Plant Signal Transduction

Background: The experiment was carried out to examine the impact of different concentrations of exogenously applied of epibrassinolide (e-BL) and zinc (Zn) on the physio-biochemical processes of garden pea (Pisum sativum L.) under subjected waterdeficit stress environment. Methods: A polyhouse experiment was performed using completely randomized design with three replications by e-BL pre-treating the seeds of garden pea genotype HUP-2 with concentrations of 0.01 and 0.05 mM and/or Zn before subjecting the plants to an induced water deficit stress at various stages of growth and development. Results: Garden pea seeds that had been pre-treated with e-BL and Zn micronutrients showed a favorable reaction against a water shortage condition in terms of membrane stability and a variety of enzymatic activity. It is possible for e-BL and Zn to mitigate the impact of post-anthesis water shortage, which is more likely to result in yield reduction. Both seed pre-treatment with e-BL and basal administration of Zn have shown to be effective in protecting the HUP-2 genotype of G arden pea from the negative impact of water deficiency.

The present experiment was designed to assess the effects of seed soaking with 24-epibrassinolide (EBR) on the physiology of Brassica juncea L. seedlings grown under imidacloprid (IMI) toxicity. Application of EBR increased the length of seedlings, dry weight, and pigment contents, polyphenols, total phenols, and organic acids under IMI toxicity. The expression of genes coding key enzymes of pigment, phenols, polyphenols, and organic acid biosynthetic pathways was also studied including CHLASE (chlorophyllase), PSY (phytoene synthase), CHS (chalcone synthase) and PAL (phenylalanine ammonialyase), CS (citrate synthase), SUCLG1 (succinyl Co-A ligase,), SDH (succinate dehydrogenase), FH (fumarate hydratase), MS (malate synthase). Multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis revealed that IMI application regressed negatively on seedling length, dry weight and total chlorophyll content. However, EBR seed treatment regressed positively on all the parameters studied. Moreover, interaction between IMI and EBR showed positive regression for growth parameters, content of pigments, total polyphenol, total phenol and malate, and expression of PSY and PAL. Negative interactions were noticed for the contents of fumarate, succinate and citrate, and expression of CHS and all genes studied related to organic acid metabolism. In conclusion, EBR enhanced the growth and contents of all studied metabolites by regulating the gene expression of B. juncea seedlings under IMI stress.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are growth-initiating steroidal compound found in pollen, seeds, and young vegetative tissues throughout the plant kingdom. Brassinosteroids (BRs) collectively refers to naturally-occurring 5α cholestane steroids that elicit growth stimulation in nano-or micromolar concentrations. BRs that are biosynthesized using sterols as precursors are structurally similar to the cholesterol-derived, human steroid hormones and insect molting hormones. BRs have been known for decades to be effective in plant growth promotion. However, definitive evidence for their roles in growth and development remained unclear until the recent characterization of BR dwarf mutants isolated from Arabidopsis and other plants. This review inspects essential role of BRs in diverse developmental programs, including cell expansion, vascular differentiation, etiolation, and reproductive development. Current improvements regarding BR-regulated gene expression and signal transduction are also discussed.

Out of the 34 members of the VQ-motif-containing protein (VQP) family, 10 are phosphorylated by the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), MPK3 and MPK6. Most of these MPK3/6-targeted VQPs (MVQs) interacted with specific sub-groups of WRKY transcription factors in a VQ-motif-dependent manner. In some cases, the MAPK appears to phosphorylate either the MVQ or the WRKY, while in other cases, both proteins have been reported to act as MAPK substrates. We propose a network of dynamic interactions between members from the MAPK, MVQ and WRKY families - either as binary or as tripartite interactions. The compositions of the WRKY-MVQ transcriptional protein complexes may change - for instance, through MPK3/6-mediated modulation of protein stability - and therefore control defense gene transcription.

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important oilseed crop grown in India. It is utilized as oil and protein crop and it provides large amount of high quality proteins. Man has been facing a lot of problem due to nutrient deficiencies. Brassinosteroids are natural plant growth promoting substances which occurs at very low concentration in all plants. The surface sterilized seeds of groundnut were soaked in different concentration of (10-6 M to 10-8 M) of brassinosteroids. These pretreated seeds were transferred to sterile Petri dish. The treatment significantly increases germination percentage, root length, shoot length, fresh weight and dry weight. Out of the three concentrations 10-7 M proved best result in groundnut seedling.

Metabolic processes in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms are often modulated by kinases which are in turn, dependent on Ca2+ and the cyclic mononucleotides cAMP and cGMP. It has been established that some proteins have both kinase and cyclase activities and that active cyclases can be embedded within the kinase domains. Here, we identified phosphodiesterase (PDE) sites, enzymes that hydrolyse cAMP and cGMP, to AMP and GMP, respectively, in some of these proteins in addition to their kinase/cyclase twin-architecture. As an example, we tested the Arabidopsis thaliana KINγ, a subunit of the SnRK2 kinase, to demonstrate that all three enzymatic centres, adenylate cyclase (AC), guanylate cyclase (GC) and PDE, are catalytically active, capable of generating and hydrolysing cAMP and cGMP. These data imply that the signal output of the KINγ subunit modulates SnRK2, consequently affecting the downstream kinome. Finally, we propose a model where a single protein subunit, KINγ, is capable of regulating cyclic mononucleotide homeostasis, thereby tuning stimulus specific signal output.

In this review we highlight the advances achieved in the investigation of the role of 14-3-3 proteins in hormone signaling, biosynthesis, and transport. 14-3-3 proteins are a family of conserved molecules that target a number of protein clients through their ability to recognize well-defined phosphorylated motifs. As a result, they regulate several cellular processes, ranging from metabolism to transport, growth, development, and stress response. High-throughput proteomic data and two-hybrid screen demonstrate that 14-3-3 proteins physically interact with many protein clients involved in the biosynthesis or signaling pathways of the main plant hormones, while increasing functional evidence indicates that 14-3-3-target interactions play pivotal regulatory roles. These advances provide a framework of our understanding of plant hormone action, suggesting that 14-3-3 proteins act as hubs of a cellular web encompassing different signaling pathways, transducing and integrating diverse hormone signals in the regulation of physiological processes.

The brassinosteroid receptor BRI1 can generate cGMP enabling cGMP-dependent downstream signaling, which has been published in final form at http://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.13589. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance With Wiley Terms and Conditions for self-archiving.

Abiotic and biotic stresses are the main factors which are responsible for mutation in the plant growth anatomically and morphologically. Abiotic stress includes the disturbances occurringdue to environmental factors such as high and low temperature, high intensity of light, heavy rainfall, drought and flood conditions. Besides this, biotic stress includes disturbances bymicro-organisms like fungi, bacteria, nematodes, parasites, weeds and other wild crops. These stresses are the main reason for the reduction of crop yield and their nutrition. To get rid of these stresses, plants are treated with different osmolytes such as jasmonic acid, proline, salicylic acid, ascorbic acid etc. Osmolytes reduces the reactive oxidation species (ROS) and free ion radicals. This paper focuses on the importance of osmolytes in the growth and development of plants.

Agriculture is particularly vulnerable to climate change. To cope with the risks posed by climate-related stressors to agricultural production, global population growth, and changes in food preferences, it is imperative to develop new climate-smart crop varieties with increased yield and environmental resilience. Molecular genetics and genomic analyses have revealed that allelic variations in genes involved in phytohormone-mediated growth regulation have greatly improved productivity in major crops. Plant science has remarkably advanced our understanding of the molecular basis of various phytohormone-mediated events in plant life. These findings provide essential information for improving the productivity of crops growing in changing climates. In this review, we highlight the recent advances in plant hormonomics (multiple phytohormone profiling) and discuss its application to crop improvement. We present plant hormonomics as a key tool for deep physiological phenotyping, focusing on...

Plant growth, development, and productivity are adversely affected under drought conditions. Previous findings indicated that 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) and 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) play an important role in the plant response to adverse environmental conditions. This study demonstrated the role of ALA and EBL on oxidative stress and photosynthetic capacity of drought-stressed ‘Williams’ banana grown under the Egyptian semi-arid conditions. Exogenous application of either ALA or EBL at concentrations of 15, 30, and 45 mg·L−1 significantly restored plant photosynthetic activity and increased productivity under reduced irrigation; this was equivalent to 75% of the plant’s total water requirements. Both compounds significantly reduced drought-induced oxidative damages by increasing antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase ‘SOD’, catalase ‘CAT’, and peroxidase ‘POD’) and preserving chloroplast structure. Lipid peroxidation, electrolyte loss and free non-radical H2O2 formatio...

Downstream signalling involving adenylyl cyclases (ACs) and kinases is a key component of several processes in plants including cell division, growth, and response to stress. ACs are enzymes that generate the second messenger molecule, 3′,5′-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) from 5′-adenosine triphosphate (ATP) while kinases are enzymes that catalyze the addition of a phosphate group to other molecules (trans-phosphorylation) or themselves (auto-phosphorylation). Apparently, while there has been an expanded record of various ACs and kinases identified in plants, no plant molecule to date has been shown to possess both the AC and kinase activities/functions and with such activities/functions having the characteristic of cross-talking interactions. Therefore, in an endeavor to find such a molecule, we searched the amino acid sequence of a known Arabidopsis AC, pentatricopeptide repeat (AtPPR) protein, and found a kinase-specific sequence signature (KSSS), which we speculated to be...

Enhancing the nutritional quality of fruits using safe and environmental friendly methods has become one of the most important targets in modern fruit production systems. Brassinosteroids, a new group of phytohormones with positive roles on human health, have been shown to modulate a wide range of plant activities and enhance fruit quality in some crops. This study was conducted to examine the effect of 24-Epibrassinolide (EBL), a synthetic brassinosteroid, on quality attributes and some active bio-compounds of 'Thompson seedless' table grapes. Grape vines and bunches were sprayed with EBL (at 0, 3 and/or 6 μmol L-1) at three different stages (4 weeks after full bloom, at veraison stage and one day before harvest). As a novel finding in seedless grapes, exogenous EBL substantially enhanced soluble solids content, total organic acids, antioxidants, phenolics and ascorbic acid levels in treated berries. Also the activity of catalase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes was increased. There was no significant difference between the two tested brassinosteroid concentration levels in most cases. EBL showed a good potential for enhancing table grape phytonutrients, nutritional quality and phytochemical contents and can be introduced as a safe compound to be used in table grape production programs.

Increasing the productivity, yield and quality and modulating the ripening physiology of the fruit is considered as a main concern for the fruit growers. Brassinosteroids (BRs), as natural phytochemicals, are produced endogenously during fruit development and play a vital role in regulating its developmental, ripening and quality formation processes. In this study, the effects of different concentrations of exogenous 24-epibrassinolide (EBL), a common brassinosteroid, on ripening physiology, quality parameters and yield of strawberry fruit was studied. Foliar spray of strawberry plants and developing fruits with EBL significantly modulated the pattern and rate of fruit growth, decreased the fruit growth duration and enhanced the precocity rate. Visual indices such as size, shape and color of the fruits were significantly affected by EBL treatment. EBL at 1 μmol/L enhanced fruit growth rate and had no significant effect on the shape, but at 4 μmol/L significantly decreased the length/diameter ratio and resulted in the production of more spherical fruits with a very short growing period. However, a decrease in flesh firmness was observed in fruit treated with higher EBL concentration. EBL treatment significantly enhanced fruit weight, water content, total phenolics and anthocyanin contents and carbohydrate metabolism. The results indicate that the use of brassinosteroids can be considered as a novel method for modulating the growth pattern, yield and different quality parameters in strawberry fruits.

Highlights  We cloned a metallothionein gene, classified as type 3 MT, from rice leaves.  OsMT-3a expression was highly induced in the leaves of tolerant rice variety by NaCl.  Na +-sensitive E. coli cells expressing OsMT-3a showed high tolerance to NaCl stress.  The rice OsMT-3a could enhance salinity tolerance through ROS scavenging.

Brassinosteriods (BRs) have increasingly been used to improve the yields and quality of various crops. In this work we studied the effect of two brassinosteroids, BB16 and EP24, on the growth promotion of Fragaria ananassa plants under normal conditions or exposed to water or saline stress. The influence of both BRs on the plant development and fruit quality was evaluated when cultivated in semi-hydroponic conditions. A marked growth-promoting effect was observed with both compounds when plants were cultivated under normal irrigation conditions and under saline and water stresses. BB16 and EP24 yielded plants with a higher dry weight, root length and surface, a higher number and area of leaves, a higher total weight of fruits per plant, and a higher percentage of fruits of commercial quality. Additionally, a higher content of chlorophyll, number of leaves, and increased dry weight was detected in plants treated with both BRs and exposed to water and saline stresses. Finally, when ev...

Brassinosteriods (BRs) have increasingly been used to improve the yields and quality of various crops. In this work we studied the effect of two brassinosteroids, BB16 and EP24, on the growth promotion of Fragaria ananassa plants under normal conditions or exposed to water or saline stress. The influence of both BRs on the plant development and fruit quality was evaluated when cultivated in semi-hydroponic conditions. A marked growth-promoting effect was observed with both compounds when plants were cultivated under normal irrigation conditions and under saline and water stresses. BB16 and EP24 yielded plants with a higher dry weight, root length and surface, a higher number and area of leaves, a higher total weight of fruits per plant, and a higher percentage of fruits of commercial quality. Additionally, a higher content of chlorophyll, number of leaves, and increased dry weight was detected in plants treated with both BRs and exposed to water and saline stresses. Finally, when ev...

Highlights  We cloned a metallothionein gene, classified as type 3 MT, from rice leaves.  OsMT-3a expression was highly induced in the leaves of tolerant rice variety by NaCl.  Na +-sensitive E. coli cells expressing OsMT-3a showed high tolerance to NaCl stress.  The rice OsMT-3a could enhance salinity tolerance through ROS scavenging.

24-Epibrassinolide (EBL) and Selenium (Se) individually confer tolerance to various abiotic stresses, but their interactive effect in the regulation of copper (Cu) homeostasis in plants exposed to toxic levels of Cu is poorly investigated. This study provides an insight into the effects of EBL (foliar) and/or Se (through sand) on Brassica juncea plants exposed to toxic levels of Cu. The combined effect of EBL and Se on compartmentalization of Cu, oxidative stress markers, photosynthetic machinery and biochemical traits in B. juncea were analyzed. Application of EBL and Se through different mode modulated the compartmentalization of Cu in different parts of plants, enhanced the photosynthetic traits, and activities of various antioxidant enzymes and proline accumulation in B. juncea under excess copper levels. These enhanced levels of antioxidant enzymes, proline (osmolyte) accumulation triggered by combination of EBL and Se could have conferred tolerance to the B. juncea plants unde...

The brassinosteroid receptor BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE 1 (BRI1) is a member of the leucine rich repeat receptor like kinase family. The intracellular kinase domain of BRI1 is an active kinase and also encapsulates a guanylate cyclase catalytic centre. Using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, we confirmed that the recombinant cytoplasmic domain of BRI1 generates pmol amounts of cGMP per μg protein with a preference for magnesium over manganese as a co-factor. Importantly, a functional BRI1 kinase is essential for optimal cGMP generation. Therefore, the guanylate cyclase activity of BRI1 is modulated by the kinase while cGMP, the product of the guanylate cyclase, in turn inhibits BRI1 kinase activity. Furthermore, we show using Arabidopsis root cell cultures that cGMP rapidly potentiates phosphorylation of the downstream substrate BRASSINOSTEROID SIGNALING KINASE 1 (BSK1). Taken together, our results suggest that cGMP acts as a modulator that enhances downstream signali...

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is a vital fiber crop that is being cultivated under diverse climatic conditions across the globe. The demand for cotton and its by-products is increasing day by day due to more consumption of this fiber in the textile industry and the utilization of cotton seed as a source of edible oil. However, the average seed cotton yield in the world is below that of the potential yield of cultivars. The factors responsible for low yield includes shortage of approved seed, pest and disease attack, weed infestation, unwise use of nutrients, and the incidence of abiotic stresses (including drought, heat, and salinity). Among these, the abiotic stresses are a single major factor, which is responsible for reducing the yield now and will affect the productivity of cotton in future. In this scenario, it is necessary to adopt ways to improve the tolerance of cotton against abiotic stresses. The strategies for improving tolerance against abiotic stresses may include the wise use of macroand micronutrients, the use of osmoprotectants, the use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and the plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria.

Drought stress reduces the dry matter production and final yield (Tahir and Mehdi 2001, Hussain et al. 2008) most probably due to diminished carbon assimilation (Wahid and Rasul 2005) and photosynthetic pigments (Farooq et al. 2009a). Damaged photosynthetic apparatus (Fu and Huang 2001, Farooq et al. 2008a, 2009a,b,c) and decreased activities of Calvin cycle enzymes (Monakhova and Chernyadèv 2002) are important causes of reduced crop yield. It also distresses the water relations of plants at cellular, tissue and organ levels (Beck et al. 2007, Farooq et al. 2008a, 2009a,b,c). Another important reason in this regard is the loss of balance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the antioxidant defence system (Fu and Huang 2001, Reddy et al. 2004), leading to accumulation of ROS and induction of oxidative damage to cell components (Fu and Huang 2001). To prevent this, plants have developed a variety of antioxidant enzymes and ROS scavenging molecules, the most important among those are peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) (Halliwell and Gutteridge 1999, Hasegawa et al. 2000, Fazeli et al. 2007). Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a group of naturally occurring steroidal plant hormones that regulate plant growth and development by producing an array of physiological changes (Fujioka and Yokota 2003, Sasse

The plant hormones brassinosteroids (BR) and ethylene (ET) act together to regulate plant metabolism. We used BR and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP, an ET action inhibitor) to elucidate the interactions between both hormones for the regulation of mitochondrial respiratory pathways in papaya fruit. The exogenous application of the 24-epibrassinolide (epiBR) enhanced the alternative oxidase (AOX) capacity. While treatment with Brz2001 (Brz is a specific inhibitor of the BR synthesis) also enhanced AOX capacity, these effects lacked in fruit treated simultaneously with epiBR and Brz. Changing the BR level had no effect on ET emission rate in the first 24 h, but a reduction in ET emission was observed in Brz-treated fruit on the fifth day. Together with Brz, epiBR increased the ET production on the fifth day, following the day in which the treatment was carried out. When the ET sensitivity of fruit was inhibited by the application of 1-MCP, the effects of epiBR and Brz were opposite to those obtained without 1-MCP. AOX capacity was slightly inhibited by epiBR in fruit pre-treated with 1-MCP. Data suggest that BR and ET act antagonistically, therefore regulating, directly or indirectly, AOX capacity during papaya fruit ripening.

Phytohormones act as chemical messengers and, under a complex regulation, allow plants to sustain biotic and abiotic stresses. Thus, phytohormones are known for their regulatory role in plant growth and development. Heavy metals (HMs) play an important role in metabolism and have roles in plant growth and development as micronutrients. However, at a level above threshold, these HMs act as contaminants and pose a worldwide environmental threat. Thus, finding eco-friendly and economical deliverables to tackle this problem is a priority. In addition to physicochemical methods, exogenous application of phytohormones, i.e., auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, can positively influence the regulation of the ascorbate-glutathione cycle, transpiration rate, cell division, and the activities of nitrogen metabolism and assimilation, which improve plant growth activity. Brassinosteroids, ethylene and salicylic acid have been reported to enhance the level of the anti-oxidant system, decrease levels of ROS, lipid peroxidation and improve photosynthesis in plants, when applied exogenously under a HM effect. There is a crosstalk between phytohormones which is activated upon exogenous application. Research suggests that plants are primed by phytohormones for stress tolerance. Chemical priming has provided good results in plant physiology and stress adaptation, and phytohormone priming is underway. We have reviewed promising phytohormones, which can potentially confer enhanced tolerance when used exogenously. Exogenous application of phytohormones may increase plant performance under HM stress and can be used for agro-ecological benefits under environmental conditions with high HMs level.

The plant hormones brassinosteroids (BR) and ethylene (ET) act together to regulate plant metabolism. We used BR and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP, an ET action inhibitor) to elucidate the interactions between both hormones for the regulation of mitochondrial respiratory pathways in papaya fruit. The exogenous application of the 24-epibrassinolide (epiBR) enhanced the alternative oxidase (AOX) capacity. While treatment with Brz2001 (Brz is a specific inhibitor of the BR synthesis) also enhanced AOX capacity, these effects lacked in fruit treated simultaneously with epiBR and Brz. Changing the BR level had no effect on ET emission rate in the first 24 h, but a reduction in ET emission was observed in Brz-treated fruit on the fifth day. Together with Brz, epiBR increased the ET production on the fifth day, following the day in which the treatment was carried out. When the ET sensitivity of fruit was inhibited by the application of 1-MCP, the effects of epiBR and Brz were opposite to those obtained without 1-MCP. AOX capacity was slightly inhibited by epiBR in fruit pre-treated with 1-MCP. Data suggest that BR and ET act antagonistically, therefore regulating, directly or indirectly, AOX capacity during papaya fruit ripening.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroid hormones that are essential for plant growth and development. These hormones control the division, elongation and differentiation of various cell types throughout the entire plant life cycle. Over the past few decades, studies on BRs caught the attention of plant scientists due to their versatile ability in mitigating various environmental stresses. Additionally, BR also involved in maintaining the quality of postharvest produces, by enhancing their resistance against abiotic and biotic stress. Furthermore, BRs are non-toxic and eco-friendly; this aids its importance in coping with adverse environmental conditions without disturbing the balance of the ecosystem. Our review summarized the structural characteristic and distribution of BRs in plants, role in postharvest technology, biotic stress tolerance, improving resistance against pesticide, organic pollutant toxicity and nodule formation and mycorrhization. This review provides useful information on BRs and its effects on plant system that we believe could be useful in maintaining environmental sustainability.

Drought stress is a major abiotic stress that hinders plant growth and development. Brassinosteroids (BR), including 2,4-epibrassinolide (EBR), play important roles in plant growth, development, and responses to abiotic stresses, including drought stress. This work investigates exogenous EBR application roles in improving drought tolerance in tobacco. Tobacco plants were divided into three groups: WW (well-watered), DS (drought stress), and DSB (drought stress + 0.05 mM EBR). The results revealed that DS decreased the leaf thickness (LT), whereas EBR application upregulated genes related to cell expansion, which were induced by the BR (DWF4, HERK2, and BZR1) and IAA (ARF9, ARF6, PIN1, SAUR19, and ABP1) signaling pathway. This promoted LT by 28%, increasing plant adaptation. Furthermore, EBR application improved SOD (22%), POD (11%), and CAT (5%) enzyme activities and their related genes expression (FeSOD, POD, and CAT) along with a higher accumulation of osmoregulatory substances su...

High temperature stress severely interrupts the physiological and biochemical functions in plants which hinders the growth, development and productivity of cowpea. The present study evaluates the potential roles of Naphthalene Acetic Acid and Brassinolide for mitigating the adverse effects of high temperature in cowpea. The study was carried out during the year 2021 in cowpea variety CO 7 using Temperature Gradient Tunnel (TGT) located at Agro Climate Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore. The experimental design followed was Factorial Completely Randomized Design (FCRD). Different treatments were imposed on plants exposed to ambient and ambient +2oC temperature. The effect of treatments on leaf area index, photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll index and seed yield were studied. The application of brassinolide @ 0.2ppm showed a positive effect on stressed plants and produced the highest seed yield of 8.78 g plant-1.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are involved in the regulation of many plant developmental processes and stress responses. In the presented study, we found a link between plant growth under salinity stress and sensitivity to 24-epibrassinolide (24-EBL, the most active phytohormone belonging to BRs), brassinazole (Brz) and bikinin (inhibitors of BR biosynthesis and signaling pathways, respectively). Plant sensitivity to treatment with active substances and salinity stress was genotype-dependent. Cv. Haruna Nijo was more responsive during the lamina joint inclination test, and improved shoot and root growth at lower concentrations of 24-EBL and bikinin under salinity stress, while cv. Golden Promise responded only to treatments of higher concentration. The use of Brz resulted in significant dose-dependent growth inhibition, greater for cv. Haruna Nijo. The results indicated that BR biosynthesis and/or signaling pathways take part in acclimation mechanisms, however, the regulation is complex an...

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroidal plant hormones involved in regulation of physiological and molecular processes to ameliorate various biotic and abiotic stresses. Exogenous application of BRs to improve stress tolerance in plants has recently become a high research priority. Several studies have revealed the involvement of these steroidal hormones in upregulation of stress-related defense genes and their cross talk with other metabolic pathways. This is likely to stimulate research on many unanswered questions regarding their role in enhancing the ability of plants to tolerate adverse environmental conditions. Thus, this review appraises new insights on mechanisms mediating BR-regulated changes in plants, focused mainly on their involvement in regulation of physiological and molecular mechanisms under stress conditions. Herein, examples of BR-stimulated modulation of antioxidant defense system and upregulation of transcription factors in plants exposed to various biotic (bacteri...

This chapter described the intimate processes of the informational system of the human body and cells and their effect on the mind in order to understand how information is received/operated and integrated in the genetic structure of the organism by epigenetic mechanisms. Individual education/learning are the basic processes allowing the knowledge/judgement of mediated reality, and for the formation of decision criteria, beliefs, and mentality. The contributive role of media in education/behavior is highlighted, revealing the positive/negative effects of the persuasive messages in interaction with individual/collective beliefs and mentality. The inoculation techniques applied in various fields of media are discussed from the informational perspective, emphasizing the implication of the cognitive centers on such processes. Big data analysis and predictive conclusions on the social effects are used nowadays as feedback support, helping the optimization of the relation between audience and media products.

Major abiotic stresses such as heat, drought, salinity, heavy metal, light, pesticide, and cold are considered the great threat for the food and environmental security of the increasing population. During abiotic stresses, reactive oxygen species (ROS) is produced in the plants' cell that leads to inhabit physio-biochemical process of affected plants, which ultimately hampers the usual growth and development of plants. To avert the abiotic stresses-induced oxidative stress by hindering the production of harmful ROS (i.e., hydroxyl ions, superoxide ions, hydrogen peroxide, and other free radicals), tolerant plants generally enhance/accumulate various growth regulators (i.e., jasmonates, salicylates, brassinosteroids (BRs), nitric oxide, hydrogen sulfide, polyamines, glycine-betaine, oligosaccharides, strigolactones (SLs), melatonin, karrikins, sugars, serotonin, turgorins, system in myo-inositol, etc.) in plant cells. Among them, proline, glycine-betaine, polyamines, and sugars (i.e., mannitol, sorbitol, galactinol, trehalose, etc.) are known as osmolytes that have significant role for plant adaptation against abiotic stresses. Earlier studies revealed that during abiotic stresses several phytohormones (i.e., abscisic acid (ABA), BRs, cytokinins, ethylene, jasmonates, salicylic acid and SLs, melatonin, karrikins, etc.) encourage to enhance the accumulation of osmolytes in plant cells. Several genes involved signaling pathway also play an important role for the biosynthesis of these growth regulators for enhancing survival ability against abiotic stresses-induced oxidative stress in transgenic plants. As both osmolytes and plant hormones have been known to play most important roles during adverse ecological condition; therefore, it is crucial to understand the regulatory mechanisms of phytohormone-mediation for the accumulation of osmolytes in plants during abiotic stress.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are plant hormones of steroid nature, regulating various developmental and adaptive processes. The perception, transport, and signaling of BRs are actively studied nowadays via a wide range of biochemical and genetic tools. However, most of the knowledge about BRs intracellular localization and turnover relies on the visualization of the receptors or cellular compartments using dyes or fluorescent protein fusions. We have previously synthesized a conjugate of epibrassinolide with green fluorescent dye BODIPY (eBL-BODIPY). Here we present a detailed assessment of the compound bioactivity and its suitability as probe for in vivo visualization of BRs. We show that eBL-BODIPY rapidly penetrates epidermal cells of Arabidopsis thaliana roots and after long exposure causes physiological and transcriptomic responses similar to the natural hormone.

The plant hormones brassinosteroids (BR) and ethylene (ET) act together to regulate plant metabolism. We used BR and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP, an ET action inhibitor) to elucidate the interactions between both hormones for the regulation of mitochondrial respiratory pathways in papaya fruit. The exogenous application of the 24-epibrassinolide (epiBR) enhanced the alternative oxidase (AOX) capacity. While treatment with Brz2001 (Brz is a specific inhibitor of the BR synthesis) also enhanced AOX capacity, these effects lacked in fruit treated simultaneously with epiBR and Brz. Changing the BR level had no effect on ET emission rate in the first 24 h, but a reduction in ET emission was observed in Brz-treated fruit on the fifth day. Together with Brz, epiBR increased the ET production on the fifth day, following the day in which the treatment was carried out. When the ET sensitivity of fruit was inhibited by the application of 1-MCP, the effects of epiBR and Brz were opposite to those obtained without 1-MCP. AOX capacity was slightly inhibited by epiBR in fruit pre-treated with 1-MCP. Data suggest that BR and ET act antagonistically, therefore regulating, directly or indirectly, AOX capacity during papaya fruit ripening.

Brassinosteroids are natural polyhydroxylated steroidal plant growth regulators or phyto-hormones. These are ubiquitous in plant kingdom and influence a wide variety of molecular, physiological and biochemical responses of plants. Brassinosteroids have also been applied and their possible role has been investigated on postharvest physiology of various horticultural crops. Brassinosteroids regulate ripening of different non-climacteric and climacteric fruits and influence colour metabolism. They inhibit activities of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes and delay enzymatic browning. Exogenous application of brassinosteroids inhibits cell wall degradation and delays softening of fruits. In addition, their application regulates sugar and energy metabolism in different fruit and vegetable crops. They suppress lipoxygenase and phospholipase D enzyme activities and conserve higher unsaturated fatty acid contents, suppress electrolyte leakage, inhibit lipid peroxidation and maintain h...

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroidal plant hormones involved in regulation of physiological and molecular processes to ameliorate various biotic and abiotic stresses. Exogenous application of BRs to improve stress tolerance in plants has recently become a high research priority. Several studies have revealed the involvement of these steroidal hormones in upregulation of stress-related defense genes and their cross talk with other metabolic pathways. This is likely to stimulate research on many unanswered questions regarding their role in enhancing the ability of plants to tolerate adverse environmental conditions. Thus, this review appraises new insights on mechanisms mediating BR-regulated changes in plants, focused mainly on their involvement in regulation of physiological and molecular mechanisms under stress conditions. Herein, examples of BR-stimulated modulation of antioxidant defense system and upregulation of transcription factors in plants exposed to various biotic (bacteri...

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are indispensable cell surface components of Gram-negative bacteria and have diverse roles in plantmicrobe interactions. Treatment of Nicotiana tabacum with the LPS of an endophytic strain of Burkholderia cepacia results in an enhanced defensive capacity in the tissue. In this study the rapid and transient phosphorylation of an extracellular signal-regulated (ERK)-like mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase in response to LPS from B. cepacia (LPS B.cep.) elicitation is reported. Based on in-gel kinase assays it was found that this 43-kDa LPS B.cep.-responsive kinase is optimally activated following 7 min elicitation with 100 µ g/mL LPS. Its identity as an ERK MAPK was supported by tyrosinephosphorylated association with induction, immunodetection with pTEpY-specific MAPK antibodies and inhibition of phosphorylation by U0126, an upstream MAPKK inhibitor. The kinase utilized myelin basic protein, but not casein or histone, as substrate. Ca 2+ did not modulate the phosphorylation, nor did wounding. To date, other MAP kinases have been shown to act either independently or upstream from reactive oxygen intermediates produced during the oxidative burst. It was found that hydrogen peroxide is either not generated in leaf tissue in response to LPS elicitation or, if generated, does not trigger the phosphorylation of the kinase. Physicochemical characterization of the ERK-like MAPK indicated a molecular mass of 43 kDa and a pI of 6.3; two-dimensional gel analysis indicated two charge isomers. This is the first demonstration of such an LPS-responsive MAP kinase phosphorylation in plants.

Due to the paradigm shift into the ontology of a universal Quantum Unified-Field (QFT), most theories of education and learning must be fundamentally changed in order to reflect the "new" reality. For example, the idea that learning is constrained to brain-function without any consideration of heart-mind function is obsolete, and ignoring quantum fields in favor of Heisenberg's now defunct uncertainty principle (that is based on uncertainty of a particle's location) is nearly meaningless in a cultural wave-context. On the positive side, many researchers in multiple fields have observed the compatibility between so-called mysticalparanormal ontology and quantum unified-field ontology (Gaiseanu F. 2019; Joye, Shelli Renée, 2016; Capra, Fritjof  1999; Chopra, Deepak 1995; Zohar, Danah & Marshall, Ian 1993; Talbot, Michael 1991; Zohar, Danah, 1990; Maharishi, 1990; Foster, 1985; Chardin, Teilard 1961; Jung, 1933), so the Ancient Mysteries studied in the world’s Mystery Schools can now be understood as hard science. This “hard science” contemplated cosmic reality from the perspective of coordinating Divine First-Cause Intention with human agency. The context for “research” was the paradoxical “universal Monotheism” based on a “distributive contextual Trinity”. In other word, science has always been based on the hypothesis of Unity with diversity or “As above (God), so below (human)”. This ontology is totally consistent with Quantum Unified Field ontology in which the Field represents Unity and EM dynamics represent the distributive context, but current education/learning models take little of this into account. Learning objectives tend toward accumulation of information (data) rather than understanding the KEY to “discovery of meaning” locked in the data. Once-upon-a-time, education had the purpose of finding access to the workings of the “black box”; but increasingly, education is restrained to devising applications (apps?) that are often useless and divorced from the unity of their source.  Even worse, materialistic psychology has attempted to take bits and pieces of the overall reality and to develop models based on false premises generated by partial understanding. The worldview for addressing these misconceptions about education is to view it as electromagnetic (EM) and purposeful in terms of the Hero’s Journey for establishment of “Coherent Entrainment of Divine Intention” (frequency-locking) with human agency (embodied transduction). This paper postulates an incipient solution for restructuring educational theory into "Evolutionary Learning Theory" in the form of Psychecology video games (PEGs) that have the structure and dynamics of Jungian dreams.

Salinity is one of the most critical crises worldwide that ultimately compromises future food security. Brassinosteroids including brassinolide (BL) are a class of polyhydroxy steroids phytohormones, that play a crucial role in several plant metabolic pathways and boost plants’ stress tolerance, but less data is accessible on its function in salt-affected grapevine. The experiment was conducted throughout the 2019 and 2020 experimental seasons at EL-Baramon experimental farm, Horticulture Research Institute, Mansoura, Egypt, to recognize the remediation potential of BL (1 and 2 mg L−1) in lightening salinity (NaCl at 1000, 2000, and 3000 mg L−1) injury on Thompson seedless grapevine seedlings (H4 strain) growth and physio-anatomical attributes. Data advocated that while salinity reduced growth attributes, BL applications substantially improved the overall salt-affected plant performance. Salinity stress significantly decreased photosynthetic pigment, relative water content, and ions...

Aluminum toxicity is considered one of the major growth limiting factors for crop production on acid soils worldwide, and pose a major challenge to agriculture sustainability. At low pH, the most toxic form of Al 3 is released into the soil and causes extensive damage to plants, especially in the root. To develop high tolerance against Al toxicity is the prime concern of plant science. Research has reported that the Brassinosteroids play a diverse role in plant growth, development and stress response. Although the BRs have been exhaustively studied, a comprehensive overview of the manner in which BRs participate in calcium signaling pathways under Al toxicity and regulating plant Al tolerance has not yet been undertaken. In this article, we highlight the interactive role of BRs and Ca, regulating plant growth at the physiological, biological and molecular level, focusing mainly on the BRs induced Ca signaling participate in regulating reactive oxygen species suggesting an elevation ...

This study was conducted to determine the effects of 28-homobrassinolide (Hbl) applied postharvest on the storage quality of medlar fruit (Mespilus germanica L.). Fruits were submerged into the solutions containing 3 and 5 µM Hbl for 5 min. Control fruits were submerged into distilled water for the same duration. Treated and control fruits were stored at 0°C and 95% relative humidity conditions for 60 days. Samples were taken at 15, 30, 45 and 60th day of storage. On the sampling dates, soluble solid content (SSC), pH, titratable acidity (TA) in malic acid, fruit firmness, weight loss, taste, browning, and color of the skin and pulp were analyzed. Results showed that these properties of the fruits changed over time in the storage and depended on the concentration of the homobrassinolide. 3 µM Hbl treated fruits kept their firmness and initial weight longer. Fruits with 5 µM Hbl application resulted in high TA and low SSC and provided best browning in the fruit skin. Taste was better attained and protected over a longer time with 5 µM Hbl treatment. In conclusion, 28-homobrassinolide exerted some effects on quality of medlar fruits.

Brassinosteriods (BRs) have increasingly been used to improve the yields and quality of various crops. In this work we studied the effect of two brassinosteroids, BB16 and EP24, on the growth promotion of Fragaria ananassa plants under normal conditions or exposed to water or saline stress. The influence of both BRs on the plant development and fruit quality was evaluated when cultivated in semi-hydroponic conditions. A marked growth-promoting effect was observed with both compounds when plants were cultivated under normal irrigation conditions and under saline and water stresses. BB16 and EP24 yielded plants with a higher dry weight, root length and surface, a higher number and area of leaves, a higher total weight of fruits per plant, and a higher percentage of fruits of commercial quality. Additionally, a higher content of chlorophyll, number of leaves, and increased dry weight was detected in plants treated with both BRs and exposed to water and saline stresses. Finally, when ev...

In this review we highlight the advances achieved in the investigation of the role of 14-3-3 proteins in hormone signaling, biosynthesis, and transport. 14-3-3 proteins are a family of conserved molecules that target a number of protein clients through their ability to recognize well-defined phosphorylated motifs. As a result, they regulate several cellular processes, ranging from metabolism to transport, growth, development, and stress response. High-throughput proteomic data and two-hybrid screen demonstrate that 14-3-3 proteins physically interact with many protein clients involved in the biosynthesis or signaling pathways of the main plant hormones, while increasing functional evidence indicates that 14-3-3-target interactions play pivotal regulatory roles. These advances provide a framework of our understanding of plant hormone action, suggesting that 14-3-3 proteins act as hubs of a cellular web encompassing different signaling pathways, transducing and integrating diverse hormone signals in the regulation of physiological processes.

Plant growth, development, and productivity are adversely affected under drought conditions. Previous findings indicated that 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) and 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) play an important role in the plant response to adverse environmental conditions. This study demonstrated the role of ALA and EBL on oxidative stress and photosynthetic capacity of drought-stressed ‘Williams’ banana grown under the Egyptian semi-arid conditions. Exogenous application of either ALA or EBL at concentrations of 15, 30, and 45 mg·L−1 significantly restored plant photosynthetic activity and increased productivity under reduced irrigation; this was equivalent to 75% of the plant’s total water requirements. Both compounds significantly reduced drought-induced oxidative damages by increasing antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase ‘SOD’, catalase ‘CAT’, and peroxidase ‘POD’) and preserving chloroplast structure. Lipid peroxidation, electrolyte loss and free non-radical H2O2 formatio...