to biological yield (11,011 kg•ha -1 ), grain yield (4339 kg•ha -1 ), and nitrogen use efficiency (14.8%), whereas Siran-2010 performed better for grain N contents (2.31%). Plots having both urea and FYM had improved biological yield (11,958 kg•ha -1 ), and grain yield (4901 kg•ha -1 ). Urea application had improved straw N contents (0.92%) in addition to Mix application of urea and FYM (0.93%). Mix application of both sources and sole FYM had higher grains N content (2.25%), whereas control plots in addition to mix application had improved nitrogen use efficiency (14.8%). Siran-2010 and Janbaz-2009 performed better in FYM and mix FYM and urea plots for most of the parameters. It was concluded from the experiment that Janbaz-2009 had improved yield and yield components, whereas Siran-2010 had improved the grain N content. Similarly, Mix application of FYM and urea had improved crop productivity, soil fertility and grains as well as straw N content. Thus wheat varieties Janbaz-2009 sown in mix FYM and urea is recommended for general cultivation in agro-climatic condition of Peshawar.

The objective of the study was to determine the effect of chlorsulfuron on weeds in winter wheat grown in monoculture. A field experiment was conducted in east-central Poland in the years 2004-2009. The soil of the experiment was grey brown podzolic soil. Chlorsulfuron was applied as Glean 75 DF at rates ranging from 15 and 60 g ha -1 . We found 34 weeds in the experimental plots, including 25 annuals and 9 perennials. Increasing chlorsulfuron rates produced the following effects: the floristic richness of the community and weed infestation were reduced, but the share of perennial and monocot weed species increased. The effect of monoculture wheat was similar, though the impact of monoculture on weed community floristic impoverishment was less pronounced. Two dominant species, that is Elymus repens and Apera spica-venti, occurred during the study period. Increased numbers of Apera spica-venti were recorded in all the chlorsulfuron-controlled plots, even if the chemical was applied a...

A rotary tiller or rotavator is active tillage equipment used to prepare farmland for sowing seeds, weeding, mixing manure and fertiliser into the soil, crushing soil blocks, etc. Compared with conventional farming, the advantages of this equipment are rapid seedbed preparation and reduced draught. Nowadays, the utilisation rate of rotary tillers has increased. However, the blades are the key component that engages with the soil in the rotary tiller. These blades interact with the soil differently from ordinary ploughs and bear impact loads and high frictional forces, which eventually generate unbalanced and uneven forces on the entire rotary tiller. As a result, the blade faces significant wear. Therefore, it is necessary to optimise the design of the blades to minimise wear and enhance the service life. In this research work, design optimisation was carried out towards improving service life.

Interest in tillage impacts on sequestration of soil organic carbon (SOC) has increased greatly during recent years. The use of reduced and no-tillage (NT) practices generally increases the SOC concentration in surface few centimeters when compared to conventionally tilled soils. However, use of conservation tillage does not always result in increased SOC storage overall. The effects of sample handling and data expressions on the assessment of tillage-induced SOC sequestration were investigated using data collected from a tillage trial on a Thorp silt loam (US Taxonomy: ®ne-silty, mixed, mesic Argiaquic Argialboll; FAO: Orthic Greyzems). The tillage experiment was established in 1986 in Illinois, USA. The NT treatment used no soil disturbance except for planting. The disk tillage treatment included fall disking (7.5±10 cm deep) after corn (Zea mays L.) and spring ®eld cultivation after soybean (Glycine max L.) production. The moldboard plowing treatment included fall moldboard plowing (20±25 cm deep) after corn, followed by spring disking (7.5±10 cm deep) and ®eld cultivating; fall chisel plowing (30±35 cm) was done after soybean, followed by spring disking and ®eld cultivation. Estimates of tillage impacts on SOC sequestration varied with the soil depth considered, time of sampling, and sample handling technique. Results indicated that tillage-induced changes in SOC occurred in the surface 30 cm. NT soil had greater C contents in the upper 30 cm when assessed on a concentration and volumetric basis. Although the use of NT practices did increase C content stored as surface residues and SOC concentrations in the top few cm of the soil, it did not increase SOC storage overall.

Soil surface roughness (SSR) expresses soil susceptibility to wind and water erosion and plays an important role in the development and the maintenance of soil biota. Several methods have been developed to characterise SSR based on different methods of acquiring data. Because the main problems related to these methods involve the use and handling of equipment in the field, the present study aims to fill the need for a method for measuring SSR that is more reliable, low-cost and convenient in the field than traditional field methods. Shadow analysis, which interprets microtopographic shadows, is based on the principle that there is a direct relationship between the soil surface roughness and the shadows cast by soil structures under fixed sunlight conditions. SSR was calculated with shadows analysis in the laboratory using hemispheres of different diameter with a diverse distribution of known altitudes and a surface area of 1 m 2 . Data obtained from the shadow analysis were compared to data obtained with the chain method and simulation of the micro-relief. The results show a relationship among the SSR calculated using the different methods. To further improve the method, shadow analysis was used to measure the SSR in a sandy clay loam field using different tillage tools (chisel, tiller and roller) and in a control of 4 m 2 surface plots divided into subplots of 1 m 2 . The measurements were compared to the data obtained using the chain set and pin meter methods. The SSR measured was the highest when the chisel was used, followed by the tiller and the roller, and finally the control, for each of the three methods. Shadow analysis is shown to be a reliable method that does not disturb the measured surface, is easy to handle and analyse, and shortens the time

With a semi-arid Mediterranean climate and viticulture vocation, the tray of Mostaganem (North-West of Algeria) has become a region of great crops. Subject to increase mechanization and inappropriate tillage practices, farm lands are exposed to erosion that seriously weighs the physical and socio-economic contexts. An itinerary technique (cereal) is chosen to study along the slope, surface and deep structural changes of soil, humidity and the fine particles (<2 μm). Thus, consideration of the surface shows a strong soil erodibility partly linked to the action of implements and a rain erosivity accentuated by lack of vegetation in the rainy season.Culural profiles observations show the small depth of tillage affecting mostly superior horizon. Average horizon, wet, rich in fine particles and barely reached by tools impedes any move to lower horizon which is very compact without variability. With this kind of technical itinerary, fine elements losses estimated to (3 t/ha/year) result closely from the characteristics of the physical environment but also the conditions of its exploitation. In case of more important spatialtemporal unit's extrapolation, the consequences will be even more harmful if improvement actions are not undertaken.

In cold regions, climate change is expected to result in warmer winter temperatures and increased temperature variability. Coupled with changing precipitation regimes, these changes can decrease soil insulation by reducing snow cover, exposing soils to colder temperatures and more frequent and extensive soil freezing and thawing. Freeze-thaw events can exert an important control over winter soil processes and the cycling of nitrogen (N), with consequences for soil health, nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, and nearby water quality. These impacts are especially important for agricultural soils and practices in cold regions. We conducted a lysimeter experiment to assess the effects of winter pulsed warming, soil texture, and snow cover on N cycling in agricultural soils. We monitored the subsurface soil temperature, moisture, and porewater geochemistry together with air temperature, precipitation, and N2O fluxes in four agricultural field-controlled lysimeter systems (surface area of 1 m2...

The estimation of soil microbial activity has been an important research issue because of the significant role that microorganisms play in nutrient cycling in soil. In a 3-year (August 2005 -August 2008) experiment, the effect of catch crops: oilseed radish (Raphanus sativus var. olifera L.) and field pea (Pisum sativum L.) vs. plots without a catch crop, and inorganic nitrogen (N) fertilization at 0, 40, 80, 120, 160 kg ha -1 year -1 on soil dehydrogenase (DH), catalase (CAT) and fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis (FDAH) activities were investigated on albic, cutanic Luvisols (LVab, LVct). The catch crops were sown at the beginning of August and ploughed in autumn in 2005, 2006 and 2007. Then the main crop, spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), was grown in 2006, 2007 and 2008. Soil samples were taken twice a year, before spring wheat sowing (March or April) and after harvesting (August). Generally, catch crops significantly influenced DH and CAT activities in all of the years of the investigation, while FDAH activity was affected only in 2007. There were higher DH and FDAH activities in catch crop treatment versus the control and only in some cases in field pea than in oilseed radish when both catch crops treatments were compared. DH and CAT activities were always higher in August than in March or April. Nitrogen fertilization influenced DH and FDAH activities only in 2007, while CAT activity was influenced during the entire experimental period (2006)(2007)(2008). Generally, the highest CAT activity was noted at N rates of 80 or 120 kg ha -1 year -1 . Chemical properties (organic carbon, total nitrogen, pH 1 M KCl) were not significantly affected by catch crops and inorganic N fertilization treatments. The studied indices of microbial biomass were significantly correlated with chemical soil properties.

Ecosystem in responses to land use change create feedbacks in soils and ecological processes in Critical Zone (CZ). The identification and quantification of such changes is needed as a part of understanding the relationship between climate, CO 2 emission, humidity, biological activity, soil carbon, surface redox, and plant nutrient cycling and lithology, mineralogy, biogeochemistry of bedrocks. The CZ observation as complex investigation of three Luvic Phaezoem soils under secondary deciduous forest, grassland and cropland from Moscow region, Russia, was fulfilled with the main goal to study weathering processes in soils along global gradients of environmental change. Detailed study of mineralogy and chemistry (XRD, XRF), surface area, porosity, organic matter, carbon/microbial biomass, moisture content, monitoring of total soil respiration was performed. Ecosystem in responses to land use change the parameters of CZ (CO 2 emission, humidity, biological activity). Land use change result in climate parameter on a local scale (soil climatic gradients) and formed feedback in weathering intensity and basic soil properties-organic matter, acidity, bulk density, WHC, surface properties and porosity, mineralogy and geochemical changes. The decreasing of smectites in the upper parts of the profile and the increasing of illite and vermiculite content was observed. Montmorillonite into vermiculite transformation, which took place only under the forest, which caused the decreasing of pH, soil vermiculite may also derive from muscovite. The intensity of the given process increases as the following: forest soil < grassland < cropland. The given tendency was explained by both the mineral transformations and redistribution of mineral components within the soil profile. The redistribution of chemical elements between the different sub-fractions of silt and clay is in relationship to the land use. As a general trend, we can conclude that clay fractions in a comparison with bulk soil samples are enriched in both OC and N. Mineralogical and chemical changes influenced the surface properties and porosity. The 50-150 years of different land use resulted in these feedbacks with maximum in aboveground zone and soils as main point of surface of a given CZ.

The purpose of this work lies in studying the composition, physical and chemical properties of the second
fraction of the humic acid (HA2) extracted from the typical black soil, depending on the intensity of the
soil tillage. Physical and chemical properties of HA2 have been studied by using ultraviolet (UV)
spectroscopy, infrared (IR) spectroscopy and electron spin resonance spectroscopy (ESR). It has been
demonstrated that increase of the tillage intensity of the typical black soil leads to decrease in the total
carbon content and the HA2 content due to displacement of balance between the conjugated processes of
humus synthesis and decay towards destruction. UV spectroscopy indicates intense absorption of humic
acids in the near UV region, that corresponds to the donor-acceptor mechanisms π-π* electrons of double
bonds. Maximum absorption has been observed for the HA2 isolated from the black soil tilled by
plowing. Moreover, the highest content of oxygen-containing functional groups and low quantity of
aliphatic structures has been observed in the same sample. It has been shown that the nature of
paramagnetic centers of the HA2 represented by chelate paramagnetic Fe3+-complex formed by
rearrangement π-electron system of double bonds, depending on the tillage intensity of the typical black
soil. It has been found that plowing of the typical black soil enhances the number of paramagnetic centers
in HA2

I would like to acknowledge my mother, father and sister, who have provided a loving, supportive and engaging family environment throughout my life. Their support has given me the security to branch out, keep exploring, and eventually find my calling in sustainable agriculture. At the same time, their questions, perspectives and jesting challenges to my thinking and decisions have inspired me to truly understand my path and perspectives. Special thanks goes to my wonderful partner, Katrina Prime, whose pragmatism and common sense help bring wandering and overly-complicated thoughts back to solid ground. Her support and love has been essential throughout the last five years of our life together. I would think it utterly impossible to maintain the high quality of life and undertake the work that I have, without her. My deep gratitude also goes to my committee. Lynne Carpenter-Boggs was daring enough to coax a rangy organic farmer into a graduate program at WSU, and then patient enough...

The experiment was carried out in the greenhouse at Faculty of Agriculture, University of Benin, Benin City to investigate lead uptake by Celosia argentea in an experiment organized in a completely randomized design with three replicates using four levels of lead at the rates of 0, 50, 100, 200mg/ 5kg soil. Results showed that the stem girth, number of leaves, height and dry matter of the plant decreased with increased Pb application with no significant differences among the various treatments. The 2 3 2 3 decrease in Al 0 , organic carbon, N, P, K, Mg, percentage base saturation, Ca and the increase in Fe 0 , ECEC and exchangeable acidity were not consistent while the soil pH and Na content of soil were fairly stable. The Pb content of the soil increased with the increase in Pb treatment. The N, P, K, Mg and Ca content of the Celosia argentea and their uptake decreased with increased Pb application with the control significantly higher than other treatments. The Na content of the p...

Soil compaction is recognized as an increasingly challenging problem for the agricultural, horticultural and forest production in many climatic regions. The Proctor test provides a standardized method to study compactibility of disturbed soils over a range of soil water contents. The objectives of our study were: (a) to determine values of the critical water content for compaction and maximum bulk density from Proctor compaction curves for soils different in their properties; (b) to study the correlation between the maximum bulk density and readily available soil properties. Thirty soil samples were taken from six different locations in Argentina between 58 and 648W and 34 and 388S. The degree of saturation at maximum bulk density varied from 73.2 to 96.8%. Comparison of our data with data of two studies in USA showed that relationships between the maximum bulk density and the critical water content were similar to these studies. However, the slope of the relationship between the maximum bulk density and the organic carbon content was 50% less in our study as compared with the two others. The maximum bulk density was highly correlated with the organic carbon content and the silt content, the determination coef®cient of the multiple linear regression, r 2 , was 0.88.