Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Psychomotor disorders are neurodevelopmental disorders affecting individual’s adaptation in its perceptual-motor dimension. Etiologies are multifaceted and transactional integrating genetic, neurobiological and psychosocial factors, acting on different levels of complementarity and expression. They are often situational and soft, they primarily impede adaptation mechanisms, they create impairment and distress in carrier and his/her social environment. In addition to an in-depth knowledge of standard development, clinical analysis require specific investigation with the use of psychomotor examination. The psychomotor disorders are presented as follows : attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, developmental coordination disorder, dysgraphia, tone disorders, abnormal movements, non verbal learning disabilities, laterality disorders, right/left confusion.

Les troubles psychomoteurs sont des troubles neurodéveloppementaux qui affectent l’adaptation du sujet dans sa dimension perceptivo-motrice. Leurs étiologies sont plurifactorielles et transactionnelles associant des facteurs génétiques, neurobiologiques et psychosociaux qui agissent à différents niveaux de complémentarité et d’expression. Ils sont souvent situationnels et discrets, entravant en priorité les mécanismes d’adaptation, constituant une source de désagrément et de souffrance pour le porteur et le milieu social. Leur analyse clinique nécessite, outre une connaissance référentielle approfondie du développement normal, des investigations spécifiques dont l'examen psychomoteur. Les troubles psychomoteurs présentés sont le trouble déficitaire de l’attention/hyperactivité, le trouble d’acquisition de la coordination, les dysgraphies, les troubles du tonus musculaire, les mouvements anormaux, les incapacités d’apprentissage non verbal, les troubles de la dominance latérale et la confusion droite-gauche.

Difficulty shifting attention away from negative stimuli once engaged is a wellestablished
cognitive bias observed in depression. This study attempted to
determine whether this impaired disengagement of attention is lateralized in
the brain. Thirty depressed and 30 control participants performed an
attention disengagement task wherein the valence of the stimulus and the
visual field was presented. The depressed group had longer reaction times
than the control group, indicative of the typical cognitive and psychomotor
slowing seen in depression. The effect of visual field presentation on the
ability to disengage attention however was different for controls as compared
to the patients. In controls, a distinct right hemisphere advantage was seen
for disengaging attention which is in line with research that has identified
right hemisphere structures as the seat of behavioural inhibition. In the
depressed group, however, this right hemisphere advantage was not observed.

"L’évolution de l’écriture au cours du développement et de l’apprentissage est un phénomène discontinu lié aux différentes contraintes qui s’exercent sur le sujet scripteur. Ces contraintes proviennent des exigences de l’environnement scolaire, de la diversification des tâches demandées mais aussi des changements dans les stratégies cognitives. La trace du sujet dysgraphique adolescent associe un manque de stabilité et de lisibilité. Ces caractéristiques ont guidé la mise au point du BHK-Ado, destiné à détecter la dysgraphie au collège.

The evolution of handwriting during development and learning is a discontinuous phenomenon related to various constraints affecting the writer. These constraints originate from the requirements of school environment, the diversification of tasks, but also from changes in cognitive strategies.
The trace produced by dysgraphic teenager associates a lack of stability and legibility. These characteristics have guided our work on BHK-Ado, designed to detect dysgraphia in grade 6 to 9."

Developmental disorders such as autism have generally been theorized as due to some kind of modular “deficit” or “dysfunction”—typically of cortical origin, i.e., failures of “theory of mind”, of the “mirror neuron system”, of “weak central coherence” or of the balance of “empathizing” and “systemizing”, just to list a few. The broad array of autonomic and sensorimotor differences experienced and reported by people with autism have by such theories typically been sidelined as “co-morbidities,” possibly sharing genetic causes, but rendered as incidental and decisively behaviorally irrelevant symptoms—surely disconnected from cognition.
This article entertains the idea that the development of cortically based mental processes and autonomous control relies on the complexities and proper function of the peripheral nervous systems. Through such an “embodied” lens the heterogeneous symptoms of autism invites new interpretations. We propose here that many behavioral-level findings can be re-defined as downstream effects of how developing nervous systems attempt to cope and adapt to the challenges of having various noisy, unpredictable, and unreliable peripheral inputs.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and bipolar disorder (BD) are neurodevelopmental disorders with onset in childhood and early adolescence, and common persistence in adulthood. Both disorders are often undiagnosed, misdiagnosed, and sometimes over diagnosed, leading to high rates of morbidity and disability. The differentiation of these conditions is based on their clinical features, comorbidity, psychiatric family history course of illness, and response to treatment. We review recent relevant findings and highlight epidemiological, clinical, family history, course, and treatment-response differences that can aid the differential diagnosis of these conditions in an outpatient pediatric setting.

Restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs) are a core feature of autism spectrum disorders. They constitute a major barrier to learning and social adaptation, but research on their definition, cause, and capacity for change has been relatively neglected. The last decade of research has brought new measurement techniques that have improved the description of RRBs. Research has also identified distinctive subtypes of RRBs in autism spectrum disorders. Research on potential causal origins and immediate triggers for RRBs is still at an early stage. However, promising new ideas and evidence are emerging from neurobiology and developmental psychology that identify neural adaptation, lack of environmental stimulation, arousal, and adaptive functions as key factors for the onset and maintenance of RRBs. Further research is needed to understand how these factors interact with each other to create and sustain atypical levels of RRB. The literature indicates that RRBs have the potential to spontaneously reduce across time, and this is enhanced for those with increased age and cognitive and language ability. Research on interventions is sparse. Pharmacological treatments can be helpful in some children but have adverse side effects. Behavioral intervention methods provide the better intervention option with positive effects, but a more systematic and targeted approach is urgently needed. Evidence suggests that we will learn best from the last decade of research by taking a developmental perspective, by directing future research toward subtypes of RRBs, and by implementing early intervention targeted to improve RRBs before these behaviors become entrenched.

Terminologie peu utilisée en France mais pourtant consensuelle au niveau Européen et Mondial, le TAC désigne ce que les français nomment la dyspraxie développementale. Il concerne 5 à 8 % des enfants d’âge scolaire et reste pourtant méconnu et encore peu étudié si l’on compare à d’autres troubles du développement comme la dyslexie développementale ou le Trouble Déficitaire de l’Attention / Hyperactivité (TDA/H).

How and when do we learn to understand other people’s perspectives and possibly divergent beliefs? This question has elicited much theoretical and empirical research. A puzzling finding has been that toddlers perform well on so-called implicit false belief (FB) tasks but do not show such capacities on traditional explicit FB tasks. I propose a navigational approach, which offers a hitherto ignored way of making sense of the seemingly contradictory results. The proposal involves a distinction between how we navigate FBs as they relate to 1) our current affordances (here & now navigation) as opposed to 2) presently non-actual relations, where we need to leave our concrete embodied/situated viewpoint (counterfactual navigation). It is proposed that whereas toddlers seem able to understand FBs in their current affordance space, they do not yet possess the resources to navigate in abstraction from such concrete affordances, which explicit FB tests seem to require. It is hypothesized that counterfactual navigation depends on the development of ‘sensorimotor priors’, i.e. statistical expectations of own kinestetic re-afference, which evidence now suggests matures around age four, consistent with core findings of explicit FB performance.

Les troubles spécifiques de l'apprentissage (lecture, écriture ou mathématiques) et/ou du développement (langage ou motricité) sont maintenant inclus dans le groupe des troubles neuro-développementaux dans la nouvelle version du manuel diagnostique et statistique des troubles mentaux (DSM) [1]. Ces troubles ont en commun de débuter pendant les phases initiales du développement et d'être fréquemment associés : on parle de comorbidités ou de co-occurrences, suggérant des bases étiologiques en partie communes. Certains auteurs évoquent par exemple un déficit général de l'apprentissage procédural à l'origine de l'ensemble de ces troubles. D'origine neurologique, ils impliquent des facteurs génétiques et environnementaux et répondent aux modèles de l'hérédité complexe. Ils sont plus fréquents chez les garçons. Ils persistent généralement à l'âge adulte, même si des prises en charge adaptées, peuvent permettre une compensation des troubles pour une partie des individus.

The current rise of neurodevelopmental disorders poses a critical need to detect risk early in order to rapidly intervene. One of the tools pediatricians use to track development is the standard growth chart. The growth charts are somewhat limited in predicting possible neurodevelopmental issues. They rely on linear models and assumptions of normality for physical growth data – obscuring key statistical information about possible neurodevelopmental risk in growth data that actually has accelerated, non-linear rates-of-change and variability encompassing skewed distributions. Here, we use new analytics to profile growth data from 36 newborn babies that were tracked longitudinally for 5 months. By switching to incremental (velocity-based) growth charts and combining these dynamic changes with underlying fluctuations in motor performance – as the transition from spontaneous random noise to a systematic signal – we demonstrate a method to detect very early stunting in the development of voluntary neuromotor control and to flag risk of neurodevelopmental derail.

"When de Ajuriaguerra and Soubiran (1959) define psychomotor disorders as “oscillating between neurology and psychiatry” they provide both an overall frame of reflection and a word of caution against reductionism which besieges the clinician. Psychomotor disorders in children are composed of different semiological components of a variety of natures: perceptual, cognitive, motor, emotional and relational. The semiological tripod, as Corraze (1999, 2010) names it, specifies the essential traits of these disorders: 1) they are perceptual-motor disorders affecting the exploration, action and communication functions as well as emotional integration; 2) they occur in the form of soft neurological signs which reflect a minimal brain dysfunction; 3) they are associated with a psychopathological complex. The etiological plurality requires, as Ajuriaguerra expected, an analysis of different dimensions: biological, ecological and teleological or intentional.
Dynamic systems and self-organization theories consider motricity as an emergent property of the perceptual-motor system, that is the result of interactions between components of the neuro-musculoskeletal system and global constraints (environmental, cognitive and psychological) on these components. The psychomotor disorder is seen as a solution used by the subject in his interaction with both physical and social environments when he faces a task or situation requiring the use of coping mechanisms. These theories provide the opportunity to resurrect a heritage that puts the emphasis on a holistic view of the individual patient while avoiding neurological, psychological, psychiatric or social reductionisms.
Résumé
Lorsque de Ajuriaguerra et Soubiran (1959) définissent les troubles psychomoteurs comme « oscillant entre le neurologique et le psychiatrique », ils fournissent tout à la fois un cadre général de réflexion et une mise en garde contre une attitude réductionniste qui guette cette symptomatologie exigeante pour le clinicien. Les troubles psychomoteurs chez l’enfant s’organisent en effet à partir de composantes sémiologiques de natures diverses : perceptive, cognitive, motrice, affective et relationnelle. Le trépied symptomatologique, comme l’appelle Corraze (1999, 2010), précise les caractères constitutifs de ces troubles : 1) ce sont des troubles perceptivo-moteurs qui affectent les différentes fonctions d’exploration, d’action et de communication ainsi que les intégrations émotionnelles ; 2) ils se manifestent par des signes neurologiques doux qui signent l’existence d’un dysfonctionnement cérébral a minima ; 3) ils sont associés à un complexe psychopathologique. La pluralité étiologique exige alors, comme le pressentait Ajuriaguerra, une analyse des différentes dimensions : biologique, écologique et téléologique ou intentionnelle. Les théories des systèmes dynamiques et de l’auto-organisation considèrent la motricité comme une propriété émergente du système perceptivo-moteur, soit la résultante des interactions entre les composantes du système neuro-musculo-squelettique et les contraintes globales (environnementales, cognitives et psychiques) qui s’exercent sur ces dernières. Le trouble psychomoteur est alors vu comme la « solution » dont l’individu dispose dans la relation avec les milieux physiques et sociaux lorsqu’il est confronté à une tâche ou une situation nécessitant la mise en place de mécanismes d’adaptation. Ces théories fournissent l’occasion de dépoussiérer un héritage qui fait la part belle à une vision « globale » de l’individu en évitant les réductionnismes à l’une ou l’autre de ses dimensions constitutives : neurologique, psychologique ou psychiatrique, sociale.""

"Le lien entre la présence d’un TAC et celle de troubles visuospatiaux est une donnée ancienne de la littérature. Le déficit moteur est central chez le TAC et les difficultés visuo-spatiales ne concernent qu’un sous groupe de TAC. Elles sont d’autant plus importantes qu’il existe une composante motrice. Il est toutefois difficile de déterminer quelle est la voie visuelle impliquée de façon préférentielle au niveau cérébral (« What » versus « Where »).
A l’échelle individuelle, les profils sont hétérogènes, ce qui renvoie en partie à la fréquence élevée des troubles neurodéveloppementaux associés et pourrait suggérer une atteinte commune aux différents troubles  du système d’apprentissage procédural.

The links between children who present with a DCD and visuospatial disorders is not a new idea in the literature. The motor deficit is critical in DCD and visuospatial deficits affect only a subgroup. They are particularly important when a motor component occurs. However It is difficult to determine the neural pathways preferentially involved (« What » vs « Where »).
On an individual level, profiles are heterogeneous, due to the high-frequency rate of associated neurodevelopmental disorders. This suggests the presence of a an impaired procedural learning system."

Los trastornos del desarrollo, particularmente los relacionados con los trastornos del espectro autista, se han estudiado ampliamente y se han hecho caracterizaciones de los mismos a grado tal, que parece sencillo confundir los síntomas de otras dificultades del neurodesarrollo. La presente investigación es un estudio descriptivo de una población de 162 usuarios en una clínica de autismo en la Ciudad de México, de quienes se analizaron sus historias clínicas y es posible encontrar 3 grupos independientes con etiologías distintas pero que tienen en común el diagnóstico de alguno de los trastornos del espectro autista. Uno de los grupos se caracteriza por presentar dificultades perinatales y que hace pensar si estos niños por un lado, deben ser considerados dentro del espectro autista pero, lo más importante, es que esta población, puede y debe ser atendida desde el nacimiento para no esperar un diagnóstico que se da a una edad promedio de 6 años, y que desafortunadamente ya es muy tarde para las neuronas que sobreviven al trauma de un nacimiento problemático. Existen estudios sobre la plasticidad cerebral e momentos críticos y estos niños no pueden esperar 6 años para su atención. Es por ello, que además de atender a los protocolos de detección de los trastornos del desarrollo, hace falta indagar en las historias clínicas desde el momento del nacimiento y conseguir verdaderos diagnósticos tempranos para estos niños y sus familias.

The most common neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., developmental dyslexia (DD), autism, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)) have been the subject of numerous neuroimaging studies, leading to certain brain regions being identified as neural correlates of these conditions, referring to a neural signature of disorders. Developmental coordination disorder (DCD), however, remains one of the least understood and studied neurodevelopmental disorders. Given the acknowledged link between motor difficulties and brain features, it is surprising that so few research studies have systematically explored the brains of children with DCD. The aim of the present review was to ascertain whether it is currently possible to identify a neural signature for DCD, based on the 14 magnetic resonance imaging neuroimaging studies that have been conducted in DCD to date. Our results indicate that several brain areas are unquestionably linked to DCD: cerebellum, basal ganglia, parietal lobe, and parts of the frontal lobe (medial orbitofrontal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). However, research has been too sparse and studies have suffered from several limitations that constitute a serious obstacle to address the question of a well-established neural signature for DCD.

The autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is increasingly being recognized as a major public health issue which affects approximately 0.5-0.6% of the population. Promoting the general awareness of the disorder, increasing the engagement with the affected individuals and their carers, and understanding the success of penetration of the current clinical recommendations in the target communities, is crucial in driving research as well as policy. The aim of the present work is to investigate if Twitter, as a highly popular platform for information exchange, can be used as a data-mining source which could aid in the aforementioned challenges. Specifically, using a large data set of harvested tweets, we present a series of experiments which examine a range of linguistic and semantic aspects of messages posted by individuals interested in ASD. Our findings, the first of their nature in the published scientific literature, strongly motivate additional research on this topic and present a methodological basis for further work.

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are birth imperfections that cause dysfunction in cognitive and sensory processes and impairment in motor function, communication, and behavior. The major factors responsible for increasing incidence of NDDs are genetic, psychosocial, and excessive use of drugs. Yoga alleviates neurological problems and NDDs. Asana is a physical movement with breath awareness that facilitates the development of body awareness, concentration, and memory and provides vital energy for children with neurodevelopmental disability. Yoga therapy improves sensory coordination and motor imitations that enable persons with cognitive disabilities to make meaningful response by the integration of senses and functions of central nervous system.

Neurodevelopmental disorders appear in early childhood and cause serious impairment in several areas. These are characterized by damages or delays in development of functions closely associated with the biological aging of the central nervous system. Neurodevelopmental disorders include speech and language disorders, learning disorders, motor and divisive disorders such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Aiming to explore the various phenotypic characteristics of these disorders as well as their co-morbidity or coexistence, an emerging body of studies stressed the importance of both early multidisciplinary assessment and intervention in the framework of these disorders. Due to the complexity of neurodevelopmental disorders there should be specific diagnostic groups so as to apply timely and multifactorial diagnoses. Early Symptomatic Syndromes Eliciting Neurodevelopmental Clinical Examinations (ESSENCE) are considered as an assessment concept that could contribute to multifactorial early diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders. Early, adequate, and comprehensive diagnosis conduces to early, effective, and well adapted to individual’s needs intervention programs. In the current study, the ESSENCE framework was used as the key diagnostic approach for both definitive and multifactorial diagnosis of a 3-year-old infant with a wide range of impairments.

"Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. Several studies have suggested a disturbance in the copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) metabolism in ASDs. Zinc deficiency, excess Cu levels, and low Zn/Cu ratio are common in children diagnosed with an ASD. The literature also suggests that mercury accumulation may occur as a cause or consequence of metallothionein (MT) dysfunction in children diagnosed with an ASD, which may be one of the causes of Zn deficiency. MTs are proteins with important functions in metal metabolism and protection. Zinc and Cu bind to and participate in the control of the synthesis of MT proteins. Studies indicate that the GABAergic system may be involved in ASDs, and that Zn and Cu may play a role in this system."

Autism has been defined as a disorder of social cognition, interaction and communication where ritualistic, repetitive behaviors are commonly observed. But how should we understand the behavioral and cognitive differences that have been the main focus of so much autism research? Can high-level cognitive processes and behaviors be identified as the core issues people with autism face, or do these characteristics perhaps often rather reflect individual attempts to cope with underlying physiological issues?  Much research presented in this volume will point to the latter possibility, i.e. that people on the autism spectrum cope with issues at much lower physiological levels pertaining not only to Central Nervous Systems (CNS) function, but also to peripheral and autonomic systems (PNS, ANS) (Torres, Brincker, et al. 2013).  The question that we pursue in this chapter is what might be fruitful ways of gaining objective measures of the large-scale systemic and heterogeneous effects of early atypical neurodevelopment; how to track their evolution over time and how to identify critical changes along the continuum of human development and aging. 

We suggest that the study of movement variability—very broadly conceived as including all minute fluctuations in bodily rhythms and their rates of change over time (coined micro-movements (Figure 1A-B) (Torres, Brincker, et al. 2013))—offers a uniquely valuable and entirely objectively quantifiable lens to better assess, understand and track not only autism but cognitive development and degeneration in general. This chapter presents the rationale firstly behind this focus on micro-movements and secondly behind the choice of specific kinds of data collection and statistical metrics as tools of analysis (Figure 1C).
In brief the proposal is that the micro-movements (defined in Part I – Chapter 1), obtained using various time scales applied to different physiological data-types (some examples in Figure 1), contain information about layered influences and temporal adaptations, transformations and integrations across anatomically semi-independent subsystems that crosstalk and interact. Further, the notion of sensorimotor re-afference is used to highlight the fact that these layered micro-motions are sensed and that this sensory feedback plays a crucial role in the generation and control of movements in the first place. In other words, the measurements of various motoric and rhythmic variations provide an access point not only to the “motor systems”, but also access to much broader central and peripheral sensorimotor and regulatory systems. Lastly, we posit that this new lens can also be used to capture influences from systems of multiple entry points or collaborative control and regulation, such as those that emerge during dyadic social interactions.

In recent years, the bidirectional communication between the gut microbiome and the brain has emerged as a factor that influences immunity, metabolism, neurodevelopment and behaviour. Cross-talk between the gut and brain begins early in life immediately following the transition from a sterile in utero environment to one that is exposed to a changing and complex microbial milieu over a lifetime. Once established, communication between the gut and brain integrates information from the autonomic and enteric nervous systems, neuroendocrine and neuroimmune signals, and peripheral immune and metabolic signals. Importantly, the composition and functional potential of the gut microbiome undergoes many transitions that parallel dynamic periods of brain development and maturation for which distinct sex differences have been identified. Here, we discuss the sexually dimorphic development, maturation and maintenance of the gut microbiome–brain axis, and the sex differences therein important in disease risk and resilience throughout the lifespan.

This article presents a review of the studies that have analysed the motor skills of ADHD children with without medication and the influence of medication on their motor skills. The following two questions guided the study: What is the evidence of impairment of motor skills and aspects of motor control among children with ADHD aged between 6 and 16 years? What are the effects of ADHD medication on motor skills and motor control?
The following keywords were introduced in the main databases: attention disorder and/or ADHD, motor skills and/or handwriting, children, medication. Of the 45 articles retrieved, 30 described motor skills of children with ADHD and 15 articles analysed the influence of ADHD medication on motor skills and motor control.
More than half of the children with ADHD have difficulties with gross and fine motor skills. The children with ADHD inattentive subtype seem to present more impairment of fine motor skills, slow reaction time, and online motor control during complex tasks. The proportion of children with ADHD who improved their motor skills to the normal range by using medication varied from 28% to 67% between studies. The children who still show motor deficit while on medication might meet the diagnostic criteria of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). It is important to assess motor skills among children with ADHD because of the risk of reduced participation in activities of daily living that require motor coordination and attention.

Reading as an information-processing activity, is considered in terms of inner speech, automaticity, compensatory processes, and connectionism. Dyslexia is seen as heterogeneous, with a variety of theoretical explanations. When considered in terms of information representation and processing, some specific explanations may be applicable to some specific subtypes. Contributions of the cerebellum to spoken language and reading are presented, and its properties as an information processor are summarised. The cerebellar deficit hypothesis is considered, and some limitations are noted. The popular association of dyslexia and giftedness is referred to, and the possible contribution of the cerebellum to intuition, creative thinking and giftedness is outlined. Speculatively, it is proposed that a "cerebellar surfeit hypothesis" might have explanatory power in relation to the symptomatic characteristics of "Whole Word" subtype dyslexics.

Background: There is growing evidence for a role of the gut microbiome in shaping behaviour relevant to many psychiatric and neurological disorders. Preclinical studies using germ-free (GF) animals have been essential in contributing to our current understanding of the potential importance of the host microbiome for neurodevelopment and behaviour. In particular, it has been repeatedly demonstrated that manipulation of the gut microbiome modulates anxiety-like behaviours. The neural circuits that underlie anxiety-and fear-related behaviours are complex and heavily depend on functional communication between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC). Previously, we have shown that the transcriptional networks within the amygdala and PFC of GF mice are altered. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) act through translational repression to control gene translation and have also been implicated in anxiety-like behaviours. However, it is unknown whether these features of host post-transcriptional machinery are also recruited by the gut microbiome to exert control over CNS transcriptional networks.

This paper examines how current understandings of childhood participation and motor development provide opportunities for using new technologies (such as virtual real-ity—VR) for children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Specifically, the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health is used to conceptualize the role of technology in treatment across body structures and body function, activity performance, and participation (WHO 2007, 2012). First, we review the particular motor control and learning mechanisms that have been implicated in children with atyp-ical motor development, like DCD. This section will highlight avenues for targeted remediation. Next, VR-based rehabilitation systems are reviewed in relation to neurodevelopmental disorders, focusing first on CP and second on more recent applications for children with DCD. We describe the evolution of particular design innovations in virtual rehabilitation including recent advances using tangible interfaces, as well as other methods targeting cognitive function more specifically. Benefits of these various treatments will be viewed through the lens of current theory and evaluated at the level of child and family outcomes. Finally, we consider the broader aspects of the potential for technological innovation in rehabilitation and its impact on brain function, activity competence, and longer-term participation.

ADHD is a neuropsychiatric disorder with cognitive and behavioral components, characterized by symptoms such as impulsivity, hyperactivity, inattention and various educational, social and functional deficits. Initially, ADHD was regarded as exclusively a childhood disorder which was considered to resolve itself in adolescence but recent statistics show this not to be the case. I will start by examining the symptom profiles of ADHD in adults and children, then discuss the treatment options for ADHD in both, adults and children, and compare their efficacy in relation with the manifestation and symptom variance of the disorder that is observed in children and adults.

Key words : ADHD, Adult ADHD, ADHD treatment, DSM V

Cannabis is a multifunctional plant that occupies a unique role in human culture. Some strains are used for hemp, which has a variety of uses; others are used to manufacture marijuana. One problem that has confounded scientists is how to tell different types of cannabis apart without destroying the plant. A research team based at the University of Frankfurt has come up with the answer. The science group has developed a genetic screening method that identifies whethertetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is present in a cannabis plant. THC is the principal

Developmental dyslexia (DD) and developmental coordination disorder (DCD) co-occur frequently, raising the underlying question of shared etiological bases. We investigated the cognitive profile of children with DD, children with DCD, and children with the dual association (DD + DCD) to determine the inherent characteristics of each disorder and explore the possible additional impact of co-morbidity on intellectual, attentional, and psychosocial functioning. The participants were 8- to 12-year-olds (20 DD, 22 DCD, and 23 DD + DCD). Cognitive abilities were assessed by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) and the Continuous Performance Test – Second Edition (CPT-II) and behavioral impairments were evaluated by the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). No differences were found between the three groups on attention testing (CPT-II) or psychosocial characteristics (CBCL), but a higher percentage of DD + DCD children had pathological scores on psychosocial scales. Significant between group differences were observed on Processing Speed Index scores and the block design and symbol search subtests, where DD children fared better than DCD children. No significant differences were evident between the co-morbid vs. the pure groups. Our results clearly show significant differences between children with DD only and children with DCD only. In particular, visuospatial disabilities and heterogeneity of intellectual profile seem to be good markers of DCD. However, it should be noted that despite these distinct and separate characteristics, a common cognitive profile (weaknesses and strengths) is likely shared by both neurodevelopmental disorders. Surprisingly, concerning co-morbidity, DD + DCD association is not associated with a decrease in intellectual or attentional capacities.

The tight association of the human body with trillions of colonizing microbes that we observe today is the result of a long evolutionary history. Only very recently have we started to understand how this symbiosis also affects brain function and behavior. In this hypothesis and theory article, we propose how host-microbe associations potentially influenced mammalian brain evolution and development. In particular, we explore the integration of human brain development with evolution, symbiosis, and RNA biology, which together represent a “social triangle” that drives human social behavior and cognition. We argue that, in order to understand how inter-kingdom communication can affect brain adaptation and plasticity, it is inevitable to consider epigenetic mechanisms as important mediators of genome-microbiome interactions on an individual as well as a transgenerational time scale. Finally, we unite these interpretations with the hologenome theory of evolution. Taken together, we propose a tighter integration of neuroscience fields with host-associated microbiology by taking an evolutionary perspective.

Objective: Recent theories hypothesize that procedural learning may support the frequent overlap between neurodevelopment disorders. The neural circuitry supporting procedural learning includes, among others, portico-cerebellar and cortico-striatal loops. Alteration of these loops may account for the frequent comorbidity between Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and Developmental Dyslexia (DD). The aim of our study was to investigate cerebral changes due to the learning and automatization of a sequence learning task in children with DD, or DCD, or both disorders. Method: fMRI on 48 children (aged 8-12) with DD, DCD or DD+DCD was used to explore their brain activity during procedural tasks, performed either after two weeks of training or in the early stage of learning.
Results: Firstly, our results indicate that all children were able to perform the task with the same level of automaticity, but recruit different brain processes to achieve the same performance. Secondly, our fMRI results do not appear to confirm Nicolson and Fawcett’s model. The neural correlates recruited for procedural learning by the DD and the comorbid groups are very close, while the DCD group presents distinct characteristics. This provide a promising direction on the neural mechanisms associated with procedural learning in neurodevelopment disorders and for understanding comorbidity.

SUMMARY Introduction: Alzheimer's disease is a common pathology of the modern world, especially with ageing populations. This is due to both hereditary components and as a result of numerous injuries to neuronal structures and components of the central nervous system. Therefore, research from multiple perspectives is necessary to discern the complex mechanisms that give rise to this neurodegenerative disease. One perspective is with the use of imaging, and this paper illustrates the usefulness of this approach. Methodology: The material presented in this paper addresses the issues of the etiology of Alzheimer's disease and its effects on nerve cells and changes to the central nervous system. In order to illustrate this, information relating to patients, in the form of CT images, are detailed. Results: From an analysis of the imaging tests presented in this paper, it is noted that the changes occur on the structures of the central nervous system: brain, cerebella cortical brain sharp, periventricular white matter. Beside specific changes, CT exam shows other structures, such as paranasal sinuses, mastoid cells or orbits, do undergo change. Differentiating between these structures is important for diagnosis. Conclusion: The changes taking place in relation to the central nervous system components have consequences on the patient's life. The implication is that Alzheimer's disease should be studied from different perspectives, including the studying of images to support clinical assessments. Imaging can aid the accuracy of diagnosis through the identification of specific areas and causes connection with particular types of dementia.

Objective: There is increasing evidence to suggest that developmental dyslexia (DD) and developmental coordination disorder (DCD) actually form part of a broader disorder. Their frequent association could be justified by a deficit of the procedural memory system, that subtends many of the cognitive, motor and linguistic abilities that are impaired in both DD and DCD. However, studies of procedural learning in these two disorders have yielded divergent results, and in any case no studies have so far addressed the issue of automati- zation (dual-task paradigm).
Methods: We administered a finger tapping task to participants aged 8–12 years (19 DCD, 18 DD, and 22 with both DD and DCD) to explore procedural learning and automatic move- ments in these three groups of children, comparing motor performances at the prelearning stage, after 2 weeks of training, and in a post-training dual-task condition.
Results: First, results indicated that all the children were able to learn a sequence of move- ments and even automatize their movements. Second, they revealed between-groups dif- ferences in procedural/automatization learning abilities, setting the DCD group apart from the other two. Third, contrary to our expectations concerning comorbidity, they suggested that the DD+DCD association does not have an additional impact on behavioral performances.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a structural constituent of membranes specifically in
the central nervous system. Its accumulation in the fetal brain takes place mainly during the last
trimester of pregnancy and continues at very high rates up to the end of the second year of life. Since
the endogenous formation ofDHAseems to be relatively low, DHAintake may contribute to optimal
conditions for brain development. We performed a narrative review on research on the associations
between DHA levels and brain development and function throughout the lifespan. Data from cell
and animal studies justify the indication of DHA in relation to brain function for neuronal cell
growth and differentiation as well as in relation to neuronal signaling. Most data from human
studies concern the contribution of DHA to optimal visual acuity development. Accumulating data
indicate that DHA may have effects on the brain in infancy, and recent studies indicate that the
effect of DHA may depend on gender and genotype of genes involved in the endogenous synthesis
of DHA. While DHA levels may affect early development, potential effects are also increasingly
recognized during childhood and adult life, suggesting a role of DHA in cognitive decline and in
relation to major psychiatric disorders.

Prospective motor control moves the body into the future, from where one is to where one wants to be.  It is a hallmark of intentionality.  But its origin in development is uncertain.  In this study, we tested whether or not the arm movements of newborn infants were prospectively controlled.  We measured the spatiotemporal organisation of 480 neonatal arm movements and 384 arm movements of infants prematurely born at-risk for neurodevelopmental disorder.  We found 75% of healthy term-birth neonatal movements and 68% of prematurely-born infant movements conformed to the G-coupling model of prospective sensorimotor control.  Prospective coupling values were significantly reduced in the latter (p = .010, r = .087).  In both cases prospectively controlled movements were tightly organised by fixed-duration units with a base duration of 218 ms and additional temporal units of 145 ms.  Yet distances remained constant.  Thus, we demonstrate for the first time a precise prospective spatiotemporal organisation of neonatal arm movements and demonstrate at-risk infants exhibit reduced sensorimotor control.  Prospective motor control is a hallmark of primary sensorimotor intentionality and gives a strong embodied foundation to conscious motor agency.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and bipolar disorder (BD) are neurodevelopmental disorders with onset in childhood and early adolescence, and common persistence in adulthood. Both disorders are often undiagnosed, misdiagnosed, and sometimes over diagnosed, leading to high rates of morbidity and disability. The differentiation of these conditions is based on their clinical features, comorbidity, psychiatric family history course of illness, and response to treatment. We review recent relevant findings and highlight epidemiological, clinical, family history, course, and treatment-response differences that can aid the differential diagnosis of these conditions in an outpatient pediatric setting.

Background: To delineate the early progression of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms, this study investigated developmental characteristics of infants at high familial risk for ASD (HR), and infants at low risk (LR). Methods: Participants included 210 HR and 98 LR infants across 4 sites with comparable behavioral data at age 6, 12, and 24 months assessed in the domains of cognitive development (Mullen Scales of Early Learning), adaptive skills (Vineland Adaptive Behavioral Scales), and early behavioral features of ASD (Autism Observation Scale for Infants). Participants evaluated according to the DSM-IV-TR criteria at 24 months and categorized as ASD-positive or ASD-negative were further stratified by empirically derived cutoff scores using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule yielding four groups: HR-ASD-High, HR-ASD-Moderate (HR-ASD-Mod), HR-ASD-Negative (HR-Neg), and LR-ASD-Negative (LR-Neg).

Most behavioral training regimens in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) rely on reward-based reinforcement strategies. Although proven to significantly increase both cognitive and social outcomes and successfully reduce aberrant behaviors, this approach fails to benefit a substantial number of affected individuals. Given the enormous amount of clinical and financial resources devoted to behavioral interventions, there is a surprisingly large gap in our knowledge of the basic reward mechanisms of learning in ASD. Understanding the mechanisms for reward responsiveness and reinforcement-based learning is urgently needed to better inform modifications that might improve current treatments. The fundamental goal of this review is to present a fine-grained literature analysis of reward function in ASD with reference to a validated neurobiological model of reward: the 'wanting'/'liking' framework. Despite some inconsistencies within the available literature, the evaluation acro...

Mood disorders (MDs) are chronic, recurrent mental diseases that affect millions of individuals worldwide. Although the biogenic amine model has provided some clinical utility, a need remains to better understand the interrelated mechanisms that contribute to neuroplasticity deficits in MDs and the means by which various therapeutics mitigate them. Of those therapeutics being investigated, physical activity (PA) has shown clear and consistent promise. Accordingly, the aims of this review are to (1) explicate key modulators, processes, and interactions that impinge upon multiple susceptibility points to effectuate neuroplasticity deficits in MDs; (2) explore the putative mechanisms by which PA mitigates these features; (3) review protocols used to induce the positive effects of PA in MDs; and (4) highlight implications for clinicians and researchers.

Growing evidence supports the notion that dynamic gene expression, subject to epigenetic control, organizes multiple influences to enable a child to learn to listen and to talk. Here, we review neurobiological and genetic influences on spoken language development in the context of results of a longitudinal trial of cochlear implantation of young children with severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss in the Childhood Development after Cochlear Implantation study. We specifically examine the results of cochlear implantation in participants who were congenitally deaf (N=116). Prior to intervention, these participants were subject to naturally imposed constraints in sensory (acoustic-phonologic) inputs during critical phases of development when spoken language skills are typically achieved rapidly. Their candidacy for a cochlear implant was prompted by delays (n=20) or an essential absence of spoken language acquisition (n=96). Observations thus present an opportunity to evaluate the impact of factors that influence the emergence of spoken language, particularly in the context of hearing restoration in sensitive periods for language acquisition. Outcomes demonstrate considerable variation in spoken language learning, although significant advantages exist for the congenitally deaf children implanted prior to 18 months of age. While age at implantation carries high predictive value in forecasting performance on measures of spoken language, several factors show significant association, particularly those related to parent-child interactions. Importantly, the significance of environmental variables in their predictive value for language development varies with age at implantation. These observations are considered in the context of an epigenetic model in which dynamic genomic expression can modulate aspects of auditory learning, offering insights into factors that can influence a child's acquisition of spoken language after cochlear implantation. Increased understanding of these interactions could lead to targeted interventions that J Neurodevelop Disord (2011) 3:388-404

Youth with Developmental Disabilities (DD) are less active and more sedentary than their typically developing peers.The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in time spent sedentary and in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in youth with DD during Physical Education (PE) versus the Fitness Fun zone (FFZ) ®. Twenty-three children (8-17 years) were observed during PE and FFZ on 20 non-consecutive days. Physical activity levels were measured by accelerometers. Repeated measures mixed effects models were used to estimate time spent sedentary and in MVPA during PE versus FFZ. The FFZ led to a greater percent of time spent in MVPA (+19.9, 95%CI: 17.6, 21.5) and less percent of time sedentary (-13.4, 95%CI:-14.9,-11.9) compared to PE. The FFZ is a feasible curriculum that can increase health-enhancing physical activity levels and reduce time spent sedentary for youth with DD.

The complexity of phenomenon of attention is noted. The DSM-V diagnostic criteria for inattention are summarized, along with some related charactersistcs of dissociative disorders.Various psychological aspects of attention deficit are explored including inattention due to overstimulation, or due to lack of sufficient motivation. Other aspects explored include distractibility, and disruption by "task unrelated thoughts". Attention deficits are contextualized in terms of executive function. The notion of dysregulation of attention is considered in relation to brain function, with comments on the role of neurotransmitters, and cautions regarding the use of medication in the treatment of attention deficits within ADHD. Some consequences of simultaneous multiple signal inputs to the "screen" of attentive consciousness are outlined. A number of specific "process related categories" of attention deficit are proposed. The point is made that not all disruption of attention is dysfunctional and indicative of dysregulation! A list of some factors that could contribute to the appearance of "attention deficit"-like symptoms is provided.

The mammalian amygdala is a key emotional brain region for eliciting social behaviour and critically involved in anxiety and fear-related behaviours, and hence a focus of research on neurodevelopmental and stress-related disorders such as autism and anxiety. Recently, increasing evidence implicates host-microbe interactions in the aetiology of these conditions. Germ-free (GF) mice, devoid of any microbiota throughout organismal maturation, are a well-established tool to study the effects of absence of the microbiota on host physiology. A growing body of independently replicated findings confirm that GF animals demonstrate altered anxiety-related behaviour and impaired social behaviour. However, the underlying mechanisms of this interaction and the nature of the pathways involved are only insufficiently understood. To further elucidate the molecular underpinnings of microbe-brain interaction, we therefore exploiting unbiased, genome-wide transcriptional profiling to determine gene expression in the amygdala of GF and GF mice that have been colonised after weaning. Using RNA-sequencing and a comprehensive downstream analysis pipeline we studied the amygdala transcriptome and found significant differences at the level of differential gene expression, exon usage and RNA-editing. Most surprisingly, we noticed upregulation of several immediate early response genes such as Fos, Fosb, Egr2 or Nr4a1 in association with increased CREB signalling in GF mice. In addition, we found differential expression and recoding of several genes implicated in brain physiology processes such as neurotransmission, neuronal plasticity, metabolism and morphology.
In conclusion, our data suggest altered baseline neuronal activity in the amygdala of germ-free animals, which is established during early life and may have implications for understanding development and treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders.

A neurodevelopment function is a basic brain process needed for learning and development. Neurodevelopmental variation refers to differences in neurodevelopmental functioning. Wide variations in these functions exist within and between individuals. These differences can change over time and need not represent pathology or abnormality.Neuro-developmental dysfunctions reflect disruptions of Neuroanatomic structure or psycho physiologic function and may be associated with academic under achievement, behavioral difficulties and problems with social adjustment. For the school-age child, an area of particular focus is academic skill development. Academic disorders have been diagnostically classified as Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) by the revised Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder Fifth Edition (DSM-5).

Technological devices and the internet have become standard tools used by young people in their social, recreational and educational contexts. The utility of digital technology continues to expand and influence the ways young people socialize, learn about the world and develop and experiment with identity. The ability to remain in one’s own home while also connecting with others can be perceived as safer than venturing out in the offline world; however, there are a variety of risks associated with online activities. Some youth may be more at risk of harm than others, such as youth with neurodevelopmental disorders including learning disabilities (LDs), autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). There is an instinct for adults to be protective of children who struggle with disabilities, leading some parents to take an overprotective approach to their child’s internet use. Parents can play a significant role in helping their children navigate the pitfalls associated with online use while enjoying the benefits it provides. In this paper, we discuss the characteristics of young people with neurodevelopmental disorders that may cause difficulties online and review the opportunities and risks associated with internet use. We then discuss ways for parents to provide effective and balanced guidance on internet use for their child by reviewing the literature and offering concepts on digital literacies. The paper ends with a proposed intergenerational, parent–child group intervention that aims to help parents safeguard young people from online harms and offers opportunities for healthy online participation.

IN PRESS

Every seventy-two seconds someone in America develops Alzheimer’s disease (AD). And it has been said that almost everyone living long enough will eventually show evidence of Alzheimer’s disease. Thus far its cause has remained elusive.
Nevertheless, recently, study after study, in which scientists have injected human Alzheimer diseased brain tissue into mice and other laboratory animals that later developed the disease have left little doubt that Alzheimer’s arises from an infectious process, the focus of debate seeming to be which particular disease. But clearly, it must be a disease that is not only statistically widespread in the world today, but that was also prevalent at the time of Dr. Alois Alzheimer.
To be sure, it was German neuropathologist Oskar Fischer of the Prague school of neuropathology, Alzheimer’s great rival, who was the first to suggest that infection might be causative for Alzheimer’s. Fischer’s credentials: he was the co-discoverer of Alzheimer’s disease and tirelessly did autopsies on the brains of patients with Alzheimer’s.
Fischer’s infectious view never gained immediate popularity, although today, more than a century later, a volume of data supporting such an approach has begun to accumulate. But was Fischer’s specific microbe on the right track to discovering the cause of Alzheimer’s to begin with? The evidence uncovered in this book seems to suggest that he was considerably closer than anyone else—either then or since.
In this volume, doctor and medical researcher Lawrence Broxmeyer presents a stunning hypothesis about the bacterial nature of Alzheimer’s disease, forgotten long ago. Immensely readable and enormously well-researched, this work of medical history should change the way we think about, diagnose, and treat this debilitating condition.

KIRKUS REVIEWS: "The author is an internist and a medical researcher, and his double mastery of both the scientific minutiae and historical nuances of his subject matter is breathtaking. This is more than an account of a scientific debate--it's also an examination of the sometimes--unempirical way that such debate proceeds, as it's conducted by human beings with agendas of their own. Although it's a relatively short book--less than 200 pages of text--it is by no means a quick read. Nevertheless, readers with strong science backgrounds will be impressed by the author's undeniable competence, as well as his journalistic approach to chartering the evolution of thought regarding one of our era's most challenging diseases."

Literature suggests that neuroscience is of value to education for teaching in traditional subjects, and also for social-emotional development (including mental health). An understanding of neuroscience can contribute to a change in the aims of education, encouraging a move away from content towards the training of cognitive function. Neuroscience may eventually lead to a fundamental reconsideration of the very purpose of education, re-framing it as an attempt to nurture the psyche in accordance with its evolving biological nature (rather than philosophical ideals or political agenda). This paper provides an introductory overview of how education can be informed and influenced by ideas concerning brain systems and their development, together with associated psychological processes. The need for a vocabulary to interface and integrate neuroscience and educational theory is noted, and it is proposed that Piagetian concepts (equilibration, schema and sensori-motor development) are ideally suited to provide the foundation for such an integration.

Medline studies in the Parkinson's literature have cited a tuberculosis-like germ called Nocardia as being responsible for Parkinson's disease. Kohbata seemingly cemented a relationship between Nocardia and Parkinson's by finding serologic evidence in 20 of 20 Parkinson's patients, acknowledging that blood tests for Nocardia and the mycobacteria such as tuberculosis often cross-react, as they belong to the same order of bacteria, the Actinomycetales. Besides this difficulty in differentiation, a well-used medical school textbook of microbiology, Atlas, points out that even among experts, different observers may classify the same strain of bacteria as Nocardia or Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Parkinson's: another look is a theoretical article which presents compelling, well-documented evidence for an infectious cause for Parkinson's disease on historical, epidemiological, pharmacologic, microbiological, and biochemical levels. A supportive Norwegian study done by Berstad and Berstad in May of 2017 is also attached.