Peat Soil

Two deserted medieval farms are investigated: the coastal Høybøen farm, located on an island on the western coast of Norway, and the inland Hellaug farm located in an upland but low-lying mountain valley. Both farms were settled during the Viking Age and abandoned during the Late Middle Ages. Abandoned Medieval farms have traditionally been perceived as less well-off than central contemporary farms. They have often been characterized as marginal, especially with regard to agrarian conditions. However, little is known about their subsistence strategies and whether they were sustainably farmed for several hundred years before they were abandoned. This paper discusses social aspects of farm establishment, the settlement basis, and land-use practices at the Høybøen and Hellaug farms by using archaeological and botanical sources. Both farms were settled during a time when the areas became more intensively used by neighboring farms. The farms were likely subordinated to a main farm and the people working the newly established farms were tenants. The subsistence strategies were based on the infield-outfield system, but the economic basis of both farms mainly came from outland resources where available pastures were especially important. The combined source material shows that the farms participated in different cultural and economic networks.

The annual increase in production of industrial wastes, including scrap tire, has created several challenges for societies. Incorporating the wastes as raw materials has been proposed in different industries, using waste tire as physical additives and investigating the geotechnical properties of this mixture can reduce the environmental pollution, as well as offering economic and technical benefits. Clay soils are abundant in southern regions of Tehran where scrap tire is also produced in large quantities every year. Therefore, provided the chance, incorporating these wastes into the soil mix is significant as regards both geotechnical properties and environmental considerations. As a fundamental means of investigation in construction activities, in particular road construction, the compaction test is useful in determining the maximum density and the optimum moisture content of the soil. In this study, considering that this research has not yet been investigated for Tehran clay and has environmental benefits while having engineering application, the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of the clay mixed with two types of additives (waste tire powder and granules) at various mass fractions (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20, and 30 wt%) using standard compaction tests were investigated. The results suggested that the variations of the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density in both clay mixes demonstrate a certain and predictable trend as the waste content increases. In other words, by increasing the percentage of waste in the mixture, the optimum moisture content is increased, and this increase in the mixture of the tire powder and clay is more than granule and clay. In addition, by increasing the percentage of waste, the maximum dry weight of the mixture was reduced, and this reduction in the mixture of tire powder and clay is almost higher than that of tire granule and clay. Furthermore, relations were presented to estimate the maximum density and the optimum moisture content of the mix to be applied in practice.

Peatlands respond to natural hydrologic cycles of precipitation and evapotranspiration with reversible deformations due to variations of water content in both the unsaturated and saturated zone. This phenomenon results in short‐term vertical displacements of the soil surface that superimpose to the irreversible long‐term subsidence naturally occurring in drained cropped peatlands because of bio‐oxidation of the organic matter. These processes cause changes in the peat structure, in particular, soil density and void ratio. The consequential changes in the hydrological parameters need to be incorporated in water flow dynamical models. In this paper, we present a new constitutive relationship for the soil shrinkage characteristic (SSC) in peats by describing the variation of porosity with moisture content. This model, based on simple physical considerations, is valid for both anisotropic and isotropic three‐dimensional peat deformations. The capability of the proposed SSC to accurately...

Peat soil incorporated materials from fragmented organic constituents that originated in submerged wetlands. Peat soil has a particular index property that accounts for more than 75% of its organic content. Due to its low shear strength, high moisture content, high compressibility, low specific gravity, restricted bearing capacity, irregular shrinkage, and instability, peat soil is interpreted as a challenging soil for the building industry. The purpose of this study is to look at the index properties of Klias, Beaufort peat soil, and eco processed pozzolan (EPP), as well as to investigate the strengthening and stiffening effects of EPP stabilization treatment on peat soil and the association between EPP and linear shrinkage effects of peat. The linear shrinkage used to measure the shrinkage behaviour of peat soil consists of untreated samples, namely peat soil, and treated samples, which are peat soil in addition to EPP with a concentration of 20% and 30%, respectively. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is employed to produce images of a sample by scanning the surface of an untreated peat sample and treated peat samples with EPP. High moisture content with an average of 580% was reported for the KBpt area. EPP can potentially help to reduce the shrinkage by almost 66.66%. Additionally, the results showed that by adding EPP as filler material to the peat soil, shrinkage behaviour decreases significantly for untreated peat soil and treated peat soil with EPP, with 4.29% reduced to 1.43% significantly. Correspondingly, the crystallization process occurred between peat soil and EPP, which contributed to the reduction of shrinkage and tension crack in peat soil and produced Muscovite, which is appeared and identified as mineral that important in rock-forming mineral.

This article focuses on the determination of the physical parameters of three (3) clay quarries located in the region of MARADI the Republic of Niger. These quarries are in the cities of MARADAWA, JIRATAWA and KABAWA. The parameters to be determined are: water content, particle size, ATTERBERG limits, compressive shear, compressibility and water permeability (porosity). Studies have shown that clays in KABAWA and JIRATAWA quarries are weakly compressible with respective liquidity limits of 31.4 and 36.3. The clay of the quarry of MARADAWA is, for its part, very compressible with a liquidity limit of 55.6. The plasticity index of these three soils is between 14.3 and 26.4 while the void number is between 0.271 and 0.647. As a result, these soils are plastic. JIRATAWA and KABAWA soils are more permeable to water than MARADAWA. We also find that the MARADAWA soil is more resistant to mechanical stress than those of JIRATAWA and KABAWA. All three clays are suitable for use in building construction and pottery.

Cultivation of vegetable in organically amended soil is an eco-friendly means of fortifying crops with minerals of nutritional importance. This study investigated the effect of organic and inorganic amendments on the growth, yield, and uptake of zinc (Zn) by black jack. The 30 potted experiment consisted of no amendment (control) and amendment as: Cow Dung (CD), Composted Sawdust (CSD),

Peats originate from plants and denote the various stages in the humification process. This condition renders the peat extremely soft and can be considered problematic soil. Thus, this study is conducted to examine and comprehend the particularities of peat engineering behaviour in respect to the relationship effects to the shear stress and cyclic shear strain of peat soil various characteristics to establish suitable correlation. This study carried out by using triaxial testing described by geotechnical test standards BS-1377: Part 8: 1990. Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes: Shear Strength Tests (Effective Stress) that required for consolidated undrained and consist of five main stages: saturation, consolidation, static, dynamic, and post-cyclic loading using the GDS Enterprise Level Dynamic Triaxial Testing System (ELDYN). The parameters of shear strength were obtained in the peak deviator stress at a maximum of 20% of axial strain by using an undisturbed sample with an effective pressure imposed of 25, 50, and 100 kPa. In this study, all specimens are subjected to cyclic loading up to 100 cycles based on a one-way loading system with strain-controlled conditions. Based on the analysis conveyed, the post-cyclic shear stress decreased compared to its initial value of about 65.56 kPa (PNpt-100 kPa) in static and decreased to 14.9616 kPa in post-cyclic (PNpt-25 kPa-1 Hz). The principal stress ratio (σ'1/σ'3) shows the maximum values of this ratio that are located in the narrow zone of 1.61 to 1.12.

Peat soil was defined as the highly organic surface layer derived primarily from plant remains. Peat, on the other hand, was the subsurface of wetland systems, consisting of unconsolidated superficial layers with a high non-crystalline colloid (humus) content. Peat soils have a low shear strength of 5 to 20 kPa, a high compressibility of 0.9 to 1.5, and a high moisture content of >100%. The purpose of the study was to prognosticate the potential of Eco-Processed Pozzolan (EPP) as peat soil stabilization material with improved technique and its consequence of the methods, which was the peat soils index properties and analyse the characteristics of the peat soil stabilization before and after treatment using Eco-Processed Pozzolan (EPP). The soil was mixed with 10, 20, and 30% Eco-Processed Pozzolan (EPP) and then compacted (compaction test) in a metal mould with an internal diameter of 105 mm using a 2.5 kg rammer of 50 mm diameter, freefalling from 300 mm above the top of the soil Three layers compaction of approximately equal depth and 27 blows spread evenly over the soil surface for each layer. The expected result to accomplish the main purpose was to prognosticate the potential Eco-Processed Pozzolan (EPP) as peat soil stabilization material with improved technique and its consequence of the methods. According to the findings, peat soil treated with EPP will transform its qualities from peat to usable soil. However, the presence of moisture will reduce the mixture's ability. According to the findings of this study, the optimum EPP for stabilizing peat soils was 30-40%. Correspondingly, the elemental composition of peat soil mixed with EPP improved regardless of Carbon, Ca composition. Comparatively, the amount of Silicon, Si increased from 6.5% (Peat + EPP 10%) to 12.9% (Peat + EPP 40%) due to the crystallization of EPP and peat.

In various aspects, peat soil is different from mineral soil. Peat is a biogenic deposit that emerged within the last 10,000 years, during the post-glacial (Holocene) era. Peat is a soft soil that is unable to support external loads without experiencing significant deformations. Tyre pressure from automobiles and/or aeroplane wheels on paved surfaces creates traffic load, which can manifest as static or dynamic types of loading. To resolve the problem with peat soils, a thorough understanding of the static and dynamic behaviour of peat is still required. Many people who live near regularly used highways feel traffic vibration, and it is important to comprehend the nature of this issue to make predictions about potential solutions to this problem. As such, this study aims to investigate the cohesion (c) and friction angle (φ) properties of peat soil after it has been subjected to cyclic stress. Monotonic triaxial tests are conducted to ascertain the initial shear strength characteristics of the soil. Cyclic triaxial tests are performed with half of their maximum deviator stress to simulate the behaviour of peat soil under various effective stresses and frequencies of loading that are applied with 100 number of cycles. After applying various numbers of cycles of dynamic loading, the post-cyclic monotonic shear strengths were subsequently evaluated. It has been noted that irregular behaviour tends to occur more frequently at higher frequencies, particularly between 2 and 3 Hz. With higher frequencies being applied, the reduction in cohesion and friction angle becomes more evident.

Peat is a problematic soil, and it is a common problem faced by engineers in construction. The characteristics that have been noted before are high moisture content, poor shear strength, great compressibility, and long-term settlement. For this research study, it focuses on stabilizing peat soil using EPP and CaO. There are three main tests that were conducted in this research study: index properties testing, compaction testing, and For Index Properties testing, five (5) experiments were conducted to study the index properties of disturbed peat soil, which are moisture content, fiber content, liquid limit, organic content, pH, and specific gravity. Next, for the Compaction Test, using a 4.5 kg rammer, define the optimum mixture of stabilizer that is mixed with different volumes of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% of stabilizer. In this study, the expected result is to inspire an in-depth study of the use of EPP material and chemical CaO as peat soil stabilizers for better utilization of problematic soil. The main finding was that the mixture with the exact amount of moisture, EPP, and CaO helped stabilize the soil and cure peat soil. Thus, this study confirms the idea of treating peat with EPP and CaO, enhancing the properties of peat soil, and sustaining the settlement over loading for a period of time accordingly. 20% mix of EPP and CaO produces the highest dry density, showing that dry density increases linearly with the amount of mixture to stabilize peat. The crystallization process between peat and EPP was pronouncedly observed where smaller particles identified as EPP filled the gaps in between the pores identified from SEM. The silicon (Si content developed from each spectrum ranged from 14.4% to 17.7%. The EDX results show significant results where mineral crystallization occurred in the coagulation process.

This study aims to highlight the latest developments in the field of peat soil stabilisation technology via chemical stabilisation. The review examines the use of traditional stabilisers such as OPC and various non-traditional stabiliser materials, i.e., Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA)-OPC blends, chemical solutions, and geopolymer materials, to enhance the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) characteristics of peat soils based on the ASTM D 4609 requirements. OPC, POFA-OPC blends, and alkaline solutions mostly produced stabilised soil samples that fell short of the ASTM requirements. Existing studies on the use of waste-derived geopolymers to treat peat soils are limited, while the use of POFA geopolymer materials has mostly focused on the improvement of clayey and silty soils. The results of soil stabilisation with geopolymer were very encouraging, as the strength gains were in line with the ASTM soil strength requirements. As a result of this review, it can be concluded that POFA geopolymer is a viable soil stabiliser material with the addition of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag, and that the use of POFA-GGBFS geopolymer to enhance the strength properties of peat soils should be investigated.

Recently, the degradation of permafrost and marsh environments in the Da and Xiao Hinggan Mountains has become a great concern as more human activities and pronounced climate warming were observed during the past 30 years and projected for the near future. The distribution patterns and development mechanisms of the permafrost and marshes have been examined both in theories and in field observations, in order to better understand the symbiosis of permafrost and marshes. The permafrost and marshes in the Da and Xiao Hinggan Mountains display discernible zonations in latitude and elevation. The marsh vegetation canopy, litter and peat soil have good thermal insulation properties for the underlying permafrost, resulting in a thermal offset of 3℃ to 4℃ and subsequently suppressing soil temperature. In addition, the much higher thermal conductivity of frozen and ice-rich peat in the active layer is conducive to the development or in favor of the protection of permafrost due to the semi-conductor properties of the soils overlying the permafrost. On the other hand, because permafrost is almost impervious, the osmosis of water in marsh soils can be effectively reduced, timely providing water supplies for helophytes growth or germination in spring. In the Da and Xiao Hinggan Mountains, the permafrost degradation has been accelerating due to the marked climate warming, ever increasing human activities, and the resultant eco-environmental changes. Since the permafrost and marsh environments are symbiotic and interdependent, they need to be managed or protected in a well-coordinated and integrated way.

This study clarifies the area distribution of Estonian peat soils by three factors: main peat soil groups, peat thickness and peat decomposition degree. A digital soil map (1:10,000) and supplementary database were used for summarizing the distribution of peat soils. From the combined database with 859,701 polygons the soil mapping unit code, formula of soil texture (including peat) and formula of epipedon fabric were compiled using the MapInfo software. Peat soils form altogether 10,038 km 2 or 23.5% of the total Estonian soil cover. From the peat soils the fen soils form 59.0%, bog soils 21.7% and transitional bog soils 14.7%. 45% of peat soils are well, 26% moderately and 29% slightly decomposed, by the peat thickness 13% are very shallow, 21% shallow and 66% thick. The general ecological characterization of peat soils and their mutual relationship with plant cover are given for the main peat soil taxa. The dominant natural ecosystems formed on peatlands are: (1) mixed birch, alder, spruce and pine forests on thin (<100 cm) well decomposed eutrophic fen soils, and (2) a sparse pine forests and hummock-ridge-hollow raised bogs wooded sparsely by pine on thick (>100 cm) slightly decomposed oligotrophic bog soils. The accumulation of organic carbon in peatlands soil cover (0-50 cm) totals 269.4±12.7 Tg and in epipedon layer (as superficial part of soil cover; 0-30 cm) 129.9±5.8 Tg. The former is sequestrated into 543.7 Tg of peat, which forms 22.9% of the total Estonian peat resources (2.37 Pg).

Peat represents an extreme form of soft soil and it poses serious problems in construction due to its long-term consolidation settlement even when subjected to a moderate load. Hence, suitable geotechnical design parameters and construction techniques are needed for this type of ground condition. Deep soil mixing (DSM) method is one of the widely used chemical methods of ground improvement for soft clay. However, DSM technique is quiet new for peat. Hence, aim of this research was to study the compressibility behaviour of peat stabilized with fly ash using DSM technique. A series of Rowe Cell consolidation experiments was conducted on peat and peat stabilized with fly ash. For the stabilization, 50% of fly ash was added to peat and single and multiple deep mixing columns were formed. Based on the outcome of this research, it was noticed that compressibility parameters such as compression index (Cc) and swell index (Cs) reduce with the addition of fly ash. Percentage reductions in Cc by the addition of stabilized single and multiple columns (for column area ratio of 16%) were 27.3% and 39.4% respectively compared to raw peat, while the reductions in Cs were 37.6% and 62.5% respectively for single and multiple columns. In addition, it was noticed that shear strength parameters of peat (c ' and φ') can be significantly improved by stabilizing with fly ash. On the whole, DSM technique is applicable for peat, and for a given area ratio, multiple DSM columns are more effective in reducing the compressibility compared to asingle DSM column.

Micro-aeration was shown to improve anaerobic digestion (AD) processes, although oxygen is known to inhibit obligate anaerobes, such as syntrophic communities of bacteria and methanogens. The effect of micro-aeration on the activity and microbial interaction in syntrophic communities, as well as on the potential establishment of synergetic relationships with facultative anaerobic bacteria (FAB) or aerobic bacteria (AB), was investigated. Anaerobic sludge was incubated with ethanol and increasing oxygen concentrations (0-5% in the headspace). Assays with acetate or H 2 /CO 2 (direct substrates for methanogens) were also performed. When compared with the controls (0% O 2 ), oxygen significantly decreased substrate consumption and initial methane production rate (MPR) from acetate or H 2 /CO 2 . At 0.5% O 2 , MPR from these substrates was inhibited 30-40%, and close to 100% at 5% O 2 . With ethanol, significant inhibition (>36%) was only observed for oxygen concentrations higher than 2.5%. Oxygen was consumed in the assays, pointing to the stimulation of AB/FAB by ethanol, which helped to protect the syntrophic consortia under micro-aerobic conditions. This highlights the importance of AB/FAB in maintaining functional and resilient syntrophic communities, which is relevant for real AD systems (in which vestigial O 2 amounts are frequently present), as well as for AD systems using micro-aeration as a process strategy. • Micro-aeration impacts syntrophic communities of bacteria and methanogens. • Oxygen stimulates AB/FAB, maintaining functional and resilient consortia. • Micro-aeration studies are critical for systems using micro-aeration as a process strategy.

Using kukersite oil shale ash for the stabilization of organic-rich soils has been extensively studied but without much success. The main reason for this is the retarding effect of humic acids present in organic-rich soils on the formation of the C–S–H (calcium–silicate–hydrate) phase, which effectively prevents the solidification of cementitious materials in peat soils. Based on the studies performed at the University of Tartu, we have developed a novel method for the in situ mass stabilization of peat soils using waste materials (calcareous fly ash and silica fume). In this manner, the perfect hardening of peat–ash mixtures (to each 1 m3 of soil, 150–400 kg ash, 25–50 L pozzolanic additives, and 2.5–5 kaNaOH were added) can be achieved. A test road embankment was constructed under extremely hard conditions in a peat quarry that is currently in use.

The paper deals with application of CPTu test results for the probabilistic modeling of dumping grounds. The statistical measures use results from 42 CPT test points located in the lignite mine dumping ground from the region of Central Europe. Both the tip resistance qc as well as local friction fs are tested. Based on the mean values and standard deviations of measured quantities the specific zones in the dumping site profile are distinguished. For three main zones standard deviations of linearly de-trended functions, distributions of normalized de-trended values for qc and fs are examined. Also the vertical scales of fluctuation for both measured quantities are estimated. The obtained result shows that lignite mine dumping site can be successfully described with the Random Field Theory. Additional use of fs values introduces supplementary statistical information.

A method was developed to impregnate peat soils for the preparation of thin sections. Peat soil samples used consisted of wet tropical peat collected from Indonesia. To allow miscible impregnation without prior water replacement from the sample, polyethylene glycol 4000 was used as the impregnant because this material is soluble in water in all proportions. The impregnation procedure consisted of consecutive heat-immersion of the samples at 60 to 70'C in polyethylene glycol 4000 solutions with increasing concentrations. Consecutive impregnation for 2, 3, 4, and 5 d in 25, 50, 75, and 100% polyethylene glycol 4000 solutions, respectively, was found to be suitable for impregnating and hardening the samples. The heating temperature during the period of impregnation should be properly kept so as to avoid too fast vaporization, bubbling, or even boiling, while maintaining polyethylene glycol 4000 always under solution conditions. Immersed conditions should be maintained in order to avoid air trapping. After the impregnation was completed, the samples should be cooled slowly to allow homogeneous solidification of polyethylene glycol 4000. For the preparation of thin sections, a sliding microtome was used to obtain slices as thick as 20-30,um after coating with a cellulose adhesive. The proposed method was found to be convenient for, and applicable to the preparation of high quality thin sections of peat soils.

This research describes a study on the effect of chemical (cement and lime) admixtures on the index and engineering properties (compaction and unconfined strength) of tropical peat soils. The ordinary Portland cement and hydrated lime were used. The amounts cement and lime added to the peat soil sample, as a percentage of the dry soil mass was in the range of 5-15% and 5-25%, respectively. The results of the study show that the addition of the chemical admixture, cement and lime, can improve the engineering properties of tropical peat soils. The soil liquid limit is found to decrease with an increase in the cement and lime content. The soil maximum dry density is found to increase while the optimum water content is found to decrease with an increase in the cement and lime content. The unconfined compressive strength of the soil is found to increase significantly with increase in cement and lime content, especially after a long curing period. However it is also found that higher organic content of the soil negate the positive effect of the cement and lime in altering (improving) the mechanical properties of the soil. When comparing the performance of the cement and lime as a chemical admixture for the tropical peat soil, the ordinary Portland cement appears to perform better than the hydrated lime.

Peat accumulation in high latitude wetlands represents a natural long-term carbon sink, resulting from the cumulative excess of growing season net ecosystem production over non-growing season (NGS) net mineralization in soils. With high latitudes experiencing warming at a faster pace than the global average, especially during the NGS, a major concern is that enhanced mineralization of soil organic carbon will steadily increase CO2 emissions from northern peatlands. In this study, we conducted laboratory incubations with soils from boreal and temperate peatlands across Canada. Peat soils were pretreated for different soil moisture levels, and CO2 production rates were measured at 12 sequential temperatures, covering a range from − 10 to + 35 °C including one freeze–thaw event. On average, the CO2 production rates in the boreal peat samples increased more sharply with temperature than in the temperate peat samples. For same temperature, optimum soil moisture levels for CO2 production ...

To study the impact of forestry drainage on peat carbon storage, we cored paired quantitative peat samples from undrained and drained sides of an eccentric bog. Five pairs of 0 to ≤ 100-cm-deep surface-peat cores, and a pair of profiles representing the full peat deposit provided stratigraphic evidence of marked loss of surface peat due to drainage. For the drained side cores, we found a relative subsidence of 25-37 cm of the surface, and a loss of about 10 kg DW m -2 , corresponding to 131 ± 28 g C m -2 a -1 (mean ± SE) for the postdrainage period. Similar peat loss was also found in the full deposit profiles, thus lending credibility to the whole-column inventory approach, even though the decrease (9 kg DW m -2 ) was relatively small in comparison with the total carbon storage (233 and 224 kg DW m -2 for the undrained and drained sides, respectively).

A field study on peat soil to investigate impacts of soil water table depth and soil ameliorant (steel sludge) had been carried out on mature oil palm. Three treatments of soil water table management and four rates of steel sludge application were applied in this study. Treatments of soil water table management were WLM1, WLM-2, and WLM-3, where soil water table depth was maintained at 35-50 cm, 60-75 cm, and &gt;75 cm below the soil surface, respectively. Treatments of steel sludge were application of this soil ameliorant at the rate of 0; 3.15; 6.51; 9.86 kg tree-1. The study was arranged as split plot randomized block design by assigning soil water table management as main plot and rate of steel sludge as sub plot. Soil Data observed were actual soil water content, peat soil properties, CO2 emission, vegetative growth, and palm yield. The results showed that maintaining soil water table depth at &lt; 75 cm could maintain actual soil moisture up to top parts of peat soil. On the o...

In the last century, most peatlands were reclaimed for agricultural purposes, which led to peat degradation and to severe subsidence, and thus too wet conditions for crops. In some areas this has therefore led to wide agricultural abandonment. However, studies on the effect of agricultural abandonment as a potential restoration tool are lacking. In this study, the effectiveness and the restoration potential of agricultural abandonment in reducing peat degradation and in improving soil microbial biodiversity were evaluated. The main chemical parameters, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal diversity and soil respiration partitioning were used to assess the long-term effect of 15 years of agricultural abandonment (Aband) in a Mediterranean reclaimed peatland. An intensive maize cultivation (Cult) in the same area was used as a comparison. Multivariate analyses showed that 15 years of agricultural abandonment: did not affect the main soil chemical parameters, except for NH 4 + which was lower in the Aband than in the Cult; increased AM fungal root colonization and the diversity in terms of number of families of AM fungi retrieved in roots, but decreased soil AM fungal richness; reduced total soil respiration and its autotrophic component but increased respiration by heterotrophs; determined a lower fluctuation of soil CO 2 flux response to air temperature than the Cult. Thus, although some soil quality parameters were significantly improved, 15 years of agricultural abandonment may not lead to an effective restoration. Consequently, alternative and sustainable solutions for the protection and preservation of Mediterranean peatlands need to be developed.

Zeta potential (ζ) of the peat was measured by electrophoresis in the presence of different cations. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) were developed for the prediction of the ζ of peat in the presence of the cations at different pH values and ionic strengths. The results of study showed that the ζ of the peat was affected by the type of cations, the pH, the valance of cation, the concentration of the cations, degree of humification, and hydrated radius of the cation. The ζ of the peat decreased as the concentration of the cation increased. The higher degree of decomposition showed a higher ζ. The trivalent cations showed a higher power in decreasing of the ζ. It was also concluded that the constructed ANNs models exhibited high performance for predicting of the ζ of the peat.

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Subsidence in the Holland coastal plain of the Netherlands was reconstructed from the vertical displacement of Holocene peat layers below their reference groundwater levels at the time of peat formation. This quantifies the part of subsidence that is due to compression processes and allows specification of the current state of peat compression in a map. 14 C-dating of peat layers found intercalated in the Holocene sequence were used in the reconstruction. This dataset was combined with results from a recent coastal-deltaic plain wide three-dimensional (3D) interpolation of reference palaeogroundwater levels, at which the intercalated peats are thought to have formed before they were buried, compressed, and vertically displaced. Empiric relations between reconstructed displacement and the thickness of overburden were determined and deployed in a national 3D geological subsurface model to establish a subsidence map with continuous cover of the coastal plain. The resulting maps show compressed peat layers under urbanized areas with 1 to 8 m of natural and anthropogenic overburden have subsided 1 to 5 m below the original level of formation. In the agricultural area of the coastal plain, where overburden is merely decimetres thick, consisting of fluvial flood-and sea-ingression deposits, peat generally experienced less than 1 m subsidence. The reference-level reconstruction method is deployable over large coastal plain areas to reconstruct subsidence caused by postdepositional vertical displacement of intercalated peat layers. It could therefore serve as an alternative approach for methods based on soil mechanics, which require input often not available for coastal plains on regional scales.

Vertical peat profiles can only be used as archives of past changes in pollution levels if atmogenic elements are immobile after their burial. For mobile elements, similar pore-water concentrations can be expected at different peat depths. Concentrations of Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Cd were determined in surface bog water and bog pore water 40 cm below surface in two Sphagnum-dominated peat bogs in the Czech Republic. Velke jerabi jezero (VJJ) is an upland bog located in an industrial area, Cervene blato (CB) is a lowland bog located in a rural area. Metal concentrations were monitored seasonally over 3 years (2002)(2003)(2004)(2005) at both sites. Higher concentrations of Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr and Cd and lower concentrations of Mn, Fe and Co were found at the less polluted CB compared to VJJ. No clear-cut seasonality was observed in metal concentrations in bog waters, despite seasonal differences in industrial emission rates of pollutants (more coal burning in winter than in summer). This contrasts with an earlier observation of distinct seasonality in sulfate concentration and isotope composition in these stagnating bog waters. Peat substrate 40 cm below current bog surface represented preindustrial low-pollution environment, yet pore waters at such depths contained the same metal concentrations as surface waters. The only exception was Pb, whose concentration in water solutes increased with increasing depth. Lack of vertical stratification in pore-water contents of Cu, Zn, Cr, Mn, Fe and Co indicated vertical mobility of these metals.

Vertical peat profiles can only be used as archives of past changes in pollution levels if atmogenic elements are immobile after their burial. For mobile elements, similar pore-water concentrations can be expected at different peat depths. Concentrations of Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Cd were determined in surface bog water and bog pore water 40 cm below surface in two Sphagnum-dominated peat bogs in the Czech Republic. Velke jerabi jezero (VJJ) is an upland bog located in an industrial area, Cervene blato (CB) is a lowland bog located in a rural area. Metal concentrations were monitored seasonally over 3 years (2002)(2003)(2004)(2005) at both sites. Higher concentrations of Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr and Cd and lower concentrations of Mn, Fe and Co were found at the less polluted CB compared to VJJ. No clear-cut seasonality was observed in metal concentrations in bog waters, despite seasonal differences in industrial emission rates of pollutants (more coal burning in winter than in summer). This contrasts with an earlier observation of distinct seasonality in sulfate concentration and isotope composition in these stagnating bog waters. Peat substrate 40 cm below current bog surface represented preindustrial low-pollution environment, yet pore waters at such depths contained the same metal concentrations as surface waters. The only exception was Pb, whose concentration in water solutes increased with increasing depth. Lack of vertical stratification in pore-water contents of Cu, Zn, Cr, Mn, Fe and Co indicated vertical mobility of these metals.

A process-based model was developed to simulate for peat lands emission of the greenhouse gasses (GHG) CO 2 , CH 4 and N 2 O, soil subsidence and nutrient loading of surface waters. The model was calibrated and validated against data from two experimental fields in the Netherlands. With the validated model scenario studies were performed to quantify the effects of water management on GHG emission, soil subsidence and nutrient loading. Raising ditchwater level was an effective measure to diminish GHG emission and subsidence. Submerged drains enhanced subsurface irrigation greatly and as a result decreased subsidence and GHG emission considerably. For nutrient loading of surface waters the optimal drain depth was around 50-60 cm below soil surface.

Long‐term monitoring of aerosol optical properties at a boreal forest AERONET site in interior Alaska was performed from 1994 through 2008 (excluding winter). Large interannual variability was observed, with some years showing near background aerosol optical depth (AOD) levels (&lt;0.1 at 500 nm) while 2004 and 2005 had August monthly means similar in magnitude to peak months at major tropical biomass burning regions. Single scattering albedo (ω0; 440 nm) at the boreal forest site ranged from ∼0.91 to 0.99 with an average of ∼0.96 for observations in 2004 and 2005. This suggests a significant amount of smoldering combustion of woody fuels and peat/soil layers that would result in relatively low black carbon mass fractions for smoke particles. The fine mode particle volume median radius during the heavy burning years was quite large, averaging ∼0.17 μm at AOD(440 nm) = 0.1 and increasing to ∼0.25 μm at AOD(440 nm) = 3.0. This large particle size for biomass burning aerosols results i...

A field study on peat soil to investigate impacts of soil water table depth and soil ameliorant (steel sludge) had been carried out on mature oil palm. Three treatments of soil water table management and four rates of steel sludge application were applied in this study. Treatments of soil water table management were WLM1, WLM-2, and WLM-3, where soil water table depth was maintained at 35-50 cm, 60-75 cm, and &gt;75 cm below the soil surface, respectively. Treatments of steel sludge were application of this soil ameliorant at the rate of 0; 3.15; 6.51; 9.86 kg tree-1. The study was arranged as split plot randomized block design by assigning soil water table management as main plot and rate of steel sludge as sub plot. Soil Data observed were actual soil water content, peat soil properties, CO2 emission, vegetative growth, and palm yield. The results showed that maintaining soil water table depth at &lt; 75 cm could maintain actual soil moisture up to top parts of peat soil. On the o...

Skrótowo przedstawiono historię rozwoju geostatystyki w świecie i jej zastosowań w Polsce. Wymieniono i skomentowano główne kierunki wykorzystania geostatystyki w badaniu polskich złóż kopalin stałych a w szczególności do szacowania zasobów kopaliny oraz modelowania rozkładu przestrzennego wartości parametrów złożowych. Wskazano na potrzebę i celowość wdrożenia metod geostatystycznych do praktyki rozpoznawana i dokumentowania złóż, projektowania ich eksploatacji i prognozy jakości urobku.

Palaeolithic sites associated with the Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e) are very rare in NW Europe, and especially in Northern France, where their preservation is restricted to very specific geological contexts, in association with carbonated tufa (Caours) or peat deposits (Waziers). In order to check the reliability of ESR/U-series method to date teeth recovered from archaeological levels in such specific geological environments, teeth were sampled on these two Middle Palaeolithic sites and systematic in situ dosimetry was performed using portable gamma spectrometer. The ESR/U-series ages obtained on the Caours site are very homogeneous allowing the calculation of a mean age equal to 125 ± 11 ka, in agreement with the geological age, mammal's association and other available geochronological data (U-series on tufa carbonate, TL on burnt flints, OSL on sediments), despite a relatively heterogeneous dosimetric environment (gamma dose rate ranging between ca 200-450 μGy/a). At Waziers, reducing (water logging) environment linked to the peat leads to very specific U-series data of the analysed teeth (U content lower than 0.1 ppm in all the dental tissues, evidence of leaching in some tissues), but the mean ESR/U-series age, 129 ± 4 ka, is also in agreement with the available geological and palaeoenvironmental data indicating that the dated teeth were associated with Late Glacial deposits prior to the climatic interglacial optimum. These two case studies then confirm the reliability of ESR/U-series method to date with good reliability and accuracy the archaeological levels linked to such relatively short climatic events (ca 10 ka).

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In the recent years, there has been an evolution in game input medium. From just using buttons, players can now interact with games through a wider spectrum of inputs which includes touch screen, camera, light sensor, accelerometer, compass and GPS. This is driven by the availability of these modules and sensors within mobile devices that are omnipresent nowadays. As a result, there has been a creative breakthrough on how games are played today where gaming experience can be made more intuitive and immersive. Localization is one of the input medium where the player’s physical location is used as part of the gameplay. This paper proposes an original gameplay schema that utilizes indoor mobile Wi-Fi localization technique as game input that does not require additional infrastructure. The game takes advantage of the weakness of Wi-Fi localization where environmental influence is significant and make it part of the gameplay. A simple error detection algorithm is also introduced to maxim...

abundance d 15 N signatures provided insights into processes that may be enriching the 15 N content of ecosystem components across the marsh landscape. We also conducted a combined analysis of d 15 N data, tissue N concentrations, and water column N data to provide a broad overview of N cycling in the freshwater marshes of the southern Everglades. The primary trend that emerged from each basin was a significant 15 N enrichment of all ecosystem components at near-canal sites, relative to more downstream sample sites. These data suggest that the phosphorus-limited marshes of the southern Everglades are not inactive conduits for N. Rather, these marshes appear to be actively cycling and processing N as it flows from the canalemarsh interface through downstream freshwater marshes. This finding has important implications to downstream coastal estuaries, including Florida Bay, and to nearshore coastal ocean ecosystems, such as coral reefs, where N is the limiting nutrient.

In the last century, most peatlands were reclaimed for agricultural purposes, which led to peat degradation and to severe subsidence, and thus too wet conditions for crops. In some areas this has therefore led to wide agricultural abandonment. However, studies on the effect of agricultural abandonment as a potential restoration tool are lacking. In this study, the effectiveness and the restoration potential of agricultural abandonment in reducing peat degradation and in improving soil microbial biodiversity were evaluated. The main chemical parameters, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal diversity and soil respiration partitioning were used to assess the long-term effect of 15 years of agricultural abandonment (Aband) in a Mediterranean reclaimed peatland. An intensive maize cultivation (Cult) in the same area was used as a comparison. Multivariate analyses showed that 15 years of agricultural abandonment: did not affect the main soil chemical parameters, except for NH 4 + which was lower in the Aband than in the Cult; increased AM fungal root colonization and the diversity in terms of number of families of AM fungi retrieved in roots, but decreased soil AM fungal richness; reduced total soil respiration and its autotrophic component but increased respiration by heterotrophs; determined a lower fluctuation of soil CO 2 flux response to air temperature than the Cult. Thus, although some soil quality parameters were significantly improved, 15 years of agricultural abandonment may not lead to an effective restoration. Consequently, alternative and sustainable solutions for the protection and preservation of Mediterranean peatlands need to be developed.

Jenis tanah Andisol di Indonesia cukup luas, ± 5.4 juta ha dan mengandung > 50% alofan yang berdaya jerap tinggi terhadap fosfat yaitu berkisar 300-2,500 mg P kg -1 tanah. Alofan (SiO 2 .Al 2 O 3 .nH 2 O) memiliki luas permukaan 100-800 m 2 g -1 , KTK 5-350 cmol kg -1 , dengan rasio Si/Al antara 0.5 dan 1.0. Alofan dengan nisbah Si/Al sekitar 0.5 sangat reaktif terhadap fosfat . Pemberian pupuk P yang tinggi pada Andisol tidak menjamin ketersediaan P yang tinggi pula bagi tanaman, karena efisiensinya yang rendah yaitu 10-20% . Kekurangan P pada tanaman dapat diamati secara visual, yaitu daun tua berwarna keunguan atau kemerahan

Vertical and horizontal distributions of soil organic carbon, potential microbial activity and basic soil properties were studied in a boreal mixed forest (Central Forest Reserve, TVER region) to elucidate whether the soil CO 2 -efflux is related to basic soil properties that affect the C ...

• The natural resources of Bangladesh are limited and include natural gas and coal. Its mining sector does not play a significant role as the country relies more on agriculture and textiles. • In 2010, the mineral sector of Bangladesh produced mainly coal, natural gas, petroleum, and granite. The country lacks metallic mineral reserves but make up for that with huge natural gas potential.

Tanah merupakan bagian penting dari lingkungan hidup yang berfungsi sebagai media tumbuh tanaman, penyimpan air, udara, dan unsur hara, serta sebagai habitat bagi berbagai organisme. Tanah terbentuk melalui proses panjang akibat pelapukan batuan induk yang dipengaruhi oleh faktor iklim, organisme, topografi, dan waktu. Dalam konsepsi modern, tanah tidak hanya dilihat sebagai benda mati, melainkan sebagai sistem dinamis yang terus mengalami perubahan fisik, kimia, dan biologi. Tanah berperan penting dalam siklus unsur hara dan air, serta berkontribusi dalam kestabilan ekosistem. Oleh karena itu, pemahaman terhadap karakteristik dan fungsi tanah menjadi dasar dalam pengelolaan sumber daya alam secara berkelanjutan. 1. Bahan Induk: Material asal (batuan atau endapan) yang mengalami pelapukan menjadi tanah. 2. klim: Suhu dan curah hujan memengaruhi tingkat pelapukan dan aktivitas organisme. 3. Organisme: Makhluk hidup (seperti tumbuhan, hewan, mikroba) membantu pelapukan dan pembentukan struktur tanah. 4. Relief (Topografi): Kemiringan dan bentuk permukaan tanah mempengaruhi erosi dan akumulasi bahan. 5. Waktu: Semakin lama proses berlangsung, semakin berkembang sifat-sifat tanahnya. Sifat fisika tanah adalah karakteristik tanah yang berkaitan dengan keadaan fisik dan struktur partikel penyusunnya tanpa melibatkan reaksi kimia atau biologi. Sifat-sifat ini sangat berpengaruh terhadap kemampuan tanah untuk mendukung pertumbuhan tanaman, sirkulasi air dan udara, serta kestabilan ekosistem. Tekstur tanah menunjukkan perbandingan relatif antara partikel pasir, debu (silt), dan liat dalam suatu massa tanah. Tekstur menentukan kemampuan tanah menahan air dan nutrisi. Tanah bertekstur liat biasanya menahan air lebih banyak dibandingkan tanah bertekstur pasir.-Struktur Tanah Struktur tanah adalah susunan partikel tanah yang membentuk agregat atau gumpalan. Struktur yang baik (misalnya granular atau remah) memperbaiki pergerakan udara dan air dalam tanah, serta mendukung pertumbuhan akar.

To establish long-term trends in soil fertility in New Zealand pasture lands, data for Olsen phosphate (Olsen P), pH, and QuickTest (QT) calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) from 246 000 soil samples submitted to a commercial soil sampling laboratory from 1988 to 2001 were analysed. Each record was categorised according to year, land use (dairy, sheep/beef including deer), soil "group" (sedimentary, volcanic, pumice, peats, rest), and regions. Olsen P values were, on average, higher on dairy farms than sheep/beef farms and lower on sedimentary soils than other soils (P > 0.05). Sedimentary and volcanic soils had higher QT K than pumice and peat soils (P > 0.05). Regional differences were largely explained by differences between land use and soil group distribution. However, given this distribution, average Olsen P values were higher in the Waikato, Bay of Plenty/Taupo and Taranaki regions, the east coast of both islands generally had higher average pH, K, and Mg soil test values, and the West Coast region had lower average soil test values than most other regions. Over the 14-year

Extensive degradation of Indonesian peatlands by deforestation, drainage and recurrent fires causes release of huge amounts of peat soil carbon to the atmosphere. Construction of drainage canals is associated with conversion to other land uses, especially plantations of oil palm and pulpwood trees, and with widespread illegal logging to facilitate timber transport. A lowering of the groundwater level leads to an increase in oxidation and subsidence of peat. Therefore, the groundwater level is the main control on carbon dioxide emissions from peatlands. Restoring the peatland hydrology is the only way to prevent peat oxidation and mitigate CO 2 emissions. In this study we present a strategy for improved planning of rewetting measures by dam constructions. The study area is a vast peatland with limited accessibility in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Field inventory and remote sensing data are used to generate a detailed 3D model of the peat dome and a hydrological model predicts the rise in groundwater levels once dams have been constructed. Successful rewetting of a 590 km² large area of drained peat swamp forest could result in mitigated emissions of 1.4-1.6 Mt CO 2 yearly. This equates to 6% of the carbon dioxide emissions by civil aviation in the European Union in 2006 and can be achieved with relatively small efforts and at low costs. The proposed methodology allows a detailed planning of hydrological restoration of peatlands with interesting impacts on carbon trading for the voluntary carbon market.

Ammonia (NH3) emissions to the atmosphere increased significantly during the 20th century, largely due to the intensification of agricultural production. Ammonia is a soluble and reactive gas that is emitted by volatilization from various agricultural nitrogen forms including urea, uric acid and mineral fertilizers. Emissions are dependent on various meteorological inputs like temperature and wind speed, and are higher in warmer drying conditions, with smaller emissions occurring under cooler wetter conditions. Impacts of excess nitrogen can include eutrophication and acidification effects on semi-natural ecosystems that can lead to species composition changes. Agroforestry Ammonia Abatement (AAA) is a practical concept which uses both the dispersive effect of a barrier and the uptake of NH3 into the tree canopy to mitigate NH3 emissions. This work built upon the research carried out in Defra project AC0201, bringing together measurements, modelling and agroeconomic analyses to buil...

Puji syukur kita panjatkan puji syukur atas kehadirat-NYA yang maha pengasih lagi Maha penyayang sehingga kami dapat menyelesaikan Laporan Praktikum Mekanika Tanah 2. Makalah ini kami susun dengan semaksimal mungkin dan mendapatkan bantuan dari beberapa jurnal yang kami kutip dari beberapa sumber dan beberapa ahli.Untuk itu kami mengucapkan terimakasih kepada pihak yang telah membantu kami menyelesaikan laporan praktikum ini. Lebih dari itu,kami menyadari bahwa masih ada kekurangan dari makalah yang kami susun ini dari segi kalimat maupun penyusun kata-katanya untuk memberikan kritik dan saran agar kami bisa memperbaikinya.Akhir kata kami harap pembaca bisa memahami makalah yang kami susun ini dapat diterapkan dalam kehidupan seharihari dalam berbangsa dan bernegara.

The ability to predict the effects of climate change on trace gas fluxes requires a knowledge of microbial temperature responses. However, the response of a microbial community to temperature in a given substrate may be complicated by its thermal history. To examine the effect of sequentially changing temperature on methane and carbon dioxide production in different peat types, we incubated anaerobic peat samples from 3 types of northern peatlands, a bog, a sedge fen and a cedar swamp, in both rising and falling temperature regimes. Graphic and statistical comparisons of the different temperature regimes suggest hysteresis in microbial response to temperature, although the absolute rates at any given temperature often did not differ. Where regressions for temperature response (Arrhenius plots) were significant, they generally differed between temperature regimes. The greatest differences among treatments occurred during the first half of the 40-d incubation. Increases in carbon diox...