Political Economic History

In 1516 and 1518, the Antwerp City Council introduced a collective system of debt recovery, which broke with the tradition of priority for the first seizing claimant. This view resulted in a legal framework, which was based on the concept of publicly known insolvency. Because of the vague legal definitions in the 1582 and 1608 customary law compilations, the position of pursuing creditors was strengthened. Although these rules weren't successful, they demonstrate an early intention to draw the line between criminal bankruptcy, persisting insolvency and temporary payment problems.

The 1582 Antwerp costuymen influenced Amsterdam law during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Although the Antwerp law has often been considered as an applicable law in the Amstel city, its role was more limited. At the end of the sixteenth century and during the first half of the seventeenth century, it was used as a common and subsidiary applicable law for certain mercantile issues. Later on, as the Amsterdam legislator issued ordinances on these themes, this function declined. Yet, references to the Antwerp law book were still common in the eighteenth century, although they were more a consequence of a cultural attraction than of an actual application of the Brabant law book.

In sixteenth--century Antwerp, commercial contracts were supported with refined government--made rules that brought techniques, usages and customs practised by merchants to the level of sophisticated law. Because no body of unwritten substantive law on commerce existed and because commercial practices were often too rudimentary from a legal perspective, in the 1500s detailed and balanced normative precepts on contracts of trade came to be crafted. When in the first decades of the sixteenth century more and more foreign merchants visited Antwerp, its rulers gradually started supplementing and upgrading practices of merchants to default rules regarding contracts, with materials and concepts drawn from the ius commune. In the second half of the sixteenth century, the use of civil law not only further determined the contents of the default rules that were imposed by the Antwerp aldermen, but it also lay at the basis of a change in the latter's policy of establishing precepts of urban law. After 1550, the philosophy of rationality and exhaustiveness found within civil law writings, the appreciation of which was triggered by political and economic factors, was reflected in wide-ranging collections of Antwerp law that covered many legal questions regarding commercial arrangements. For both the late Middle Ages and the early modern period, the relation between governmental precepts (i.e. rules of law applied in the courts) regarding commercial agreements and related situations, on the one hand, and usages and customs of merchants on the other, remains by and large unclear. Over recent years earlier speculations as to the existence, from the twelfth century onwards, of a substantial set of internationally uniform yet unwritten rules for commerce, of a lex mercatoria, have been questioned. 1 It is now accepted that expressions Dr Dave De ruysscher, postdoctoral fellow of the Research Foundation Flanders (Faculty of Law,

The increased emphasis on capital regulation has raised a number of interrelated questions. First, is focusing on capital an efficient way of regulating banks? Secondly, what is the best way to structure capital regulation? Thirdly, how do banks respond to different types of capital ...

The Introduction of this doctoral dissertation provides a brief review of the origins of the Crown of Aragon (mid-12th century onwards), succinctly referencing the two main constituent ethnic groups: the Catalans and the Aragonese. It is emphasised that the political primacy was Aragonese, while the Catalan identity played a predominant role in the expansion towards the east. The geographical focus of the study is also outlined, clarifying the selected boundaries of the eastern Mediterranean. The methodological framework of the research approach is subsequently outlined, highlighting key elements of the proposed analysis.
In Chapter 1 (The reign of Michael VIII Palaiologos: Economic contacts and political approaches), the existence of trade relations between Catalonia and the Byzantine Empire is demonstrated, dating back to the early 1260s. These contacts intensified during the 1270s and continued into the early 1280s. Simultaneously, towards the end of the 1260s, diplomatic contacts began to develop between the Crown of Aragon and Byzantium. The convergence of the two sides is documented gradually, culminating in the formation of an anti-Angevin alliance. The actions of both sides led to the Sicilian Vespers (1282) and the expulsion of the French from Sicily, a pivotal event whose long-term consequences are specifically addressed. Evaluating the first phase of the Catalan-Aragonese expansion in the Mediterranean, it becomes clear that the initial penetration by Catalan merchants was likely due to their own initiatives, but the interventions of the Aragonese rulers later strengthened it.
In Chapter 2 (From Michael VIII to Andronikos II: Emergence of mercenaries, corsairs, and raiding fleets in a period of shifting power balance), it is initially pointed out that two specific monographs from the last thirty years or so have created the inaccurate impression that Catalan mercenaries first appeared in the service of Byzantium from the early 14th century onwards. However, the testimony of Marin Sanudo Torsello indisputably proves the presence of Catalan mercenaries in the forces of Licario, with the likely terminus post quem being 1275 or, at the latest, the years 1279-1280. In a broader context of tracing the military presence of individuals from the territories of the Crown of Aragon, testimonies are found during both the reign of Michael VIII and that of his son, Andronikos II.
Within the ongoing Sicilian War, the appearance of raiding fleets in Greek waters is recorded. The case of the raid carried out by the Aragonese admiral Roger de Llúria in 1292 is of particular significance, as it specifically struck certain islands and the Principality of Achaea, Corfu, and several Byzantine territories. Regarding the attacks on Byzantine possessions, it is understood that they were not merely acts of looting, but declarations of intent within the changing diplomatic relations between Aragon and Byzantium.
In Chapter 3 (Escalation of contacts during the reign of Andronikos II), the analysis begins after the fall of Acre (1291) and the Holy See’s prohibition of trade with the Mamluks, developments that provided new opportunities for Catalan merchants active in the eastern Mediterranean. The intensification of contacts with the Byzantine Empire is also evident from the privileges granted by Andronikos II (January 1296), which the emperor later modified, providing a small improvement for the Catalan merchants in April 1315. The presence of people from the territories of the Crown of Aragon is strongly increasing, as evidenced by a series of notarial testimonies recorded in Cyprus and Crete (late 1290s – early 1300s). The Catalan-Aragonese presence is further confirmed in connection with the brief occupation of Ruad between 1300-1302. Ramon Llull’s visit to Cyprus in 1301 also had a noticeable impact, possibly traceable in his suggestion of the port of Rhodes and the later fate of the island, namely its capture by the Knights Hospitaller after Catalan moneylenders transferred large sums.
In Chapter 4 (Ascent and descent of the “Catalan Company”: Numismatic traces, material remains, and economic ramifications), the rapid change in the nature of relations between the Iberian Peninsula and Byzantium is noted with the coming of the “Catalan Company” to the Byzantine Empire. The mercenary force was paid enormous sums by Andronikos II, though these are difficult to trace. Numismatic evidence proves helpful in shedding light on their activities in Asia Minor against the Turks in 1304.
With the assassination of Roger de Flor (1305), a chain reaction was triggered, with long-term consequences. Through numismatic remains, the movements of the Company are recorded, both in cases of systematic looting (eastern Thrace, 1305-1307, and Chalkidike, 1307-1309) and cases where the sudden presence of an enemy army left a more distinct mark (western Thrace, summer of 1307). Concerning the latter area, the particularly interesting coin hoard found in Sapes/1994 was re-examined by undertaking elemental analyses on the coins. Based on the new data, it is now likely that most of the coins in the hoard were used for deliberate payments as part of a manipulation of a portion of the coin production. Furthermore, analyzing the circulation of coins in specific cases sheds more light on the speed with which coins traveled and the rate of loss in relation to how a particular area is affected during times of unrest.
The episode of the assassination of Berenguer d’Entença is brought forth through the examination of burial remains at the archaeological site of Poroi, particularly a human-shaped grave, which has a high probability of being connected to the burial site of the Aragonese/Catalan nobleman. Additionally, data on the impact of the Company’s settlement on the Kassandra peninsula are examined, which indicate a demographic crisis in villages of Chalkidike. Concurrently, surviving testimonies regarding the fate of Mount Athos monasteries in connection with the Catalan actions are presented in detail. Almost two years later, the Company invaded Thessaly (spring of 1309), and their presence there for another two years is again documented through numismatic evidence.
The turbulent course of the Company is juxtaposed with the picture created by examining the parallel world of commercial transactions, which is documented primarily through documents from Crete and Cyprus. In a series of economic transactions where slave purchases are documented (a common practice of the Company), the worlds of war and commerce intersect.
The brief passage of the Company into the service of Gautier V de Brienne had particularly noticeable results in southern Thessaly. However, the two sides had divergent interests, leading to an almost inevitable clash on March 15, 1311.
In Chapter 5 (The battle of Halmyros: Matters of historical topography and impact), the identification of the battlefield between the Company and the Brienne army was re-examined in depth. The analysis re-considers all the views that have been presented: the area of the Boiotian Kephisos, the upper course of Kephisos, and the Halmyros area. It is stressed that the rejection of a connection with a site near the Kephisos river is not only based on textual references to Halmyros, but also indicated by the fact that Gautier de Brienne’s will was signed on March 10, 1311, in Lamia. Based on what is known about the defensive organisation of the Duchy of Athens, the possibility that the Company had infiltrated Phokis or Boiotia is excluded. A similar hypothesis that the mercenary force could have reached the Kephisos river and had time to shape the terrain does not seem realistic. It is more logical that the Company did not stray from Halmyros and prepared the battlefield while awaiting the enemy army.
Based on the perspectives presented in the literature, an exhaustive examination of the data and further fieldwork in the Halmyros area was conducted to support a more accurate placement of the potential battlefield.
In an attempt to provide a broader context in which this battle and its impact could be situated, a survey of military conflicts where infantry forces prevailed over heavy cavalry (13th century – 1415) was conducted. Through this survey, methods of victory against knights are highlighted, along with notable tactics used by (among others) Flemish, Swiss, Scottish, and English armies.
This comparison reveals the light infantry of the Almogavars as a distinct case, emphasizing particular characteristics. The Company also appears to have displayed remarkable adaptability in dealing with each opponent and especially in choosing the battlefield.
The impact of the battle of Halmyros and the conquest of eastern Central Greece is further traced in a series of coin hoards, closely connected with the events of 1311-1312.
Chapter 6 (The Catalan Duchies: An overview with the assistance of numismatic evidence) discusses the creation of the Catalan Duchy of Athens and its subjugation under the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Sicily. A new strategy was also adopted for the Company, involving the conduct of a “consecutive” series of wars with the main neighbouring powers. This strategic design is linked to the exploitation of land routes and sea exits for trade contacts with the West, primarily within the context of a widespread slave trade practice. The issue of minting coins during the period of Catalan rule is also examined.
The brief episode of the attempted conquest of the Principality of Achaea by the infante Ferdinand of Majorca (1315-1316) is examined within the context of a dynamic created during this period. The arrival of Alfons Frederic, an illegitimate son of Frederick III of Sicily, at the Duchy of Athens gave new momentum to a Catalan expansion that included acquisitions in southern Euboea, the castles of Zetounion (Lamia) and Gardiki, and also the island of Aegina. A new expansion towards the north resul...

Migration within and out of south Asia has been a practice steeped in historical processes. This article identifies commonalities such as the significant macroeconomic role of migration and similar main destinations for south Asia's mobile populations. It critiques popular themes in the discourse on migration, like the focus on economic benefits of moving populations and the nation state as a reference point. The article questions the existing views of what it means for people to move from their homes, many times (but not only) across international borders.

This paper explores the values and usefulness of information dissemination as it affects food security in Nigeria, particularly in Katsina state. Information has been and would continue to play a vital role in any national development and growth. Agricultural information provision and dissemination is a must for every responsible government because it is only when farmer were informed, that they will be able to take a rational decision and produce enough to feed the state and the nation in general, consequently meeting the goal set by the MDG. Food security has been identified as the inability of a nation to feed itself year round. This paper identified some of the problems hindering food security in Nigeria, with reference to Katsina State. They include lack of proper and timely information to the farming populace, lack of infrastructural facilities, poor capital base, inadequate storage and processing facilities among others. The paper proffers some inputs as to how the problems can be tackled. Among them, provision of effective and efficient linkage with research institutes, improved storage management and increased agricultural budgetary allocations.

This paper provides a fascinating micro-historical analysis of Funtua Town's evolution from 1911 to 1976. It delves into the intricate dynamics of colonial influences on the town's growth and development, highlighting the significance of small-scale interactions and community experiences. It explores insights on the rich historical narratives that shaped Funtua and contributed to broader discussions on colonial modernisation.

The study examine the History of Western Education in Malumfashi Town 1929-2007. A number of research have been conducted in field of education which opens a new chapter in social history. Despite the plathora of research Western Education in Malumfashi was left unexplored. Qualitative Methods was employed during the conduct of the study which mandate the used of primary and secondary sources for proper analysis and reconstruction of History of Western Education in Malumfashi Town which is additional literature on social history, Malumfashi, Katsina state and Nigeria at large. The town witnessed the establishment of first elementary school as early as 1928. Graduate of the school has contributed immense to the development of Malumfashi, Katsina state and Nigeria as a whole. These contribution cut across socioeconomic and political aspects of human life.

The development of historiography in Indonesia cannot be separated from the historical context of the Indonesian nation. In the evolution of historical writing in Indonesia, there are several prominent patterns or styles of historiography, namely traditional historiography, colonial historiography, and national or modern historiography. Each of these types of historiography has unique characteristics. Traditional historiography, for example, is heavily influenced by mythical elements and developed before the colonial era, even since the kingdom era. Along with the arrival of the colonizers, traditional historiography was replaced by colonial historiography, written by Western historians or colonial officials. After Indonesia gained independence, national historiography emerged written by Indonesian historians, which focused on the perspectives and experiences of the Indonesian nation itself.

Over the past decades, legal historians have become more cautious
when it comes to rules that in the Middle Ages and the early
modern period were defined as ‘(old) customs’. Earlier optimistic
appraisals as to the age of such rules have been challenged. This
article argues that efforts of debunking should be combined with a
more thorough analysis of the legal consciousness of past societies.
It proposes to look at old municipal private law, not as a set of rules
fixed by tradition, but rather as a malleable body of norms. The
symbolic qualities of law were such that renewal and rephrasal
could be combined with an ideology of conservation. It was perfectly
possible for administrators to promote new rules as being a
part of an ‘age-old law’ of the city or the land, without breaching
the implicit conventions as to the qualities of law. However, as will
be demonstrated further, there were limits to the agency of administrators
in this regard. The codes as to the features of law marked
boundaries that had to be taken seriously.

Although Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A) are potential value-creation opportunities, why they tend to occur in waves is a mystery to scholars and managers alike. Most models of M&A waves are unilevel, reductionist, and Gaussian, whereas wave patterns are arguably multilevel, emergent, and non-normally distributed. Using complexity theory, I interpret waves as emergent expressions of a self-organized critical ecology of firms conceptualized as a complex adaptive system. My observation that aggregate U.S. M&A waves from 1895 to 2008 are powerlaw-distributed lends support. The view that waves are self-organized critical phenomena, similar to earthquakes and avalanches, facilitates integration of prior wave theories. I then employ process-tracing to generate a historical narrative of the Great Merger Wave of 1898-1903, from which I obtain a robust process for waves consistent with a CAS interpretation of these phenomena: (1) a privatizing, market-expanding and financially innovating transportation network generates (2a) laissez-faire regulation, (2b) economic competition, and (2c) financial arbitrage, leading to (3) a burst of consolidation. My process explanation explains the power law's emergence, and may help to understand better the process dynamics of M&A waves. v TABLE OF CONTENTS RIDING THE WAVE: DISTRIBUTIONAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESS EXPLANATIONS OF MERGER AND ACQUISITION WAVES .

The reception of the Wealth of Nations in the years after its publication reveals a wide range of interpretations of Smith's ideas. On the one hand, Smith appealed to revolutionaries and subversives; on the other hand, he appealed to 'conservatives' who supported the burgeoning laissez-faire movement. By 1800, however, in intellectual circles, the 'conservative' Smith had largely won out. Yet, this was not the case for advocates of working-class interests. As this paper will show, reformers of the early-to-mid-19th century emphasized Smith's sympathetic attitude towards the labouring poor, his labour theory of value and his distinction between productive and unproductive labour. Reformers turned to Smith for intellectual validation of the workers' right to vote and often to a larger share of the national produce, hailing him as a supporter of the working classes. The backlash against the 'subversive' Smith was significant, with protectors of the status quo pointing to the dangers of 'misrepresenting' Smith's ideas.

Inter-communal crisis is one of the challenges in Nigeria. A challenge that has and still continues to claim lives and properties in several communities across the country, among which is the Offa/Erin-Ile communities which is noted for incessant violent

The magnitude in which conflicts explode in the contemporary Nigerian state has necessitated the intervention of various institutions and stakeholders such as Nongovernmental organizations (NGO's), as well the traditional political institutions in conflict management. The significance of traditional political institutions especially resulting from the level of respect they command and the loyalty they enjoy among their subjects warrant them the authority to broker peace and engage in conflict management processes. This study is primarily driven with the major objective of assessing the role played and challenges encountered by the traditional political institutions in conflict management in Nigeria. Library research was adopted as a methodology of the paper, while the theory of Authority expounded by Wax Weber was used as a theoretical framework. The study discovers that the relative peaceful atmosphere enjoys in various emirates and kingdoms are direct results of various factors notable among is the sterling effort by the traditional political institutions in conflict management. Hence, it concludes that the conflict management styles/approaches adopted by traditional councils result in promoting peace and security throughout most of the emirates/kingdoms. The study recommends that capacity-building and leadership trainings in peace and conflict processes in general should be encouraged by the state government among the traditional rulers.

Agro-food industries developments are the main agendas of Africa's move to encourage food production in her states. Because rains are sporadic in these tropical regions of Africa, foods are produced even under irrigation scheme, in order to meet up for the gap. Southern Katsina state has a potential land for irrigation which is also highly fertile. For years, garden vegetables such as tomatoes, onions and peppers are produced and marketed in large quantities. Nigeria is perhaps the best producer of tomatoes throughout the tropical regions. This paper examines the environmental problems that constraints its production, alongside with the highlights of manageable ways to improve its way of production.

Political parties are the engine wheel and the machinery on which the vehicle of democracy thrives. Democracies require sound parties with focused leadership and a clear ideology for national development on the assumption of power. In Nigeria, the two dominant ruling parties of the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) which ruled for sixteen years and the All Progressives Congress (APC) which is currently in its fifth year of ruling are pre-occupied with internal leadership crises which collapsed the former and are threatening to tear the latter today. The inability of the country’s political leaders to establish parties with a dedicated and pragmatic party leadership is affecting the democratic governance in the country despite having the experience of the longest experiment in the history of the country. The research utilised both primary and secondary sources of data. The primary sources of data consist of an in-depth personal interview with some selected stakeholders in the subject m...

This research is an attempt to analyze the role of women in the economy of Dutsin-Ma town 1976-2015. In many societies women have been considered as just mothers whose responsibilities were not far from taking care of the family. Indeed, women have undeletable roles in the development of any society, in fact without the contributions of women no society can grow and develop. In Hausa land for example, women are active players in the economy and politics with track record of doing well. Thus, this research critically examined the type of economic activities that the women engage in Dutsin-Ma town and analyze the extent of which women contributed to the growth and development of the economy of Dutsin-Ma town since 1976-2015. Without doubt, women in Dutsin-Ma town are involved in many different economic activities such as the establishment of local eateries, hair dressing, facial make up, fashion design and aphrodisiacs which result to the emergence of new women markets known as KasuwarMata,Bara-bara women market and Bazo-bazo women market. Furthermore, women played significant role in reducing the scores of unemployment in Dutsin-Ma town and made many women to realize their potentials.

Statutory land allocation is done to ensure equity in the distribution of land resources for the socio-economic development of the citizenry of a state. This paper examines the formal procedure followed in allocating residential land and describes the people that benefited from the allocation in Katsina State within the period 1999 – 2018. The research employed the use of qualitative data on formal procedure of residential land allocation and quantitative data on the number and socio-economic characteristics of the beneficiaries. Primary data were sourced from Katsina State Ministry of Lands and Survey and the state’s Urban and Regional Planning Board through interviews with some officials. Applicants’ files were used to gather socio-economic and demographic data of the beneficiaries. Systematic sampling technique was employed, to select a sample of 374 files. Qualitative data were aggregated, summarized and the formal procedure of land allocation was presented in diagram and narrat...

Considering India's outstanding economic success following the adoption of new economic strategy in the 1990s, the country has made only gradual and unequal progress in enhancing its citizens' health. Large disparities in health infrastructure and access to healthcare remain and have even gotten worse within and among groups, among rural and urban areas, and throughout states. Despite the fact that member nations of the World Health Organization began to support the idea of health care for all as early as 2005, India has yet to accomplish these goals, unlike numerous other low-income nations. The continual issue of meeting the needs of the most marginalised Indian society is one that the country's health care system must continue to grapple with. Recent progress in access to healthcare caused by various initiatives, the states continue to face serious problems with regard to the affordability and accessibility of health-related services for the poor. Inequalities in the cost and accessibility of health treatments by socioeconomic level, location, and gender are still present. This is mostly caused by the numerous obstacles that make it difficult to get essential medical care. The present crisis of public health infrastructure in rural regions and other aspects of health services in India are critically examined and evaluated in this perspective.

Considering India's outstanding economic success following the
adoption of new economic strategy in the 1990s, the country has
made only gradual and unequal progress in enhancing its citizens'
health. Large disparities in health infrastructure and access to
healthcare remain and have even gotten worse within and among
groups, among rural and urban areas, and throughout states.
Despite the fact that member nations of the World Health
Organization began to support the idea of health care for all as
early as 2005, India has yet to accomplish these goals, unlike
numerous other low-income nations. The continual issue of
meeting the needs of the most marginalised Indian society is one
that the country's health care system must continue to grapple
with. Recent progress in access to healthcare caused by various
initiatives, the states continue to face serious problems with
regard to the affordability and accessibility of health-related
services for the poor. Inequalities in the cost and accessibility of
health treatments by socio - economic level, location, and gender
are still present. This is mostly caused by the numerous obstacles
that make it difficult to get essential medical care. The present
crisis of public health infrastructure in rural regions and other
aspects of health services in India are critically examined and
evaluated in this perspective

During a career that stretched from the Progressive Era through the 1950s, Gilbert H. Montague served businesses as a lawyer and lobbyist, managing relations between companies and the government. In this capacity he had a significant impact on the evolution of regulation, particularly antitrust law. Just as important, his career provides valuable insight into the activities and attitudes of the class made up of corporate lawyers and lobbyists, which constituted an important part of the system of regulated capitalism that emerged in the United States during the first half of the twentieth century.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Introduction: One of the targets of the END-TB strategy is to ensure zero catastrophic expenditure on households due to TB. The information about household catastrophic expenditure is limited in India and, therefore difficult to monitor. The objective is to estimate household and catastrophic expenditure for Tuberculosis using national sample survey data. Methods: For arriving at out-of-pocket expenditure due to tuberculosis and its impact on households the study analyzed four rounds of National Sample Survey data (52nd round-1995-1996, 60th round-2004-2005, 71st round-2014-15, and 75th round 2017-2018). The household interview survey data had a recall period of 365 days for inpatient/ hospitalization and 15 days for outpatient care expenditure. Expenditure amounting to >20% of annual household consumption expenditure was termed as catastrophic. Results: A 5-fold increase in median outpatient care cost in 75th round is observed compared to previous rounds and increase has been maximum while accessing public sector. The overall expense ratio of public v/s private is 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, and 1:5, respectively across four rounds for hospitalization. The prevalence of catastrophic expenditure due to hospitalization increased from 16.5% (52nd round) to 43% (71st round), followed by a decline to 18% in the recent 75th round. Conclusion: Despite free diagnostic and treatment services offered under the national program, households are exposed to catastrophic financial expenditure due to tuberculosis. We strongly advocate for risk protection mechanisms such as cash transfer or health insurance schemes targeting the patients of tuberculosis, especially among the poor.

Dave de Ruysscher and Jeroen Puttevils look into the complex interaction – typicalof the Low Countries – between various stakeholders (economic agents, citygovernment and central government) that shaped the legislation of economic practices. Eschewing top-down (the central government imposes its rules) and bottom-up (merchants sought to have their customs legalised) models, and taking into account the powers enjoyed by city governments in the Low Countries, which were both ample but also constrained by the central government, the authors trace the development of one particular type of contract and transaction – sixteenth century marine insurance, a growing sector for which Antwerp became the key centre. By laying bare the negotiation process which preceded the compromise, they find that decisions on the legislation regarding marine insurance were both politically and economically induced. The three major agents (merchants, city government and central government) were not monolithic ...

The corporation is a constitutive element of modern capitalism. In its contemporary form, the corporation comes with a striking legal feature: ownership is associated with limited liability. Today, we take for granted both the principle of limited liability and its association with the corporate form. Not so long ago, though, in the mid-19th century, the principle of limited liability was highly contentious, generating heated discussions and debates. This article explores the social movement dynamics that crystallized around the principle of limited liability in 19th-century England – intense framing strategies and politics of signification, collective articulation of resources and mobilization tactics as well as opportunistic use of dynamic opportunities. Interestingly, social movement dynamics did not imply in this case the structuration of a unitary social movement but involved instead a stunning ‘coalition of the unlikely’. Two strikingly different groups championed limited liab...

Belgium currently has a legal system which is still, to a large extent, French due to the annexation by France in 1795 and the subsequent introduction of French revolutionary law and the codes of Napoleon. Thus, in many ways, 1795 marks a watershed, a sudden legal transplant displacing the old law. However, this should not be exaggerated, as already before 1795, French law had been seeping through, so it did not start a new trend, but confirmed, albeit rather abruptly, an existing one. A. Pre 1795 law in the Southern Netherlands Belgium only became independent in 1830, but it was not a completely new entity. When Charlemagne's great empire broke up, France and Germany arose from the ashes and among these a patchwork of principalities could be found, the most important of them being in the South, Flanders, Brabant, Hainaut, Namur, Liège and Luxemburg and in the North, Holland, Utrecht, and Guelders. From the end of the fourteenth century, French princes, the Dukes of Burgundy, started the unification of these so-called Low Countries, a process which was completed by their Habsburg successors in the sixteenth century (two ecclesiastical principalities, Liège and Stavelot-Malmédy managed to retain their independence), only a few decades before a revolt against the Spanish Habsburgs led to a separation. The North, the United Provinces, achieved independence and became also known under the name The Netherlands in the vernacular of the Low Countries, whereas the South remained Spanish and took the Latin name for the Low Countries, Belgium. An experiment of independence with Spanish and Austrian blessing proved to be short-lived and the Southern Low Countries were to remain Habsburg until the French annexation in 1795, though they passed from the Spanish to the Austrian branch in the early eighteenth century. Although this political background is needed to understand the legal history of Ancien Régime Belgium, its impact in the field of law was limited. Neither the Burgundians, nor their 1

Ente di afferenza: () Copyright c by Società editrice il Mulino, Bologna. Tutti i diritti sono riservati. Per altre informazioni si veda https://www.rivisteweb.it Licenza d'uso L'articoloè messo a disposizione dell'utente in licenza per uso esclusivamente privato e personale, senza scopo di lucro e senza fini direttamente o indirettamente commerciali. Salvo quanto espressamente previsto dalla licenza d'uso Rivisteweb,è fatto divieto di riprodurre, trasmettere, distribuire o altrimenti utilizzare l'articolo, per qualsiasi scopo o fine. Tutti i diritti sono riservati.

Migration within and out of south Asia has been a practice steeped in historical processes. This article identifies commonalities such as the significant macroeconomic role of migration and similar main destinations for south Asia's mobile populations. It critiques popular themes in the discourse on migration, like the focus on economic benefits of moving populations and the nation state as a reference point. The article questions the existing views of what it means for people to move from their homes, many times (but not only) across international borders.

Review of Excommunication and Outlawry in the Legal World of Medieval Iceland by Elizabeth Walgenbach. https://academic.oup.com/ehr/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/ehr/cead161/7308674?utm_source=advanceaccess&utm_campaign=ehr&utm_medium=email

Aim: The aim of the review is to provide current updates on regulations for ethics committees and researchers in India. Background: Ethical dilemmas in research since time immemorial have been a major concern for researchers worldwide. The question "what makes clinical research ethical" is significant and difficult to answer as multiple factors are involved. Review results: The research involving human participants in clinical trials should follow the required rules, regulations, and guidelines in one's own country. It is a dynamic process, and updates have to be learned by researcher and committee members. The review highlights the ethical regulation from the Drug Controller General of India, Clinical Trial Registry of India, and Indian Council of Medical Research guidelines. Conclusion: In this article, the updates on Indian scenario of the Ethical Committee and guidelines are compiled. Clinical significance: The review comes handy for clinical researchers and ethics committee members in academic institutions to check on the current updates and keep abreast with the knowledge on regulations of ethics in India.

The relationship between landscape and land use practices is clearly evident in the livelihood dynamics of people residing in various places of the earth surface. The aim of this research was not only to spatially categorize Central Katsina Region into different physiographic relief units, but also to study the correlation between each physiographic unit with its corresponding land uses as well as the overall impact of these on livelihoods. The research therefore assessed the impacts of relief and physiographic irregularities on the lives of rural and semi-rural people of the region through field observations and questionnaire surveys. The research project ran for five months (

This study delves into the pervasive impact of financial resources in politics, focusing on corporate lobbying, special interest groups, campaign financing, Super PACs, the revolving door phenomenon, and the wealth gap's influence on political power. These elements collectively undermine democratic principles, causing concerns about fairness, transparency, and public trust. The recommendations include stricter campaign finance regulations, enhanced transparency, ethical guidelines, and public engagement, aimed at creating a more equitable and responsive political system while mitigating the influence of money and special interests.

Al sometimiento de Islandia al rey de Noruega en 1262-1264 le siguió una legislación en la que tuvo importancia un libro de derecho sobre la Iglesia y los asuntos espirituales escrito en la lengua vernácula de cada país. Dicha ley se implementó en Islandia en 1275, junto con un libro de derecho secular independiente en 1281. Ambos libros se mantuvieron en vigor hasta mediados del siglo XVI. Parece que la causa de que Islandia se diferenciase de otros países de la Europa occidental, donde los asuntos espirituales se regían por

Background: Out of eight commonly agreed Millennium Development Goals (MDG), six are related to the attainment of Universal Health Coverage (UHC) throughout the globe. This universalization of health status suggests policies to narrow the gap in access and benefit sharing between different socially and economically underprivileged classes with that of the better placed ones and a consequent expansion of subsidized healthcare appears to be a common feature for most of the developing nations. The National Health Policy in India (2002) suggests expansion of market-based care for the affording class and subsidized care for the deserving class of the society. So, the benefit distribution of this limited public support in health sector is important to examine to study the welfare consequences of the policy. This paper examines the nature of utilization to inpatient care by different socioeconomic groups across regions and gender in West Bengal (WB), India. The benefit incidence of public subsidies across these socioeconomic groups has also been verified for different types of services like medicines, diagnostics and professional care etc. Methods: National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) has collected information on all hospitalized cases (60 th round, 2004) with a recall period of 365 days from the sampled households through stratified random sampling technique. The data has been used to assess utilization of healthcare services during hospitalization and the distribution of public subsidies among the patients of different socioeconomic background; a Benefit Incidence Analysis (BIA) has also been carried out. Results: Analysis shows that though the rate of utilization of public hospitals is quite high, other complementary services like medicine, doctor and diagnostic tests are mostly purchased from private market. This leads to high Out-of-Pocket (OOP) expenditure. Moreover, BIA reveals that the public subsidies are mostly enjoyed by the relatively better placed patients, both socially and economically. The worse situation is observed for gender related inequality in access and benefit from public subsidies in the state. Conclusion: Focused policies are required to ensure proper distribution of public subsidies to arrest high OOP expenditure. Drastic change in policy targeting is needed to secure equity without compromising efficiency.

Baitul-Mal was an Islamic financial institution established during the classical period of Islam to manage financial resources for welfare transformation, which was adopted by Sokoto Jihadists and subsequently Emir of Katsina Muhammadu Dikko (1906-1944 C. E) institutionalized (Baitul-Mal), where Zakat, Jizyah, Kharaj, and Ghanimah, among others, were collected and managed for the well-being of the people. The paper explores the history and impacts of this institution, which remain unknown to many, as little of its activities appeared in some historical literature before the interruption of the colonial masters, which finally crippled its efficiency. The work was done on a qualitative method through interview and assessment of the earliest records to establish its relevance within the Islamic principles of financial management. The study observes huge wealth with Muslims that needs to be protected and made accessible to the common people to ensure growth and development among Muslims...

Considering India's outstanding economic success following the adoption of new economic strategy in the 1990s, the country has made only gradual and unequal progress in enhancing its citizens' health. Large disparities in health infrastructure and access to healthcare remain and have even gotten worse within and among groups, among rural and urban areas, and throughout states. Despite the fact that member nations of the World Health Organization began to support the idea of health care for all as early as 2005, India has yet to accomplish these goals, unlike numerous other low-income nations. The continual issue of meeting the needs of the most marginalised Indian society is one that the country's health care system must continue to grapple with. Recent progress in access to healthcare caused by various initiatives, the states continue to face serious problems with regard to the affordability and accessibility of health-related services for the poor. Inequalities in the cost and accessibility of health treatments by socioeconomic level, location, and gender are still present. This is mostly caused by the numerous obstacles that make it difficult to get essential medical care. The present crisis of public health infrastructure in rural regions and other aspects of health services in India are critically examined and evaluated in this perspective.

The paper argues that if the Ideas of Western Philosophers can be borrowed to solve our educational problems; then even our contemporary Philosophers' Ideas can be applied not borrowed because they belong to us so as to tackle our current perennial academic Problems. The paper examined the historical background of Aminu Kano, and his actions as a Nationalist, Reformist, and politician. It also looked at His perception of the Commoners' Emancipation; in four dimensions; Economic, Educational, Political, and Women Emancipation. In the end, Recommendations are made as our incumbent politicians and leaders should emulate Aminu Kano's political ideas of speech and action, also his educational reformation ideas should be adopted

Apparently, the Constitutional frame for health sector across Indian states is nearly uniform as public health delivery system in India is informed by the same policy framework with mutatis-mutandis. Likewise, program implementation is driven by the same elite

We investigate the role of corporate boards in bank loan contracting. We find that when corporate boards are more independent, both price and nonprice loan terms (e.g., interest rates, collateral, covenants, and performance-pricing provisions) are more favorable, and syndicated loans comprise more lenders. In addition, board size, audit committee structure, and other board characteristics influence bank loan prices. However, they do not consistently affect all nonprice loan terms except for audit committee independence. Our study provides strong evidence that banks tend to recognize the benefits of board monitoring in mitigating information risk ex ante and controlling agency risk ex post, and they reward higher quality boards with more favorable loan contract terms.

Nigerien migrants flow into Nigeria everyday for several reasons with the hope of a better life. The ease of access into the porous Nigerian border allows the migrants free flow into the country. This research aims at investigating the purposes and patterns of migration in some parts of northern Nigeria with migrants from southern Niger Republic. Data on the migrants’ demographies and migratory histories was collected through in-depth interviews, the Open Data Kit (ODK), Focus Group Discussions and field observations while the analysis was by the use of the Microsoft Excel. Findings indicate southward movement of the people for bida; and ci rani especially during dry seasons. Other forms of migration include environmentally induced, health and educational. Migrants from remote parts of Niger come into Nigeria due to availability of jobs at the destination, good road networking and most importantly the presence of a network of family and friends that assists in securing these jobs. T...

The population of the elderly is rapidly increasing globally and there is need to meet up with the special needs and requirements that are unique to them. This study aimed at evaluating public awareness and perception towards care for the elderly. A cross-sectional descriptive survey design was used to administred questionaire to the participants. Cluster method was used to select 3 out of the 5 wards and 150 participants were recruited for the study using purposive and convenience sampling techniques. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data. Data obtained were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 20. Descriptive analysis was computed on dependent and independent variables. The result shows that majority of the participants (90%) have relatively good knowledge of the basic care of the elderly, with high positive attitudinal predisposition towards and preference to care for their aged people in their (participants') homes rather than ...

The study endeavors to break down output growth in the Indian sugar industry into the 'perspiration' component that corresponds to factor accumulation and the 'inspiration' component that corresponds to the total factor productivity (TFP) growth. The bootstrapped Malmquist productivity index has been used as a technique to obtain the TFP growth from the period 1974/75 to 2004/05. Empirical analysis reveals that output growth in the Indian sugar industry is equally driven by the inspiration component (i.e., TFP growth) and the perspiration component (i.e., factor accumulation), but in opposite directions. The inspiration component is observed to contribute to output growth positively, whereas the perspiration component contributes negatively. Given substantial TFP growth, the potential output growth in the Indian sugar industry has been restricted primarily by the negative growth of inputs during the entire study period and particularly in the post-reform period. health of the Indian sugar industry. Given the industry's appalling health, there is an urgent need to analyze the growth performance of the industry (see Pandey (2007) and Kumar and Arora (2010) for the detailed state of the Indian sugar industry).

The study endeavors to break down output growth in the Indian sugar industry into the 'perspiration' component that corresponds to factor accumulation and the 'inspiration' component that corresponds to the total factor productivity (TFP) growth. The bootstrapped Malmquist productivity index has been used as a technique to obtain the TFP growth from the period 1974/75 to 2004/05. Empirical analysis reveals that output growth in the Indian sugar industry is equally driven by the inspiration component (i.e., TFP growth) and the perspiration component (i.e., factor accumulation), but in opposite directions. The inspiration component is observed to contribute to output growth positively, whereas the perspiration component contributes negatively. Given substantial TFP growth, the potential output growth in the Indian sugar industry has been restricted primarily by the negative growth of inputs during the entire study period and particularly in the post-reform period. health of the Indian sugar industry. Given the industry's appalling health, there is an urgent need to analyze the growth performance of the industry (see Pandey (2007) and Kumar and Arora (2010) for the detailed state of the Indian sugar industry).

This study aims to review the Weberian concept developed by B.J.O Schrieke and its contribution to the development of Indonesian historiography. This study uses the library method with an autobiographical approach. The results of the study show that Schrieke has shown historiography with a socio-cultural perspective and has succeeded in revealing many aspects of society and the life of the Indonesian people. This can be seen through Schrieke's works, namely het boek van Bonang (1916) and Indonesian Sociological Studies (1955). Schrieke was inspired by Max Weber's way of explaining history from various socio-historical perspectives. Schrieke's sociological historical thought influenced the basic framework of subsequent Indonesian history writing.Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengulas konsep Weberian yang dikembangkan oleh B.J.O Schrieke serta kontribusinya bagi perkembangan historiografi Indonesia. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kepustakaan dengan pendekatan otobiogra...