Smoking Withdrawal

Nicotine dependence plays a critical role in addiction to tobacco products, and thus contributes to a variety of devastating tobacco-related diseases (SGR 2014). Annual costs associated with smoking in the US are estimated to be between $289 and $333 billion. Effective interventions for nicotine dependence, especially in smokers, are a critical barrier to the eradication of tobacco-related diseases. This overview highlights research presented at the Plenary Symposium of Behavior, Biology and Chemistry: Translational Research in Addiction Conference (BBC), hosted by the UT Health Science Center San Antonio, on March 9-10, 2013. The Plenary Symposium focused on tobacco addiction, and covered topics ranging from basic science to national policy. As in previous years, the meeting brought together globally-renowned scientists, graduate student recruits, and young scientists from underrepresented populations in Texas and other states with the goal of fostering interest in drug addiction r...

Nicotine dependence plays a critical role in addiction to tobacco products, and thus contributes to a variety of devastating tobacco-related diseases (SGR 2014). Annual costs associated with smoking in the US are estimated to be between $289 and $333 billion. Effective interventions for nicotine dependence, especially in smokers, are a critical barrier to the eradication of tobacco-related diseases. This overview highlights research presented at the Plenary Symposium of Behavior, Biology and Chemistry: Translational Research in Addiction Conference (BBC), hosted by the UT Health Science Center San Antonio, on March 9-10, 2013. The Plenary Symposium focused on tobacco addiction, and covered topics ranging from basic science to national policy. As in previous years, the meeting brought together globally-renowned scientists, graduate student recruits, and young scientists from underrepresented populations in Texas and other states with the goal of fostering interest in drug addiction r...

Nicotine dependence plays a critical role in addiction to tobacco products, and thus contributes to a variety of devastating tobacco-related diseases (SGR 2014). Annual costs associated with smoking in the US are estimated to be between $289 and $333 billion. Effective interventions for nicotine dependence, especially in smokers, are a critical barrier to the eradication of tobacco-related diseases. This overview highlights research presented at the Plenary Symposium of Behavior, Biology and Chemistry: Translational Research in Addiction Conference (BBC), hosted by the UT Health Science Center San Antonio, on March 9-10, 2013. The Plenary Symposium focused on tobacco addiction, and covered topics ranging from basic science to national policy. As in previous years, the meeting brought together globally-renowned scientists, graduate student recruits, and young scientists from underrepresented populations in Texas and other states with the goal of fostering interest in drug addiction r...

The effects of smoking normalnicotine-delivery cigarettes on serum cortisol, plasma beta-endorphin (BE), and mood were measured in 8 male and 8 female smokers; 8 male and 8 female nonsmokers served as sham-smoking controls. Smoking five cigarettes of the smokers' usual type after overnight deprivation, either ad lib or via a quantified smoke delivery system, produced small but reliable elevations in serum cortisol concentrations; BE was elevated somewhat after two, but not after four or five cigarettes. Smoking-induced elevations in serum cortisol were correlated with decreases in self-reported drowsiness after two and five cigarettes. Additionally, female smokers reported more drowsiness at baseline and after smoking nicotine-free cigarettes than did male smokers or female nonsmokers. Results suggest that smoking-induced elevations in serum cortisol, which persist for at least the first five cigarettes of the day, may modulate the arousing effects of smoking under conditions of low arousal. Also, nicotine-deprived female smokers may experience subnormal arousal compared to male smokers or female nonsmokers. Nicotine Smoking Cortisol Beta-endorphin Affect Mood Arousal Gender Reinforcement

Research designs for parsing the mechanisms underlying tobacco withdrawal are scant. This study introduced a novel research design that simultaneously manipulated three tobacco withdrawal mechanisms: pharmacological (nicotine dissipation), sensorimotor (elimination of the smoking ritual), and expectancy (activation of beliefs regarding the effects of nicotine deprivation), permitting examination of the effects of each mechanism while holding the other two mechanisms constant. Following overnight abstinence, 32 regular cigarette smokers were randomized in a 2 (expectancy: told patch contains nicotine versus told placebo patch) × 2 (drug: receive 21-mg transdermal nicotine patch versus receive placebo patch) × 2 (sensorimotor: smoke very low nicotine content cigarettes versus no smoking) full factorial between-subjects design. Participants repeatedly completed measures of craving, affect, and anticipated pleasure from and desire for rewarding experiences, followed by a smoking lapse a...

Aims and design Moderate intensity exercise has been shown to reduce common smoking withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke in acutely abstinent smokers. The aim of the present study was to determine if this was caused by distraction. A secondary aim was to determine whether exercise-related changes in affect were related to reduction in symptoms. Methods Forty 'sedentary' participants who had smoked at least 10 or more cigarettes per day for at least three years were randomly assigned to one of two groups. They completed either 10 minutes of moderate intensity exercise on a stationary bicycle ergometer or 10 minutes of a cognitive distraction task (Paced Visual Serial Addition Task, PVSAT) after 11-15 hours of smoking abstinence. Participants rated smoking withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke using standard scales at 10, 5 and 0 minutes before the experimental intervention, then at 5 and 10 minutes after the start of the intervention and 5 and 10 minutes after its completion. Findings Significant Group x Time interactions were observed for ratings of desire to smoke and several withdrawal symptoms (irritability, depression, restlessness, difficulty concentrating and stress). There was a reduction in ratings during and immediately 3 following exercise that was not observed with cognitive distraction. Also it was found the effects were not mediated by changes in affect observed in the exercise condition. Conclusions A brief bout of moderate intensity exercise can lead to a rapid reduction in desire to smoke and withdrawal discomfort, which is not due to the distracting effect of exercise or the effects of mood. These findings support recommendations to smokers to use exercise as a means of helping cope with the difficulties encountered when they try to stop.

The article highlights a preliminary study on smoking and its impact on absenteeism and stress in the work place. The article also includes an application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in explaining the behavior of smoking. The Theory of Planned Behavior which was proposed by Icek Ajzen is used to predict an individual’s behavioural control and intention which are influenced by attitude and social norms to perform a behaviour. This article also discusses previous researches done on smoking and its relationship with absenteeism and stress among employees in organizations. 

Nicotine dependence plays a critical role in addiction to tobacco products, and thus contributes to a variety of devastating tobacco-related diseases (SGR 2014). Annual costs associated with smoking in the US are estimated to be between $289 and $333 billion. Effective interventions for nicotine dependence, especially in smokers, are a critical barrier to the eradication of tobacco-related diseases. This overview highlights research presented at the Plenary Symposium of Behavior, Biology and Chemistry: Translational Research in Addiction Conference (BBC), hosted by the UT Health Science Center San Antonio, on March 9-10, 2013. The Plenary Symposium focused on tobacco addiction, and covered topics ranging from basic science to national policy. As in previous years, the meeting brought together globally-renowned scientists, graduate student recruits, and young scientists from underrepresented populations in Texas and other states with the goal of fostering interest in drug addiction r...

There is now strong evidence that exercise has an acute effect on the urge to smoke and the accompanying withdrawal symptoms. However, the perceptions by heavy smokers of exercise and its relationship to the urge to smoke have not been well documented. The aim of the present study is to understand the experiences of heavy smokers with regard to exercise and its effect on their urge to smoke. Five physically inactive, heavy smokers are asked to abstain from smoking the night before exercising on a cycle ergometer under two conditions (one at medium and one at vigorous intensity done a week apart). Semi-structured, in-depth interviews are conducted after the second exercise session. Thematic analysis reveals six themes describing the participants' experience of exercise, urge to smoke, exercise preferences, exercise and smoking relationship, exercise as an aid to quit smoking, and the effects of the experimental procedure. Overall, the participants' experiences support the existing literature, which has posited affective, biological, and cognitive mechanisms contributing to a delay in the urge to smoke after exercise. The main findings pertain to: (1) the "feel-good" effect after exercise as a relief from the "feel-bad" effect during exercise; (2) the decreased urge to smoke after exercise, stated by all participants regardless of reported positive and negative feelings; and (3) exercise as a "clearing the mind" mechanism rather than an attention-distracting mechanism.

The primary aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a short bout (10 min) of moderate-intensity exercise to reduce withdrawal symptomatology, craving and negative affect; while the secondary aim was to assess how the effectiveness of a short bout of moderate exercise can be modulated by the perception of intensity in physically active and low-activity smokers. Fifty low-activity and physically active smokers were recruited (24 male and 26 female) and randomized in three different conditions. Prescribed (objective) moderate intensity (OBJ) and perceived moderate intensity (PER), and passive waiting (PW). After the intervention (T3), smokers reported less desire to smoke in the PER (p < 0.001) and OBJ (p < 0.001) conditions, relative to the PW condition. At T3 smokers in the PER condition reported less negative affect than smokers in the PW condition relative to the baseline (T1) (p < 0.007). Further, smokers in the PER condition reported less negative affect tha...

Rationale Suppressing smoking thoughts has been shown to result in elevated smoking. However, the effect of suppressing smoking thoughts on desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms has not been investigated. Objectives We examined the effects of suppressing smoking thoughts on the subsequent desire to smoke and on tobacco withdrawal symptoms, relative to groups that were either thinking about anything they wished or actively thinking about smoking. Methods A randomised experimental study compared the effects of three manipulations (suppressed smoking thoughts, expressed smoking thoughts and thoughts of anything they wished) on desire and withdrawal immediately after the manipulation and 5 and 10 min after. Results Suppressing smoking thoughts did not result in elevated subsequent desire to smoke, relative to the other manipulations. Suppressing smoking thoughts resulted in a significant elevation in hunger ratings, relative to the other manipulations, at all measurement times. There were no significant effects for the other withdrawal symptoms. Selfreported greater use of thought suppression in everyday life was significantly associated with greater desire to smoke at baseline and was associated with lower mindfulness scores. Conclusions Laboratory-instructed suppression of smoking thoughts is associated with increased reports of hunger but did not lead to increases in other withdrawal symptoms or elevated desire to smoke. Reports of everyday use of thought suppression are associated with elevated desire to smoke at baseline. Further investigations need to assess the effect of suppressing smoking cravings, instead of general smoking thoughts, on desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal.

There is a widespread belief that cigarette smoking alleviates stress. The literature reveals conflicting results on the anxiolytic effects of smoking. This study was designed to replicate a report that smoking (a) reduced subjective anxiety induced by stressful anagrams and (b) increased pain threshold for a cold pain task. This study (N = 15) included two other stressors: white noise and an auditory vigilance task. A significant Time X Condition (smoking vs. deprived) interaction was found for Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory scores in the anagram task. A borderline significant interaction effect was found for the cold pain task. No significant effects were found with the two other tasks. These results provide partial support for the popular notion that smoking mitigates stress-induced anxiety. No difference was found between the smoking and deprived conditions for either pain threshold or pain endurance.

Background: Smoking is endemic amongst people accessing homeless services, and they are disproportionately affected by smoking-related diseases. This paper reports on the results of a 3-month small scale intervention which explored the efficacy, challenges and opportunities of using electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) to support cessation of tobacco smoking with people accessing an Irish supported temporary accommodation (STA) homeless service. It considers the results of this intervention with reference to the balance of harms between the use of vaping to support smoking cessation and continued smoking. Methods: Twenty-three participants were recruited. Demographic data, carbon monoxide (CO) measurements, homelessness status and smoking history were recorded. Participants were given an ENDS device and two 10-ml bottles containing e-liquid available in several flavours and at several strengths. Participants could pick up new bottles on a weekly basis. At weeks 1, 4, 8 and 12, the Fagerström Test and Mood and Physical Symptoms Scale (MPSS) were administered.

Elevations in brain stimulation reward (BSR) thresholds have been observed in rats undergoing nicotine withdrawal and have been proposed as a sensitive measure of the negative affective state associated with nicotine withdrawal. mGluR are presynaptic autoreceptors that decrease glutamate release when stimulated. The aim of this study was to examine the role of glutamate neurotransmission in nicotine dependence. The mGluR agonist LY314582 (2.5-7.5 mg/kg) precipitated nicotine withdrawal as measured by elevations in BSR thresholds in nicotine-treated rats but not in controls. It was hypothesized that LY314582 precipitated nicotine withdrawal by decreasing glutamatergic tone at postsynaptic glutamate receptors. Therefore, the effects of MPEP (0.5-2 mg/kg), an mGluR antagonist, and MK-801 (0.01-1 mg/kg), an NMDA receptor antagonist, were examined. MPEP elevated BSR thresholds by an equal magnitude in control and nicotine-treated rats. At low doses, MK-801 (0.01-0.2 mg/kg) lowered BSR thresholds to a similar extent in control and nicotine-treated rats. At higher doses, MK-801 (0.25-1 mg/kg) disrupted performance in nicotine-treated and control rats. These data indicate that mGluR and NMDA receptors regulate BSR in opposite directions in non-dependent animals, and chronic nicotine treatment does not alter these effects. Most importantly, the data demonstrate that the mGluR is involved in nicotine dependence, but mGluR and NMDA receptors do not mediate mGluR actions in nicotine dependence.

There is now strong evidence that exercise has an acute effect on the urge to smoke and the accompanying withdrawal symptoms. However, the perceptions by heavy smokers of exercise and its relationship to the urge to smoke have not been well documented. The aim of the present study is to understand the experiences of heavy smokers with regard to exercise and its effect on their urge to smoke. Five physically inactive, heavy smokers are asked to abstain from smoking the night before exercising on a cycle ergometer under two conditions (one at medium and one at vigorous intensity done a week apart). Semi-structured, in-depth interviews are conducted after the second exercise session. Thematic analysis reveals six themes describing the participants' experience of exercise, urge to smoke, exercise preferences, exercise and smoking relationship, exercise as an aid to quit smoking, and the effects of the experimental procedure. Overall, the partici-pants' experiences support the existing literature, which has posited affective, biological, and cog-nitive mechanisms contributing to a delay in the urge to smoke after exercise. The main findings pertain to: (1) the " feel-good " effect after exercise as a relief from the " feel-bad " effect during exercise ; (2) the decreased urge to smoke after exercise, stated by all participants regardless of reported positive and negative feelings; and (3) exercise as a " clearing the mind " mechanism rather than an attention-distracting mechanism.

In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, we examined the effects of nicotine (2 mg administered by inhalator) on the cognitive performance of male and female non-smoking students and on mood changes following a moderately stressful task. The groups were matched for age and IQ, and did not differ in pre-test measures of anxiety, depression, extroversion and neuroticism or in their weekly alcohol or daily caffeine intake. Nicotine did not change performance in tests of attention and memory. Exposure to moderate stress significantly increased ratings of anxiety, discontent and aggression and nicotine blocked these mood changes in females, but enhanced them in males. This suggests that young women may start regular smoking as a form of stress self-medication, which implies that preventative and smoking cessation programmes would be more successful in women if they addressed issues of stress and anxiety, which may be core factors underlying initiation and maintenance of regular smoking.

This transdisciplinary review of the literature addresses the questions, Do stress and negative affect (NA) promote smoking? and Does smoking genuinely relieve stress and NA? Drawing on both human and animal literatures, the authors examine these questions across three developmental stages of smokinginitiation, maintenance, and relapse. Methodological and conceptual distinctions relating to within-and between-subjects levels of analyses are emphasized throughout the review. Potential mechanisms underlying links between stress and NA and smoking are also reviewed. Relative to direct-effect explanations, the authors argue that contextual mediator-moderator approaches hold greater potential for elucidating complex associations between NA and stress and smoking. The authors conclude with recommendations for research initiatives that draw on more sophisticated theories and methodologies.

This transdisciplinary review of the literature addresses the questions, Do stress and negative affect (NA) promote smoking? and Does smoking genuinely relieve stress and NA? Drawing on both human and animal literatures, the authors examine these questions across three developmental stages of smokinginitiation, maintenance, and relapse. Methodological and conceptual distinctions relating to within-and between-subjects levels of analyses are emphasized throughout the review. Potential mechanisms underlying links between stress and NA and smoking are also reviewed. Relative to direct-effect explanations, the authors argue that contextual mediator-moderator approaches hold greater potential for elucidating complex associations between NA and stress and smoking. The authors conclude with recommendations for research initiatives that draw on more sophisticated theories and methodologies.

Rationale: A previous study found that a 10min bout of moderate intensity exercise reduced cigarette withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke in sedentary smokers but the effect may have been due to participants focusing attention on physical activity rather than the activity itself. Objectives: This study examined the effect of 5 min of moderate intensity exercise and 5 min of light intensity exercise on tobacco withdrawal symptoms amongst sedentary smokers. Methods: Eighty-four smokers attended a laboratory session having abstained from smoking for between 11 and 14 h. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: (i) light intensity exercise [n=28; 10-20% of heart rate reserve (HRR)]; (ii) moderate intensity exercise (n=28; 40-60% HRR), (iii) a passive control condition (n=28). Both exercise conditions involved 5 min of stationary cycling and participants rated tobacco withdrawal symptoms and cravings immediately before exercise (baseline), during exercise at 2.5 min, immediately following exercise, then after 5 and 10 min of rest. Control participants made the same ratings across an equivalent time period. Results: For moderate intensity exercise compared to light intensity exercise and control there was a significant reduction in strength of desire to smoke, relative to baseline, both during exercise and up to 5 min post-exercise. Relative to baseline, there were also significant reductions in rest-lessness, stress, tension and poor concentration at 5 and 10 min post-exercise, for moderate intensity exercise compared to light intensity exercise and control. Conclusions: Five minutes of moderate intensity exercise is associated with a short-term reduction in desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms. Very brief bouts of exercise may therefore be useful as an aid to smoking cessation.

Rationale Suppressing smoking thoughts has been shown to result in elevated smoking. However, the effect of suppressing smoking thoughts on desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms has not been investigated. Objectives We examined the effects of suppressing smoking thoughts on the subsequent desire to smoke and on tobacco withdrawal symptoms, relative to groups that were either thinking about anything they wished or actively thinking about smoking. Methods A randomised experimental study compared the effects of three manipulations (suppressed smoking thoughts, expressed smoking thoughts and thoughts of anything they wished) on desire and withdrawal immediately after the manipulation and 5 and 10 min after. Results Suppressing smoking thoughts did not result in elevated subsequent desire to smoke, relative to the other manipulations. Suppressing smoking thoughts resulted in a significant elevation in hunger ratings, relative to the other manipulations, at all measurement times. There were no significant effects for the other withdrawal symptoms. Selfreported greater use of thought suppression in everyday life was significantly associated with greater desire to smoke at baseline and was associated with lower mindfulness scores.

Aims To examine the acute effects of a guided relaxation routine (body scan) on desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms in overnight abstinent smokers. Design Experimental. Participants Thirty individuals reporting to smoke 10 or more cigarettes daily for at least 3 years. Intervention Participants were assigned randomly to complete a 10-minute body scan (experimental group n = 15) or listen to a natural history passage for 10 minutes (control group n = 15). Measurement Ratings of strength of desire to smoke and smoking withdrawal symptoms were assessed at baseline, immediately after the interventions, and 5, 10 and 15 minutes post-intervention. Findings There was a significant group ¥ time interaction for strength of desire to smoke. The mean desire to smoke rating was significantly lower in the body scan group relative to the control group immediately after the intervention, and 5 minutes post-intervention. The body scan group also reported lower ratings of irritability, tension and restlessness, relative to the controls. Conclusion A brief body scan intervention reduces strength of desire to smoke and some tobacco withdrawal symptoms in temporarily abstaining smokers. The body scan may be beneficial as a technique for managing cigarette cravings and withdrawal.

Aims To examine the acute effects of a guided relaxation routine (body scan) and isometric exercise on desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms. Design Experimental comparison of three conditions. Participants Forty-eight individuals reporting smoking Ն10 cigarettes daily. Intervention Random assignment to one of three interventions delivered via a 10-minute audio: isometric exercise (IE, n = 14), body scanning (BS, n = 18) or a reading about natural history (control group, n = 16). Interventions were delivered twice on the same day: in the laboratory, then in their 'normal' environment. Measurements Desire to smoke (primary outcome) and withdrawal symptoms were rated at pre-intervention and up to 30 minutes post-intervention. Findings Controlling for baseline scores, post-intervention desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms were significantly lower for IE and BS groups, compared with the controls, in both environments. There were no significant differences for IE versus BS. For desire to smoke, controlling for baseline values, ratings in the laboratory were significantly lower for IE and BS versus the control up to 30 minutes post-intervention. In the normal environment, these ratings were significantly lower only up to 5 minutes post-intervention. Conclusions Brief IE and BS interventions are effective for reducing desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms in temporarily abstaining smokers. These interventions were found to be more effective in the laboratory than in the smoker's normal environment, but this may be an artefact of there not being a sufficient 'wash-out' period between interventions. These techniques may be beneficial for managing desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal.

There is now strong evidence that exercise has an acute effect on the urge to smoke and the accompanying withdrawal symptoms. However, the perceptions by heavy smokers of exercise and its relationship to the urge to smoke have not been well documented. The aim of the present study is to understand the experiences of heavy smokers with regard to exercise and its effect on their urge to smoke. Five physically inactive, heavy smokers are asked to abstain from smoking the night before exercising on a cycle ergometer under two conditions (one at medium and one at vigorous intensity done a week apart). Semi-structured, in-depth interviews are conducted after the second exercise session. Thematic analysis reveals six themes describing the participants' experience of exercise, urge to smoke, exercise preferences, exercise and smoking relationship, exercise as an aid to quit smoking, and the effects of the experimental procedure. Overall, the partici-pants' experiences support the existing literature, which has posited affective, biological, and cog-nitive mechanisms contributing to a delay in the urge to smoke after exercise. The main findings pertain to: (1) the " feel-good " effect after exercise as a relief from the " feel-bad " effect during exercise ; (2) the decreased urge to smoke after exercise, stated by all participants regardless of reported positive and negative feelings; and (3) exercise as a " clearing the mind " mechanism rather than an attention-distracting mechanism.

Twenty regular smokers were assessed over 24-h of normal cigarette smoking, and an equivalent period of abstinence. In both conditions, a non-deprived baseline was followed by performance tests 2, 6 and 24 h later, while subjective feelings were assessed every 2 h. Compared to normal smoking, abstinence led to reduced heart rate, worse task performance, feelings of depression, stress, irritability, restlessness, poor concentration, and urges to smoke. Letter cancellation and number vigilance task performance were significantly poorer after 2 and 6 h of abstinence. Subjective feeling states were significantly worse after 4 h of abstinence, and became increasingly impaired over the rest of the day. However many abstinence symptoms (except heart rate), were reduced in severity at the 24-h session, held on the morning of the following day. This suggests that many of the psychological effects of smoking abstinence, may build-up afresh each day.

Article title: The effects of smoking and abstinence on experience of happiness and sadness in response to positively valenced, negatively valenced, and neutral film clips Year of publication: 2007 Citation: Dawkins, L. et al (2007) 'The effects of smoking and abstinence on experience of happiness and sadness in response to positively valenced, negatively valenced, and neutral film clips,' Addictive Behaviors 32 (2) 425-431 Link to published version: http://dx.

Nicotine administration has been found to enhance performance on tasks of selective attention. It has been proposed that efficient attentional filtering depends on the successful inhibition of distracting information. In the work reported here, a negative priming paradigm was adopted to test whether smoking enhanced the inhibition of irrelevant information. Thirty-six minimally deprived smokers, half of whom smoked and half of whom sham smoked, completed the negative priming task. A significantly larger negative priming effect was found in participants who had smoked in comparison with those who sham smoked. These results support the hypothesis that nicotine enhances the inhibition of distracting information and thus suggest a possible mechanism by which smoking may enhance selective attention.

This study compared the effect of subcutaneous nicotine injections (2 x 0.3 mg and 2 x 0.6 mg) with saline on subjective and physiological measures in 18 never-smokers and 18 smokers (24-h nicotine deprived), under conditions of rest and cognitive testing. Prior to the injections the mood of the smokers had deteriorated to a level significantly below that of the never-smokers as a result of tobacco withdrawal. Cognitive tests caused reductions in calmness and increased alertness but there was no evidence of nicotine improving mood in either group under either condition. The 0.6 mg dose worsened mood in never-smokers and caused unpleasant symptoms (e.g. dizziness and arm pain) in both groups. Compared with smokers, never-smokers experienced stronger symptoms of nicotine toxicity and a greater reduction in alertness in response to the 0.6 mg dose, suggesting chronic tolerance to some nicotine effects in smokers. Nicotine produced similar increases in heart rate and decreases in finger pulse volume in both groups. Our results imply that if nicotine has a mood enhancing effect it occurs only after tolerance has been acquired to its primary adverse effects, and that its ability to reverse the mood deterioration caused by tobacco withdrawal is susceptible to situational factors such as our experimental conditions. 0 1997 Elseveier Science Ireland Ltd.

Aims  To examine the acute effects of a guided relaxation routine (body scan) and isometric exercise on desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms.Design  Experimental comparison of three conditions.Participants  Forty-eight individuals reporting smoking ≥10 cigarettes daily.Intervention  Random assignment to one of three interventions delivered via a 10-minute audio: isometric exercise (IE, n = 14), body scanning (BS, n = 18) or a reading about natural history (control group, n = 16). Interventions were delivered twice on the same day: in the laboratory, then in their ‘normal’ environment.Measurements  Desire to smoke (primary outcome) and withdrawal symptoms were rated at pre-intervention and up to 30 minutes post-intervention.Findings  Controlling for baseline scores, post-intervention desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms were significantly lower for IE and BS groups, compared with the controls, in both environments. There were no significant differences for IE versus BS. For desire to smoke, controlling for baseline values, ratings in the laboratory were significantly lower for IE and BS versus the control up to 30 minutes post-intervention. In the normal environment, these ratings were significantly lower only up to 5 minutes post-intervention.Conclusions  Brief IE and BS interventions are effective for reducing desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms in temporarily abstaining smokers. These interventions were found to be more effective in the laboratory than in the smoker's normal environment, but this may be an artefact of there not being a sufficient ‘wash-out’ period between interventions. These techniques may be beneficial for managing desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal.

Aim  To review the effects of a single session of exercise on cigarette cravings, withdrawal symptoms and smoking behaviour.Methods  A systematic search and critical appraisal of all 14 relevant studies.Results  All 12 studies that compared a bout of exercise with a passive condition reported a positive effect on cigarette cravings, withdrawal symptoms and smoking behaviour. Two other studies that compared two intensities of exercise revealed no differences in outcomes. Single and multi-item measures of cigarette cravings, withdrawal symptoms and negative affect decreased rapidly during exercise and remained reduced for up to 50 minutes after exercise. Effect sizes for seven studies that assessed ‘strength of desire to smoke’ showed a mean reduction, 10 minutes after exercise, of 1.1 (SD 0.9). Four studies reported a two- to threefold longer time to the next cigarette following exercise. Cravings and withdrawal symptoms were reduced with an exercise intensity from as high as 60–85% heart rate reserve (HRR) (lasting 30–40 minutes) to as low as 24% HRR (lasting 15 minutes), and also with isometric exercise (for 5 minutes). All but one study involved participants temporarily abstaining for the purposes of the experiment. Distraction was probably not the primary reason for the effects.Conclusions  Relatively small doses of exercise should be recommended as an aid to managing cigarette cravings and withdrawal symptoms. Further research to understand the mechanisms involved, such as stress reduction or neurobiological mechanisms, could lead to development of more effective and practical methods to reduce withdrawal phenomena.

Aim  To study the influence of nicotine dependence on diurnal variations of subjective activation and mood in smokers, without restrictions in their usual smoking habits, compared with non-smokers. We analysed independently the impact of the postlunch phenomenon, a semicircadian rhythm overlapped with diurnal variations.Design and measurements  Every hour, from 0800 to 2100 hours, 60 students, 40 smokers and 20 non-smokers, responded to questions on eight unipolar visual analogue scales; four referred to subjective activation and four to mood. Based on Fagerström's Test for Nicotine Dependence and on carbon monoxide expired air pre- and postsmoking, 20 smokers were classified as high-dependent and 20 as low-dependent smokers. At 0800 hours, smokers were in a state of nicotine deprivation. Circadian typology, sleep habits and other psychoactive substances consumption were controlled.Findings  Subjective activation and mood of smokers improved after they smoked their first morning cigarette, and this effect was greater for high-dependent subjects. Mood scores were lower in high-dependent smokers throughout the day, intermediate in low-dependent smokers and greater in non-smokers. Smokers showed a delay in the diurnal maximum of subjective activation of 2 hours for low-dependent and 3 hours for high-dependent smokers. Moreover, high-dependent smokers showed a lower amplitude of diurnal function of subjective activation. We observed a greater postlunch interference in smokers, with a larger decrease of subjective feelings in low-dependent smokers.Conclusions  Our data confirm that differences exist in the circadian rhythmicity between non-smokers and smokers, and that the level of nicotine dependence in smokers is a relevant factor for the interpretation of the diurnal variations. The profiles obtained in smokers are consistent with models of nicotine deprivation-reversal and with the hedonic homeostatic dysregulation nicotine addiction hypothesis.

Article title: The effects of smoking and abstinence on experience of happiness and sadness in response to positively valenced, negatively valenced, and neutral film clips Year of publication: 2007 Citation: Dawkins, L. et al (2007) 'The effects of smoking and abstinence on experience of happiness and sadness in response to positively valenced, negatively valenced, and neutral film clips,' Addictive Behaviors 32 (2) 425-431 Link to published version: http://dx.

Rationale A previous study found that a 10-min bout of moderate intensity exercise reduced cigarette withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke in sedentary smokers but the effect may have been due to participants focusing attention on physical activity rather than the activity itself. Objectives This study examined the effect of 5 min of moderate intensity exercise and 5 min of light intensity exercise on tobacco withdrawal symptoms amongst sedentary smokers. Methods Eighty-four smokers attended a laboratory session having abstained from smoking for between 11 and 14 h. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: (i) light intensity exercise [n=28; 10–20% of heart rate reserve (HRR)]; (ii) moderate intensity exercise (n=28; 40–60% HRR), (iii) a passive control condition (n=28). Both exercise conditions involved 5 min of stationary cycling and participants rated tobacco withdrawal symptoms and cravings immediately before exercise (baseline), during exercise at 2.5 min, immediately following exercise, then after 5 and 10 min of rest. Control participants made the same ratings across an equivalent time period. Results For moderate intensity exercise compared to light intensity exercise and control there was a significant reduction in strength of desire to smoke, relative to baseline, both during exercise and up to 5 min post-exercise. Relative to baseline, there were also significant reductions in restlessness, stress, tension and poor concentration at 5 and 10 min post-exercise, for moderate intensity exercise compared to light intensity exercise and control. Conclusions Five minutes of moderate intensity exercise is associated with a short-term reduction in desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms. Very brief bouts of exercise may therefore be useful as an aid to smoking cessation.

Aims  To examine the acute effects of a guided relaxation routine (body scan) on desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms in overnight abstinent smokers.Design  Experimental.Participants  Thirty individuals reporting to smoke 10 or more cigarettes daily for at least 3 years.Intervention  Participants were assigned randomly to complete a 10-minute body scan (experimental group n = 15) or listen to a natural history passage for 10 minutes (control group n = 15).Measurement  Ratings of strength of desire to smoke and smoking withdrawal symptoms were assessed at baseline, immediately after the interventions, and 5, 10 and 15 minutes post-intervention.Findings  There was a significant group × time interaction for strength of desire to smoke. The mean desire to smoke rating was significantly lower in the body scan group relative to the control group immediately after the intervention, and 5 minutes post-intervention. The body scan group also reported lower ratings of irritability, tension and restlessness, relative to the controls.Conclusion  A brief body scan intervention reduces strength of desire to smoke and some tobacco withdrawal symptoms in temporarily abstaining smokers. The body scan may be beneficial as a technique for managing cigarette cravings and withdrawal.

Aims  To examine the acute effects of a guided relaxation routine (body scan) and isometric exercise on desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms.Design  Experimental comparison of three conditions.Participants  Forty-eight individuals reporting smoking ≥10 cigarettes daily.Intervention  Random assignment to one of three interventions delivered via a 10-minute audio: isometric exercise (IE, n = 14), body scanning (BS, n = 18) or a reading about natural history (control group, n = 16). Interventions were delivered twice on the same day: in the laboratory, then in their ‘normal’ environment.Measurements  Desire to smoke (primary outcome) and withdrawal symptoms were rated at pre-intervention and up to 30 minutes post-intervention.Findings  Controlling for baseline scores, post-intervention desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms were significantly lower for IE and BS groups, compared with the controls, in both environments. There were no significant differences for IE versus BS. For desire to smoke, controlling for baseline values, ratings in the laboratory were significantly lower for IE and BS versus the control up to 30 minutes post-intervention. In the normal environment, these ratings were significantly lower only up to 5 minutes post-intervention.Conclusions  Brief IE and BS interventions are effective for reducing desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms in temporarily abstaining smokers. These interventions were found to be more effective in the laboratory than in the smoker's normal environment, but this may be an artefact of there not being a sufficient ‘wash-out’ period between interventions. These techniques may be beneficial for managing desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal.

Rationale Suppressing smoking thoughts has been shown to result in elevated smoking. However, the effect of suppressing smoking thoughts on desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms has not been investigated. Objectives We examined the effects of suppressing smoking thoughts on the subsequent desire to smoke and on tobacco withdrawal symptoms, relative to groups that were either thinking about anything they wished or actively thinking about smoking. Methods A randomised experimental study compared the effects of three manipulations (suppressed smoking thoughts, expressed smoking thoughts and thoughts of anything they wished) on desire and withdrawal immediately after the manipulation and 5 and 10 min after. Results Suppressing smoking thoughts did not result in elevated subsequent desire to smoke, relative to the other manipulations. Suppressing smoking thoughts resulted in a significant elevation in hunger ratings, relative to the other manipulations, at all measurement times. There were no significant effects for the other withdrawal symptoms. Selfreported greater use of thought suppression in everyday life was significantly associated with greater desire to smoke at baseline and was associated with lower mindfulness scores.

Aims and design Moderate intensity exercise has been shown to reduce common smoking withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke in acutely abstinent smokers. The aim of the present study was to determine if this was caused by distraction. A secondary aim was to determine whether exercise-related changes in affect were related to reduction in symptoms.
Methods Forty ‘sedentary’ participants who had smoked at least 10 or more cigarettes per day for at least three years were randomly assigned to one of two groups. They completed either 10 minutes of moderate intensity exercise on a stationary bicycle ergometer or 10 minutes of a cognitive distraction task (Paced Visual Serial Addition Task, PVSAT) after 11-15 hours of smoking abstinence. Participants rated smoking withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke using standard scales at 10, 5 and 0 minutes before the experimental intervention, then at 5 and 10 minutes after the start of the intervention and 5 and 10 minutes after its completion.
Findings Significant Group x Time interactions were observed for ratings of desire to smoke and several withdrawal symptoms (irritability, depression, restlessness, difficulty concentrating and stress). There was a reduction in ratings during and immediately following exercise that was not observed with cognitive distraction. Also it was found the effects were not mediated by changes in affect observed in the exercise condition.
Conclusions A brief bout of moderate intensity exercise can lead to a rapid reduction in desire to smoke and withdrawal discomfort, which is not due to the distracting effect of exercise or the effects of mood. These findings support recommendations to smokers to use exercise as a means of helping cope with the difficulties encountered when they try to stop.
KEYWORDS smoking cessation, exercise, distraction, withdrawal

AIM: This study aimed (a) to assess whether smoking reduces anxiety when paired with a pleasant distractor and (b) to investigate the effect of smoking a cigarette on cognitive performance in non-deprived smokers. DESIGN: Participants were allocated randomly to four conditions in a 2 x 2 factorial design: 1, Smoke + Distractor; 2, Smoke + No Distractor; 3, No Smoke + Distractor; 4, No Smoke + No Distractor. SETTING: University psychology department (University of Surrey, UK). PARTICIPANTS: Forty-five volunteer cigarette smokers (mean consumption = 16 cigarettes per day) allowed to smoke normally prior to the study. INTERVENTION: Participants were either allowed to smoke a cigarette of their choice in a manner of their choosing or not allowed to smoke, either with or without a concurrent distractor (a music video). MEASUREMENTS: Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVIP) performance was measured via computer before and after a 10-minute break (during which the interventions took place). Mood was measured by (a) State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) and (b) Feeling State Questionnaire (FSQ), before and after the first RVIP task and then immediately after the break/cigarette. FINDINGS: The RVIP task produced a significant increase in both measures of anxiety (SAI and FSQ stress subscale). Smoking, when paired with a distractor, did not decrease anxiety compared with when no distractor was present. Furthermore, smoking did not decrease anxiety or increase attentional (RVIP) performance compared with not smoking. CONCLUSION: The findings of this study failed to support the idea that smoking has anxiety-reducing or attention-enhancing properties in non-abstinent smokers.