Refutation Texts

Let's build a rigorous, postdoctoral-level overview of Latin-named logical fallacies. I'll provide: • 0 1 F 4 D C Latin term • 0 1 F 9 E 0 English translation • 0 1 F 4 A C Example sentence using the fallacy • 0 1 F 9 E 8 Refutation of the fallacy 0 1 F 5 0 D Fallacies in Latin with Translation, Example, and Refutation

This dissertation critiques the ideological architecture of contemporary progressivism—commonly labeled as the “woke agenda”—through the lenses of geopolitics, education, digital ethics, climate orthodoxy, and decolonial cultural narratives. By juxtaposing rhetorical analysis with geological realism, this work interrogates the monopolization of moral discourse by Western institutions and the climate-industrial complex. Argentina serves as a focal point, not merely as a nation in crisis, but as a cultural crucible where imported ideologies, technological dependency, and postcolonial entanglements collide.
Through critical examination of President Javier Milei’s paradoxical governance—libertarian anti-woke rhetoric accompanied by geopolitical dependencies—the study reveals contradictions in both global and national expressions of sovereignty. It highlights how AI, mobile technology, and social networks are ethically compromised by the extractive violence of Coltan mining, often invisible to the hyper-connected classroom. Drawing from Baudrillard, Galeano, and post-Marxist thought, this work proposes a manifesto of intellectual resistance rooted in localized dignity, analog introspection, and intercontinental solidarity.


Today, I intend to counter-argument-ing the woke agenda and the  term woke originated in African American Vernacular English (AAVE) in the early 20th century. It originally meant being “awake” or alert to racial injustice and social inequality. Over time, it expanded to include awareness of broader issues like sexism, LGBTQ+ rights, and environmental justice.

This essay examines the visual and symbolic juxtaposition of falconers and Europeans in Safavid art of the 17th century and shows how cultural practices, desires, and geopolitical dynamics overlap in this constellation. The starting point is a bottle in the Berlin Museum of Islamic Art, on which a falconer and a European are juxtaposed. While the falconer represents hunting, control and aristocratic traditions, the European – characterized by his clothing and a wine glass – embodies pleasure, exoticism and foreign fashions. These two figures not only represent different worlds, but also central interests of the Safavids: political self-assurance through traditional symbols of power and a fascination with European aesthetics as part of a global positioning. The article shows that the juxtaposition of the falconer and the European unfolds a complex narrative about power, cultural appropriation, and transnational entanglements that goes far beyond the mere representation of two figures.

This study discusses and compares three explicit definitions of kalima by al-Zamakhsharī (d. 538/1144), Ibn al-Ḥājib (d. 646/1249), and Ibn Hishām al-Anṣārī (d. 761/1360), in light ofʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Jāmī’s (d. 898/1492) analysis and evaluation of the definitions of al-Zamakhsharī and Ibn al-Ḥājib in his commentary on the latter’s al-Kāfiya. The article also studies the different criteria Muslim grammarians and logicians have used in their conceptualization of the best definition in the context of Ibn Hishām’s attempt to fully use the criteria of logic in his grammatical definition of kalima.

La falsification dogmatique fait référence à des déclarations scientifiques considérées individuellement, qui peuvent être falsifiées et, en fonction du résultat, des théories scientifiques peuvent être considérées comme falsifiables et acceptées, rejetées ou maintenues par l'addition d'hypothèses ad hoc. « Il existe une méthode importante pour éviter ou éliminer les réfutations : c'est la méthode des hypothèses auxiliaires ou des hypothèses ad hoc. Si l'une de nos hypothèses ne fonctionne pas, nous devons changer la théorie. Mais il existe principalement deux types de changement, conservateur et révolutionnaire. Et dans les changements les plus conservateurs, il y en a deux

The present study investigated the effects of text structure in the acquisition of the concept of energy and the overcoming of specific preconceptions associated with it. Cypriot sixth-grade students read either a simple expository text that presented factual information or a refutation text that also explicitly addressed two common preconceptions and proceeded to refute them. Both texts were used as adjuncts to the standard science instruction that is typically provided in the Cypriot elementary school. Students who read the refutation text outperformed students who read the expository text and students who received standard instruction only. In contrast, the influence of the expository text was negligible and generally comparable to that of standard instruction. The implications of these results for the instructional use of refutational text structures were discussed.

XVIII. ve XIX. asırlar Osmanlı toplumu için pek çok fikrî ve siyasî buhranın yaşandığı çalkantılı bir dönemdir. Hiç kuşkusuz bunların en önemlilerinden biri Vehhâbî hareketin ortaya çıkmasıdır. Vehhâbîlik ortaya çıktığı andan günümüze kadar İslam dünyasında önemli yankılar uyandırmış bir harekettir. Tevhidi bütün yönleriyle hâkim kılma söylemi ile yola çıkan bir topluluğun Müslümanlar için kutsal kabul edilen değerleri ve mekanları hedef alması İslam ulemasının tepkisini beraberinde getirmiştir. Kolektif bir bilincin ürünü olan bu tepkiler sonucunda Vehhâbîlik Reddiyeleri olarak ifade edebileceğimiz hatırı sayılır bir literatür ortaya çıkmıştır. Vehhâbîlik Reddiyeleri Muhammed b. Abdülvehhâb’ın görüşlerini ortaya koyduğu ilk andan günümüze dek yazılmaya devam etmiştir. Mezhep aidiyetlerinden bağımsız olarak Vehhâbî görüşleri eleştiren/reddeden pek çok âlim tarafından kimisi küçük bir risale, kimisi de hacimli bir eser hüviyetinde pek çok reddiye kaleme alınmıştır. Reddiye yazan âlimlerin öncelikli hedefleri dinî ve kültürel değerlerin korunması ile halkın bilinçlendirilmesi olmuştur. Hanefî-muhaddis kimliği ile bilinen Muhammed et-Trabzonî el-Medenî’nin (ö. 1200-1786) Sârimü’l-Vâridât fî’r-Reddi alâ Ehli Hevâ adlı risalesi de Muhammed b. Abdülvehhâb’ın görüşlerine karşı Hanefî bir âlim tarafından erken dönemde yazılmış reddiyelerden bir tanesidir. Muhammed et-Trabzonî el-Medenî’nin eseri dönemin toplumsal hafızasına ışık tutması ve gerek halkın gerekse ulemanın zihinlerini meşgul eden tartışma konularını ortaya koyması bakımından önem arz etmektedir. Zira bu konular Muhammed et-Trabzonî’nin yaşadığı yüzyılın bir öncesinde ve bir sonrasında İslam dünyasında tartışılagelip toplumsal kutuplaşmanın ana ekseninde yer almıştır. Öyle ki söz konusu edilen mevzular XVI ve XVII. yüzyıl Osmanlı toplumunda Kadızadelî-Sivasî çekişmesinin parçası XVIII ve XIX. yüzyıllarda ise Vehhâbîler ile Ehl-i Sünnet uleması arasındaki tartışmaların içeriğini oluşturmuştur. Bu itibarla makalede Muhammed et-Trabzonî el-Medenî’nin reddiyesinin metinsel analizi yapılarak, Vehhâbîlik Reddiyeleri arasındaki konumu ve önemi irdelenmiştir. Reddiye mecmuasının içerisinde yer alan konuyla ilgili diğer risalelerin de analizi yapılmış, makale söz konusu çalışmalarla sınırlandırılmıştır. Bununla beraber makalede metinler ve şahıslar üzerinde derinleşme yöntemi kullanılarak Muhammed et-Trabzonî’nin Vehhâbilik ile ilgili yaklaşımlarına ve reddiye verdiği konulara ulaşılmıştır. Diğer yandan söz konusu reddiye mecmuasının Kadızâdeli ulemaya hitaben yazılmadığının, Vehhâbîliği doğrudan hedef aldığının tespit edilmesi ise makalenin diğer kazanımı olmuştur.

This paper introduces the short epistle written by Iskandar ibn Aḥmad as an anti-Christian polemic. Iskandar identifies himself as “a philosopher from Trabzon,” a city in the north-east of modern Turkey. No information about him is available other than this detail. The author of the polemic at-tempts to confute the basic Christian idea that Jesus Christ is God using biblical verses. As he refers to biblical verses accurately and in Greek (transliterated into the Arabic alphabet), one can be sure that he is very familiar with the New Testament. In addition to the biblical verses, he also uses log-ical arguments and Qurʾānic verses to show that Jesus Christ is only a human being. This paper starts with a brief history of Muslim anti-Christian apologetics and polemics in the Ottoman Empire and succinct information about Iskandar ibn Aḥmad’s epistle. Then, the paper provides the English translation and Arabic text of the epistle. Because the epistle is a unique copy, it is not possible for us to illustrate the differences among copies of the text. However, the footnotes provide biblical and Qurʾānic references, transliteration of the Greek biblical verses, and the author’s mistakes in the usage of Arabic languages.

This excerpt from The Meccan Dawn highlights Chapter 2, titled "Did Muhammad Exist? The Truth About a Lie," in which Shaykh Faheem delivers a detailed refutation of the baseless claims made by revisionist author Robert Spencer. In recent years, Spencer and a handful of other revisionist historians have attempted to cast doubt on the very existence of the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), the founder of Islam. These claims, though widely discredited by scholars, have gained traction among certain audiences, creating confusion and misunderstanding about the historical and spiritual legacy of Islam's greatest figure.
Shaykh Faheem’s response in this chapter is not just a rebuttal, but a methodical dismantling of the flawed logic and selective use of sources that Spencer employs. Drawing on well-established historical, archaeological, and Islamic sources, Shaykh Faheem demonstrates that the existence of the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) is as undeniable as any other major historical figure. By providing evidence from both Muslim and non-Muslim sources that chronicle the life of the Prophet (ﷺ), this chapter exposes the absurdity of revisionist rhetoric that seeks to undermine centuries of recorded history.
Through careful analysis and robust evidence, "Did Muhammad Exist?" serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of defending the truth against distortions, especially in a modern age where misinformation can spread quickly. Shaykh Faheem's scholarly yet accessible approach ensures that readers are well-equipped to understand and refute such misleading claims, reaffirming the truth of Islam's foundational figure.

Entre los objetivos de la mayor parte de los cursos está el desarrollar la habilidad de razonar. Aunque este objetivo se menciona, casi sin excepción, en todas las descripciones de los cursos, rara vez se explica cómo se lleva a cabo esta tarea.

Through three separate studies, our research explored whether a mindfulness-based intervention could facilitate processes of conceptual change by evoking a heightened state of cognitive engagement with controversial topics in science including Genetically Modified Foods (Study One), Human-Induced Climate Change, (Study Two), and Fluoridated Water (Study Three). We used Dole and Sinatra's (Educational Psychologist 33:109-128, 1998) Cognitive Reconstruction of Knowledge Model (CRKM) to operationalize conceptual change, focusing on knowledge, attitude, and emotional change during conceptual change. Using a pre and post design, in Studies One and Two, participants received a single-shot mindfulness intervention. Based upon the findings from Studies One and Two, we modified the design intervention for Study Three to include a mobile app-based mindfulness intervention to allow for more practice between pre and post data collection. Results of Study One revealed a significant difference on attitude change, however, in favor of the control condition. Results of Study Two revealed no significant differences between conditions. Results of Study Three were also null. The findings have implications for mindfulness and conceptual change strategies. Our null findings potentially suggest that the mindfulness interventions used were not potent enough, in terms of length and content, to generate the type of mindful engagement we predicted would occur.

ABSTRACTListening to stories and brain processing of narrative material activates many areas devoted not only to the linguistic processing. In this sense, it could be hypothesized that if this activity would be integrated within the school curricula, it could bring benefits in terms of understanding the text as well as in basic essential cognitive dimensions. In a series of studies with different age groups, we investigated the effects of an intensive training in narrative listening, through different tools such as the standardized tests of understanding of the text. We also used a neuropsychological battery investigating basic cognitive processes (cognitive assessment system) that are directly related to the ability of text comprehension. Results show a significant improvement in all tests for all age groups in the experimental groups, in comparison with the control groups.

This study aims to illuminate the endeavors of ancient Arabic linguists in the surveillance and classification of words falling into the categories of "Arabized" and "intruder," and to demonstrate the impact of the inclusion of these words on the enrichment of the Arabic language. It further seeks to identify the methodologies employed by scholars in addressing these lexical components. Employing a descriptive and analytical approach, this study elucidates the repercussions of incorporating Arabized and foreign words on the evolution and vitality of the Arabic language. The findings of this study affirm the Arabic language's capacity to subject foreign and extraneous terms to the morphological and phonetic conventions of the Arabic linguistic framework. Moreover, it reveals a consensus among scholars regarding their approaches to handling Arabized and intruder words, with an overarching commitment to preserving the essence and integrity of the Arabic language...

This article aims at discussing the importance of inferences in the reading process, some of their classificatory aspects, and some pedagogical implications the knowledge of inference can rouse. Firstly, definitions for reading are presented and also important factors that can influence the reading process are discussed. Secondly, the definition of inference and its importance in the process of reading is approached. Thirdly, it is presented and discussed, based on theoretical perspectives, why readers made inferences. After this, the points discussed are the main kinds of inferences and their classification concerning their location in the text, their moment of occurrence, and also concerning their validity or non-validity. Finally, the article presents some pedagogical implications the knowledge of inference and their usage can cause, stressing the fact that students can produce much more in their educational process if they are aware of the advantages they can take of inferences ...

This study investigated the effect of refutation text structure on reading processes and learning. Undergraduate biology students (n = 116) who had high or moderate misconceptions were randomly assigned to read either a non-refutation text, a simple refutation text, or an elaborated refutation text that addressed commonly held misconceptions about genetic biology. Participants' were prompted to think-aloud and type their thoughts as they read the text. Typed verbal responses were coded for the use of paraphrasing, bridging inferences, and elaborations. The results showed that the simple and elaborated refutation texts promoted the use of bridging inferences, and the elaborated refutation text promoted the use of elaborations compared to the non-refutation text. Neither text type nor misconception status had a significant effect on post learning outcomes. These results suggest that refutations with illustrative examples can increase the use of cognitive processes that support comprehension.

Inhibition is thought to help suppress interference from misconceptions in science learning. Using a pre-, post-, and delayed posttest design, we examined the influence on learning from science texts of three inhibitory-related functions-prepotent response inhibition, resistance to distractor interference, and resistance to proactive interference. Children in the fourth and fifth grades (N = 110) read two texts, one about energy and one about the food chain. One of the texts was a standard expository text; the other was a refutation text. We found that, regardless of text type, students' conceptual knowledge increased between pretest and posttest, a result retained at delayed posttest. Prepotent response inhibition uniquely predicted conceptual learning but only from refutation texts at both posttests after controlling for prior knowledge and reading comprehension skills. Inhibiting proactive interference also contributed to long-term conceptual learning but only in refutation text readers. These findings suggest that specific inhibitory functions play a role in learning from science texts depending on text structure. Most science learning in schools stems from successful reading comprehension, but science texts are often challenging for students, hindering their construction of a coherent mental representation of their content (Van den Broek, 2010). This happens particularly when students have intuitive knowledge about the science phenomena forming the topic of a text. Such experience-based knowledge is often incompatible with the scientific knowledge to be learned because it includes misconceptions. Learning scientific concepts at school consequently often involves revising previously acquired knowledge (e.g., Vosniadou, 2013). The refutation text is a particular type of text that has proved effective in sustaining conceptual learning and change in science domains (Sinatra & Broughton, 2011; Van den Broek & Kendeou, 2008). Refutation texts are usually expository texts that first acknowledge misconceptions a reader may hold about a phenomenon, then explicitly refute them, introducing and explaining the correct scientific explanation (Sinatra & Broughton, 2011; Tippett, 2010). Recent research has indicated that misconceptions are not supplanted, however, but suppressed, when readers revise their knowledge (Babai & Amsterdamer, 2008; Shtulman & Valcarcel, 2012). In other words, a misconception cannot simply be erased and replaced (Kendeou & O'Brien, 2014). This means that misconceptions may be reactivated at any time. The coexistence of misconceptions and scientific conceptions has been investigated in science education research. It has been suggested that learning science involves changing a conceptual profile and becoming aware of naïve ideas dictated by common sense (e.g., Mortimer, 1995). Mechanisms that definitively delete and replace erroneous ideas are not envisaged in knowledge revision for learning science (Kendeou et al., 2019),

The purpose of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of two instructional approaches in the acquisition of basic astronomy concepts. Sixty-three fifth-grade students were pre-tested on their knowledge of the shape of the Earth and the day/night cycle. Half of the students received standard, textbook-based instruction. The rest of the students received instruction that took preconceptions into account, and which focused on explanations that would maximise the plausibility of scientific conceptions. The results indicated that the experimental instruction had a strong positive effect on learning and understanding. In contrast, the standard instruction did not lead to significant pre-test/post-test gains.

The present study investigated the effects of text structure in the acquisition of the concept of energy and the overcoming of specific preconceptions associated with it. Cypriot sixth-grade students read either a simple expository text that presented factual information or a refutation text that also explicitly addressed two common preconceptions and proceeded to refute them. Both texts were used as adjuncts to the standard science instruction that is typically provided in the Cypriot elementary school. Students who read the refutation text outperformed students who read the expository text and students who received standard instruction only. In contrast, the influence of the expository text was negligible and generally comparable to that of standard instruction. The implications of these results for the instructional use of refutational text structures were discussed.

The theme of blessings and curses is essential in God's relationship with humans (Prince, 2005, p. 210), and to be blessed you must obey the commandments of God, or else damned. Blessings and curses are not usually confined to individuals, but extend beyond them to groups, and may continue from a generation to another; even some people believe that some of curses are still continuing up to day, so they pass from predecessors to successors if they do not meet what abolishes their effect. The theme of cursing is one of the distinguished topics in the Old Testament and it is good to stand on it, because the Israelites, like other peoples, offered sacrifices to obtain blessings, and they avoided what would expose them to curses. Because it contains special expressions that were used to inflict evil on opponents and those who think of harming them. This research highlights the curse phrases used in the Old Hebrew Testament, through Leviticus as a model, shows its linguistic aspect, and refers to the words, their connotation, their context, and the library and religious viewpoints. What are those phrases? What is the expressive method used in? What is the purpose of those words? What are the meanings of it? What are its literary, religious and social dimensions? The nature of the research requires following the descriptive analytical method, where the researcher reviews the quotations from the Book of Leviticus, extracts the curse phrases, and then sheds light on them stylistically and semantically.

Il est étonnant de constater qu'après avoir inséré la section intitulée « Réfutation de l'idéalisme » dans la seconde édition de la CRP, Kant ait aussitôt ressenti le besoin, avant d'aller sous presse, d'y apporter des précisions, voire d'y opérer une réorientation, sous la forme de deux notes de bas de page. Comme s'il s'était aperçu que cette Réfutation de 1787 se heurte aux mêmes difficultés que celles rencontrées dans le quatrième Paralogisme de 1781, et que l'argument ne peut en définitive être plausible que si intervient un objet « extérieur » au sens plein du terme, par l'intermédiaire du « sens externe ». Or, à terme, cet objet ne peut que pointer en direction de la chose en soi.

Epistemic cognition in literary reasoning refers to how people and communities of readers go about understanding literary texts. It encompasses the nature of knowledge conveyed in and knowable from literature and the processes of ascertaining knowledge conveyed in literature, i.e. the reasoning processes, beliefs, and values that enter into interpretation of the knowledge conveyed in and knowable from any specific literary work. There are several challenges associated with explicating epistemic cognition in literary reasoning, not the least of which is defining what constitutes literature. A second challenge is that diverse disciplines contribute theoretically and empirically to the nature of epistemic cognition in literary reasoning. In this chapter we first take up the issue of what defines a literary work and the nature of the knowledge conveyed or knowable from it. We then discuss the applicability to literary reasoning of a framework on epistemic cognition articulated by Chinn et al. (2011). We use the dimensions of epistemic cognition in that framework to organize our discussion of epistemic cognition in literary reasoning as informed by theoretical and empirical traditions in literary theory and criticism, language processing, reading comprehension, and psychological research on narrative and social cognition. What Is a LIterary Work? Defining what constitutes literature is no simple task. Some researchers characterize literary works as having both literal and parallel, deeper meanings or subtexts (Schraw 1997), but this is arguably true of other forms of discourse as well (Claassen 2012; R. A. Zwaan 1994). Literary works encompass a variety of genres-most traditionally, fiction, poetry, and plays-that invite the reader into an imaginary world through written text that activates an emotional response. They invite the reader into the text through literary artifices, by which we mean the intentional manipulation of language and structure to induce a reader into entering a fictional subjunctive world as though it objectively existed. Examples of literary artifices are rhetorical tools and patterns in ways of using language (e.g. metaphor, symbolism, irony, satire) or in plot structures (e.g. shifts in point of view, inverted chronologies), and archetypal character tropes Handbook_of_Epistemic_Cognition_Ch11_1pp.indd 165 01/10/15 2:38 AM Handbook_of_Epistemic_Cognition_Ch11_1pp.indd 166 01/10/15 2:38 AM

There are variations in the extent to which particular types of inferences or activations are made during reading (G. McKoon & R. Ratcliff, 1992; M. Singer, 1994). In this study, the authors investigated the influence of reading purpose (for entertainment or study) on inference generation. Participants read 2 texts aloud and 2 texts for comprehension measures. Reading purpose did not influence off-line behavior (comprehension) but did influence on-line reader behavior (thinking aloud). Readers with a study purpose more often repeated the text, acknowledged a lack of background knowledge, and evaluated the text content and writing than did readers with an entertainment purpose. This pattern was stronger for the expository text than for the narrative text. Reading purpose, and possibly text type, affects the kinds of inferences that readers generate. Hence, inferential activities are at least partially under the reader's strategic control. In this study we examined the influence of reading purpose on the type of inferential activities that readers perform. More specifically, we examined the effects of a particular reading purpose (for study or for entertainment) on comprehension behaviors during reading. Researchers have done a considerable amount of work on inference generation in reading. Some investigations (

In these experiments, we examine inferences from simple scientific passages that provided all inference-relevant information for the reader. In Experiment 1, we use a contradiction paradigm to test whether readers compute causal bridging inferences from scientific text. In Experiments 2 and 3, we use the same methodology but vary the availability of the critical information by manipulating the distance between critical pieces of information. The results of the experiments indicate that causal bridging inferences can be computed from scientific text when all the necessary information is available and accessible. Understanding the meaning of a text usually requires the reader to draw inferences, that is, to determine the message that is intended by the writer, even though the meaning is not made fully explicit in the text itself. A major issue concerning many text researchers has been the kinds of inferences people usually make in the course of comprehending a text, and when, why, and how these inferences are made. There has been considerable debate about the answers to these questions, and several inference types have been proposed in order to try to delineate which inferences may be more basic, necessary, obligatory, or even automatic in the course of text processing, as opposed to which may be more

This research aims to link between the Arabic grammatical heritage and modern linguistic approaches. The distributive approach has recently emerged for the purpose of analyzing and classifying the linguistic structure. This research reveals the foundations and features of the distributive approach that Sibawayh used in his founding of Arabic grammar. Sibawayh relied on some of the mechanisms of the distributive method for the purpose of classification and analysis, as he adopted (similarity), (substitution), (direct compositions), (khania) and other newly known principles of distribution.

En este trabajo se reportan resultados preliminares de una investigacion en desarrollo sobre los procesos de validacion en situaciones de conflicto. En particular, observamos la racionalidad de los estudiantes cuando enfrentan tareas de interpretacion y construccion de pruebas localmente validas usando configuraciones geometricas, a partir de las cuales se plantean situaciones de conflicto. Participaron 6 estudiantes de primer ano de licenciatura de matematicas quienes trabajaron con lapiz y papel, individualmente y en grupo. Observamos que el conflicto cognitivo desarrolla la racionalidad de los alumnos quienes eligen con mas cuidado la informacion que consideran relevante. Sin embargo, esto no ocurre de manera automatica sino que depende de: (1) De la aceptacion del conflicto y (2) La forma como se resuelve este. El trabajo con este tipo de proposiciones mostro ser versatil ya que las preguntas pueden propiciar diversas aproximaciones cognitivas.

The Iranian Jewish scholar Rabbi Mullā Āqā Bābā (d. 1849), who converted to Twelver Shiʿi Islam in 1822, is known to modern scholars solely through a posthumous lithograph version of his refutation of his former religion, which was published in 1875 under the dual title Manqūl al-Riḍāʾī and Iqāmat al-shuhūd fī radd al-Yahūd (“The sayings transmitted by Riḍāʾī” and “The stand of the witnesses to refute the Jews”). This article aims to shed new light on this book and its author(s) by studying two hitherto unstudied manuscripts of the work, which predate the lithograph version. It also seeks to highlight the role of later editors in transmitting Mullā Āqā Bābā’s writings to subsequent generations under different titles and in variant forms. Through a literary comparison of the manuscripts and the lithograph version, we try to distinguish the urtext from several layers of modifications made by later scribes and editors.

Se presenta el estudio de un caso, en el que se propone una tarea a dos binomios de estudiantes de Profesorado de Matemáticas para caracterizar familias de poliedros de un universo dado. Se implementa una entrevista en la que los alumnos debaten para arribar a una conclusión, se registran las interacciones a través de audio, video y artefactos escritos. Se analiza el modo de validar de uno de los binomios, clasificando las afirmaciones que realizan durante la implementación de la tarea entre pruebas pragmáticas e intelectuales. En general, el binomio que estudiamos en el presente trabajo utiliza pruebas intelectuales, recurriendo a definiciones y propiedades conocidas

Se presenta el analisis de lo actuado por un grupo de estudiantes de una escuela secundaria, al formular una conjetura y validarla, en una actividad en la que se pretende que establezcan que con dos lados no es posible construir un unico triangulo. Conscientes que cuando se conoce el proceso de produccion de la demostracion se puede tomar una decision acerca de su validez efectiva y de su nivel, realizamos el estudio utilizando registros etnograficos, audio, artefactos escritos y videos, de lo producidos durante la resolucion de la tarea. Se realizan clasificaciones de los niveles de prueba alcanzados. Uno de los principales medios que transforman una situacion de argumentacion en una situacion de prueba es someterla al debate para garantizar o desconocer su validez, se observa como actuan los estudiantes al producir soluciones comunes.

Este trabajo es parte de una investigacion que tiene por objetivo indagar los procesos de validacion en estudiantes del profesorado en matematica. Se analiza lo realizado por un binomio de alumnos en una entrevista, grabada en audio y video, en la cual se presentan cuatro familias de poliedros y se solicita que enuncien y justifiquen las caracteristicas que permiten dicho agrupamiento. Considerando que las pruebas pueden ser pragmaticas o intelectuales, segun la clasificacion de Balacheff (2000), evidenciamos que para el binomio estudiado a pesar de ser alumnos avanzados y estar habituados a realizar demostraciones, realizan solo pruebas de tipo pragmaticas.

Bu amaç doğrultusunda araştırmalarda bulunan İslâm âlimlerden birisi de Şemsüddîn es-Semerkandî (öl. 722/1322)'dir. Şemsüddîn Muhammed b. Eşref el-Hüseynî es-Semerkandî hicri 7./13 asrın sonları ve 8./14. asrın ilk çeyreğinde Türkistan'da yaşamış önemli bir Türk-İslâm âlimidir. Semerkandî felsefe, mantık, matematik, münâzara, bahs ve astronomi gibi çeşitli alanlarda önemli eserler vermiş zengin yönlü bir ilim insanıdır. Şemsüddîn es-Semerkandî eserleriyle ilim ve felsefe tarihine adını yazdırmış önemli düşünürlerdendir. O, sisteminin merkezine mantık ilmini alarak hemen her alanda eleştirel ve analitik üslup benimsemiştir. Onun yapıcı eleştirileri, Yunan filozoflardan İslâm filozoflarına oradan da felsefî kelam temsilcilerine kadar birçok düşünürün fikirlerinin anlaşılması ve yorumlanmasında önemli bir işleve sahip olmuştur. Semerkandî, bütün bunların yanı sıra Hıristiyan ve Yahudi inanç sistemini, Seneviyye ve Mecûsîyye gibi dinleri, natüralist filozofların Allah-âlem ilişkisi öğretilerini de aklî ve naklî deliller ışığında eleştirmekten geri durmamıştır. Aklî ilimlerde temayüz eden Semerkandî, ilâhiyat birikimiyle de kendisini göstermiştir. O, olağanüstü entelektüel ilgisiyle Kitâb-ı Mukaddes'e ilişkin bazı anahtar kavramlar ve ilâhî kodları analiz ederek İslâm dininin peygamberi Hz. Muhammed'in sadakatiyle ilgili özgün çıkarımlarda bulunmaktadır. Semerkandî, Hz. Muhammed'in nübüvvetine işaret olarak değerlendirdiği kimi Tevrat ve İncil pasajlarını dil, mantık ve şeriat kuralları ekseninde yorumlayarak Hz. Muhammed'in müjdelenen son peygamber olduğu sonucuna varmaktadır. Onun bu konuda üzerine en çok eğildiği kavramsal çerçeve Paran dağı, Paraklit, Hz. Musa'ya teşbih ve İsmâiloğullarına verilen müjdelerden oluşmaktadır. Semerkandî sözü geçen kavramlardan hareketle Hz. Muhammed'in zuhur ettiği coğrafya, sahip olduğu nitelikler ve soyuyla ilgili çıkarımlarda bulunur. Semerkandî ayrıca Hz. Muhammed'in meşruiyetinin temelini oluşturan diğer şeriatların nesih edilip yerine İslâm'ın ikame edilmesi ve onun evrensel bir peygamber olduğu gibi esaslara yönelik Ehl-i Kitap tarafından yöneltilen eleştirilere de cevap vermektedir. Semerkandî'nin önemli bir ayrıcalığı da onun iddialarını yalnızca teorik boyutta temellendirmeyip aynı zamanda Ehl-i Kitap önderleriyle fiili münazaralara da girişmesidir. Semerkandî, çoğu iddiasında tatmin edici analitik/burhânî bir tavır sergilese de bazı iddialarında ise karşı tarafı ilzama dayalı sofistik/cedelî bir yaklaşım sergilemektedir. O, genel anlamda beşâret geleneğine bağlı kalsa da muhakkik kimliğinin etkisiyle gelenek içerisindeki aynı delillere farklı bir perspektif ve güçlü bir muhakeme kazandırmaktadır.

Textual devices such as headings convey both content information and functional information. One type of headings is
referred to as functional headings, since they provide functional information but not content information. Headings such as
“Introduction” denote the function of a text section but not the content information of that section. The current study included
three experiments that investigated the processing of functional information during reading. Experiment 1 investigated
the effects of functional information in a timed reading situation. Experiments 2 and 3 looked at the effects of functional
information when there was a contradiction in the text. Our results indicated that functional information promoted selective
attention during timed reading (Experiment 1). Findings from our contradiction manipulation (Experiments 2 and 3)
revealed that readers used functional headings to guide their structural reading process. Implications for cognitive processes
during reading and pedagogical practices are described in the general discussion section.

vacuum in the project of making the ideational contents of the Qur'an comprehensible to speakers and readers of the German language. At the risk of being a praise singer of the past (laudator temporis) in regard to Rudi Paret's (1901-83) classic German translation, it is fair to say that this work by Bobzin has come out as a useful complementary effort, if not a worthy successor, to Paret's, and bodes well to remain a standard translation for some time to come. It is to be hoped that the translator's promised larger German commentary on the Qur'an will not take time to come to fruition as a necessary aide mémoire to the message and mission of the Holy Book of Islam.

Resumen En este trabajo reportamos una experiencia de implementación de una actividad de contenido geométrico diseñada bajo los lineamientos de la metodología ACODESA (aprendizaje colaborativo, debate científico y autorreflexión), mostramos cómo los estudiantes, luego de validar individualmente una conjetura, construyen de manera colaborativa una nueva validación para la misma conjetura. El estudio es de corte cualitativo y la población participe estuvo compuesta por futuros profesores de matemática.

Éditeur Centre d'Etudes Mongoles & Sibériennes / École Pratique des Hautes Études Référence électronique Alpha Ousmane Barry, « Figures parallèles de l'exemplarité héroïque entre confirmation et réfutation dans l'épopée peule au Foûta Jalon », Études mongoles et sibériennes, centrasiatiques et tibétaines [En ligne]

Este artigo pressupoe que dois aspectos essenciais no debate sobre a construcao de sentido do conhecimento matematico sao do jeito que sao projetados e o papel das interacoes em sala de aula. O artigo enfoca o papel dos professores em uma classe da aritmetica, durante a analise da validade das producoes dos alunos (futuros professores de matematica) na formulacao e teste de conjecturas tarefas. Na prova trabalho da dificuldade apresentada para gerenciar aula de matematica quando se pretende promover o auto-emprego de estudantes. O trabalho executado provou proveitosa para o desenvolvimento da formulacao e testes de hipoteses. No entanto, uma analise detalhada dos professores, nas trocas produzidas, revela intervencoes durante a conclusao do modo de avaliacao da validacao predominando (no sentido de Margolinas, 1992): Professor respostas validas alunos, em vez de promover uma atividade argumentativa independente. Normal 0 21 false false false ES X-NONE X-NONE /* Style Definitions */ ...

Three experiments examined conceptual change from reading refutational texts and how such learning interacted with prior knowledge organization. Prior to reading, 3 groups of learners were identified on the basis of their prior knowledge of the targeted concept: 2 groups held misconceptions; 1 group was generally accurate. Experiment 1 tested learning from a text that contrasted a misconception and the correct conception of the phenomenon of airflow against learning from a text that repeated the correct scientific description twice. The 2 reader groups learned from both types of texts about equally. Experiment 2 contrasted a more traditional refutational text to the "repetition" text. Learning was better with the refutational than the repetition text for both misconception groups on both measures. Experiment 3 demonstrated that learners who held largely accurate conceptions prior to reading texts that presented misconceptions preserved their largely accurate performance. Overall, the results suggest that the inclusion of an explicit refutation of the misconception is critical for instigating knowledge revision when readers possess inaccurate prior conceptions.

J'examine les conditions de transposition du modèle de la « communauté épistémique » au domaine de la délibération et des évaluations pratiques. Je réponds ainsi à la question suivante : comment les droits de l’homme acquièrent-ils une signification objective dans le système de la Convention européenne des droits de l’homme ? Dans la première partie (analyse institutionnelle), je montre que la « sociabilité » est le premier enjeu de la protection des droits de l'homme au Conseil de l'Europe (ch. 1). Cet objectif de « sociabilité » n'est pas étranger à la question de leur « signification objective » car, au minimum, l'effectivité du système européen est suspendue à la réalisation d'un « ordre public » en la matière (ch. 2). Dans la deuxième partie (analyse épistémologique), je montre qu'une perspective épistémique sur les droits fondamentaux permet de rendre compte de l'effectivité (« praticabilité », rationalité) du système européen mais suppose le dé...

In order to have a balanced judgment on language process views, the research tries to explain the mental process connection in the language learning process. The deep structure and surface structure theory designation indicated that the learning process consists of two procedures: deep structure process, which is the essential part in absorbing and captivating activities and surface structure which concentrates on symbols and codes in expressing the mind's activities. These procedures have been emphasized by modern and traditional scholars in highlighting the concept of the language learning process.

Al-Aalam Al-Shantamry's Biography Name and Lineage His full name is Abu Al-Hajjaj, Yusuf bin Sulaiman bin Eesa, and some sources named him Ibn Eesa. He was known as Al-Aalam Al-Shantamry, for "Al-Aalam" means that who has a widely cut upper lip, and he gained his last name in reference to his birth place, Shantamrya of Morocco, a large city residing on the majority of the great sea (including the city of Shilb and Seville in the western Andalusia).

There are variations in the extent to which particular types of inferences or activations are made during reading (G. McKoon & R. Ratcliff, 1992; M. Singer, 1994). In this study, the authors investigated the influence of reading purpose (for entertainment or study) on inference generation. Participants read 2 texts aloud and 2 texts for comprehension measures. Reading purpose did not influence off-line behavior (comprehension) but did influence on-line reader behavior (thinking aloud). Readers with a study purpose more often repeated the text, acknowledged a lack of background knowledge, and evaluated the text content and writing than did readers with an entertainment purpose. This pattern was stronger for the expository text than for the narrative text. Reading purpose, and possibly text type, affects the kinds of inferences that readers generate. Hence, inferential activities are at least partially under the reader's strategic control. In this study we examined the influence of reading purpose on the type of inferential activities that readers perform. More specifically, we examined the effects of a particular reading purpose (for study or for entertainment) on comprehension behaviors during reading. Researchers have done a considerable amount of work on inference generation in reading. Some investigations (

Natanel ben Fayyūmī is one of the leaders of the 12th century Yemen Jewish community, and his work named Bustānu'l-Ukūl has survived to the present day. In this work, Fayyūmī talks about different issues such as the unity of God, the worship, the hereafter, the repentance, and the coming of the Messiah. The author also emphasizes that the Torah is not abrogated and keeps its validity. While doing this, he refers to the Quranic verses. One of the points the author emphasizes is that Allah sends a guide for every community in every period. In this framework, he sees Muhammad as a prophet sent by Allah to the Arabs. Claiming that Muhammad's prophethood was limited to Arabs, Fayyūmī said that the Jews have no necessity to believe the shariah brought by Muhammad. The author shares verses from the Quran to support this claim, and he tries to prove that Muhammad was sent only to the Arabs. Fayyūmī, in the Jewish tradition, emerges as an exceptional personality who accepts that Muhammad is a prophet sent by God. Today's researchers think that the basis of the thought of Fayyūmī is the influence of Ismaili thought. Indeed, the Ismaili thought claims that God sends a prophet or a guide to every nation in every period. In this context, Hz. Muhammad was also sent to the Arabs, and his prophethood is valid only for Arabs.

Kavramsal değişim metinleri, öğrencilerin kavram yanılgılarının ve sebeplerinin neler olduğunu belirten ve bu yanlış kavramaların yetersiz olduğunu örneklerle birlikte açıklayıp ortaya koyan metinlerdir. Bu araştırmanın amacı, sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının fiziksel ve kimyasal değişim konusunda kullanılan kavramsal değişim metinlerine karşı tutumlarının belirlenmesidir. Araştırma, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Üniversitesi 2009 yılında Sınıf Öğretmenliği Programı 1.sınıfında öğrenim gören 30 öğretmen adayı ile gerçekleştirilmişitr. Bu araştırmada deneysel araştırma modelinin kontrol grupsuz son test deseni kullanılmıştır. Veri toplama aracı olarak, Kavramsal Değişim Metni Tutum Ölçeği (KDMTÖ) kullanılmıştır. Ayrıca kavramsal değişim metinleri ile ilgili öğretmen adaylarının yazılı görüşleri alınmıştır. Veri analizinde öğretmen adaylarının tutum ölçeğindeki her bir maddeye ilişkin ortalama puanları hesaplanmıştır. Yazılı görüşler ise belli kodlar altında sınıflandırılarak nitel olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Çalışmada, tutum ölçeğinden elde edilen bulgular öğretmen adaylarının kavramsal değişim metinlerine karşı tutumlarının oldukça yüksek olduğunu göstermiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının yazılı ifadelerinden elde edilen sonuçlar da tutumun bu derece yüksek olmasını destekler niteliktedir.

Students in three levels of high-school physics classes (advanced, regular, and general) were studied as they learned concepts about gravity, balanced forces, and projectile motion to examine the effect of text and instructional techniques, such as prediction and labs, on learning. Reading appeared to be an effective influence on learning information about projectile motion for advanced classes only, and other influences on learning, such as prediction and labs, were not effective. Analyses of observational and interview data suggest the following conclusions about why the instructional practices studied were ineffective: (1) students prefer to maintain their intuitive conceptions rather than undergo conceptual change; (2) students adopt a task-oriented rather than concept-oriented approach to laboratory explorations and other learning experiences; (3) students in the advanced classes had more

This study explored 6 th grade students reading of science text on the iPad to better understand how students with varying strengths of comprehending text and current academic abilities interpret text on their iPads. Our study sample compared three students with strong reading scores based on informal reading inventories, standardized tests, and other literacy measures with students who have not yet demonstrated strong reading scores on the same assessments. Verbal protocols allowed us to look at individual student"s cognitive processes while reading assigned science text on the iPad. We analyzed data based on the theory of Constructively Responsive reading (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). Our data shows that while secure readers fit Pressley and Afflerbach"s description of a "massively active" reader, verbal protocols for developing readers revealed students" difficulty constructing meaning with the text. In addition, self-efficacy and navigational skills on the iPad differed between secure and developing readers. The differences in processing between students in our secure and developing groups points to the need for increased support for developing readers as they navigate reading of science texts on the iPad.

We present the results of an empirical study, which investigated the effects of the amount of information and the type of information refuted in refutation texts. The study compared the effects of three refutation texts on elementary school children’s understanding of the scientific concept of the Earth. One text refuted only the belief that the Earth is flat, the second refuted in addition the belief that people cannot live at the ‘bottom’ of the spherical Earth because they would fall down, and the third added the categorical information that the Earth is an astronomical object. The term ‘categorical information’ is used to refer to information about the category to which a concept belongs. We hypothesized that the text refuting more information as well as the one that included the categorical information that the Earth is an astronomical object would be more effective in improving students’ scientific knowledge about the Earth. The refutation of categorical information is importa...

The Concept of Substitution among Grammarians: Grammarians used many synonyms for it such as reverse, prosecution, and variation, which confirms that the Arabic language is full of terminological alternatives. In some cases, nouns act like verbs(Amer).