Manta Rays

Raja Ampat, located in West Papua-Indonesia, is renowned as a favoured tourist destination for manta ray tourism. In the years following the pandemic, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of visitors. Despite the benefits from tourists' expenditures, however, managing the influx of tourists poses an ongoing challenge in promoting sustainable tourism. This chapter focuses on carrying capacity studies examining manta ray tourism's economic, social and physical aspects in the Dampier Strait-Raja Ampat. Data was collected through on-site observations, interviews and surveys. The study aims to contribute to efforts and actions to reduce adverse effects on manta ray populations and their environments while advancing conservation, educational initiatives and responsible tourism practices for manta ray sustainable tourism. In summary, recommendations for sustainable tourism practices are proposed, including collaboration between stakeholders to continue research and monitoring, enforce guidelines and support conservation initiatives.

Many shark bites to humans, including fatalities, have involved surfers. Various personal shark deterrents are commercially available to surfers, including Rpela v2, which is a battery-powered device fitted to a surfboard. It produces an electric field around the surfer aimed at deterring sharks from approaching or biting by disrupting their electroreception organs. The device was tested on white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at Salisbury Island, Western Australia. In total, 46 trials were done with the Rpela v2 either active or not active to determine the device's effect on sharks' response to a floating board with fish bait attached (to tempt a bite). When active, Rpela v2 significantly reduced the probability of a bite (0.75 to 0.25, a 66% reduction) and interaction (i.e. bite or touch) (0.80 to 0.50, a 38% reduction) occurring compared with when it was inactive. The number of passes taken by a shark also reduced and the mean distance between the shark and the bait increased when Rpela v2 was active. It is noted that Rpela v2 did not completely remove the risk of shark bite, but the magnitude of the reduction in risk is of a level that surfers are likely to consider meaningful and it could be expected that Rpela v2 would provide more time for surfers to leave the water (i.e. as inferred from the number of passes) when a potentially dangerous shark is present. Implications for the role of personal deterrents in strategic management of the risk of shark bite are also discussed.

Attacks on humans by predators occur worldwide. This paper analyzes several documented and reported attacks in the available literature and discusses the causes and consequences of this type of human-wildlife conflict. We make a characterization of types of attacks and discuss a possible biased report of accidents between developed countries and exotic places with increased ecotourism activities. Finally, we propose a set of major suggestions to minimize both accidents and conflicts with predatory wildlife. We provide here a thorough comprehensive discussion on the following main topics: a) why predators attack humans, b) why accidents are apparently increasing and c) how to better report those accidents in order to make them available for proper study by the scientific community. The need to reduce the number of attacks and conflicts with wildlife is crucial for the safety of populations living close to protected areas, predator conservation and, sustained and safe development of e...

Seagrass meadows are an important component of coastal ecosystems globally, and they capture and store organic carbon in living biomass and sediments. Geographical estimates of blue carbon in seagrass habitats are regionally biased, with limited information from the Indo-Pacific region, including Indonesia. Seagrass extent in Indonesia is declining rapidly, and it has been suggested that marine protected areas (MPAs) are an important instrument to support protection of seagrass ecosystems and their services. Thus, this study is aimed at quantifying and comparing sedimentary carbon stocks and sources of organic carbon from seagrass meadows located in undisturbed areas outside MPA, disturbed areas outside MPA, and within MPA in three small islands in Indonesia. The sediment carbon stocks from this study ranged from 19.81 to 117.49 Mg C ha−1, with the highest stock measured inside MPA (77.15 ± 1.38 Mg C ha−1), followed by undisturbed outside MPA (36.08 Mg C ha−1), and the lowest stock ...

The research reported in this document was conducted by a group of researchers within the Marine and Tropical Sciences Research Facility (MTSRF) Program 8 (led by Dr Colin Simpfendorfer), under Project 4.8.6 (led by Professor Bruce Prideaux). The specific task addressed by this group's activities relate to Research Task 4.8.6 (a): To identify relative social and economic values of key marine species, including large fish around tourist facilities. This report constitutes the Final Report of that research task, and also includes a section dedicated to the socio-economic values of marine turtles in relation to scuba diving tourism in the Far Northern Section of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Section 6). The following sub-sections of this introduction provide a brief overview of the methodological approaches used to meet the goals of the project, with more specific details provided in the main body.

The resources of Baluran National Park have been used for marine and coastal ecotourism. The increasing number of visitors has led to the increasing of tourists and its related activities. This condition will cause the degradation of resources and the welfare of local communities. This research aims to determine the sustainability of coastal ecotourism management by calculating the effective number of tourists who can be accepted. The study uses the concept of tourism carrying capacity, consists the ecological environment, economic, social and physical carrying capacity. The results of the combined carrying capacity analysis in Baluran National Park ecotourism shows that the number of 3.288 people per day (151.248 tourists per year) is the maximum number of accepted tourists. The current number of tourist arrivals is only 241 people per day (87.990 tourists per year) which is far below the carrying capacity.

The provision of the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) protection status imposed us to formulate an effective interception Standard Operational Procedure (SOP) for the visitor as an effort to manage sustainable fisheries resources. The research was conducted using visual underwater survey (VUS) method and direct observation. The SOP formulation was effectively applied in Kwatisore (Papua) and Probolinggo (East Java) beach. However, the SOP was made differently due to the differences in the behavior of whale sharks and also the differences in the water conditions in both places. The groups of whale sharks in Kwatisore frequently interacted with humans. Besides, Kwatisore has also a clear beach that allows the visitor for diving and snorkeling while the Probolinggo beach has turbid water. As a result of those differences, the content of the SOP also was made distinctively. The SOP in Kwatisore summarized the procedure of touching prohibitions, using flash, making noise and safe distance f...

Responses to unprovoked shark bite involve public policies and management approaches that contend with the needs of public safety and the responsibility to protect threatened species. In Australia (Queensland and New South Wales) and South Africa, methods that aim to capture and kill large sharks adjacent to popular beaches are a long-standing approach aimed at reducing the risk of shark bite. This paper reviews non-lethal alternatives to catch and kill 6 methods , and suggests optimal conditions for non-lethal systems that will assist policy makers and beach authorities in choosing public safety responses that can be applied at the ocean beach scale. Deployment needs to be strategic with sufficient knowledge of their likely effectiveness under local conditions. At this stage we believe there is no single approach universally applicable to ocean beaches where unprovoked shark bite occurs, although well considered and locally appropriate can reduce risk. .

Many shark bites to humans, including fatalities, have involved surfers. Various personal shark deterrents are commercially available to surfers, including Rpela v2, which is a battery-powered device fitted to a surfboard. It produces an electric field around the surfer aimed at deterring sharks from approaching or biting by disrupting their electroreception organs. The device was tested on white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at Salisbury Island, Western Australia. In total, 46 trials were done with the Rpela v2 either active or not active to determine the device's effect on sharks' response to a floating board with fish bait attached (to tempt a bite). When active, Rpela v2 significantly reduced the probability of a bite (0.75 to 0.25, a 66% reduction) and interaction (i.e. bite or touch) (0.80 to 0.50, a 38% reduction) occurring compared with when it was inactive. The number of passes taken by a shark also reduced and the mean distance between the shark and the bait increased when Rpela v2 was active. It is noted that Rpela v2 did not completely remove the risk of shark bite, but the magnitude of the reduction in risk is of a level that surfers are likely to consider meaningful and it could be expected that Rpela v2 would provide more time for surfers to leave the water (i.e. as inferred from the number of passes) when a potentially dangerous shark is present. Implications for the role of personal deterrents in strategic management of the risk of shark bite are also discussed.

This study examines the approach patterns of sharks in the vicinity of human divers, focusing on the diver's body orientation and a shark's distance from the sea bed when approaching the diver. A standardized video method was used to record the scenario of diver(s) kneeling in the sand while being approached by sharks. This showed that sharks had a preference to move in from outside a diver's field of vision while larger sharks stayed closer to the sea floor. This may simultaneously enhance camouflage while reducing potential escape routes for the approaching animal. This stealth behavior raises the question of how sharks may interpret humans when moving towards them.

Through the perspective of partnership for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 17th), this study aims to identify and describe the information gaps among stakeholders of the dive tourism industry of Komodo National Park as one of the super-priority tourism destinations in Indonesia. Researchers studied documents, performed field observation, and conducted in-depth interviews with 20 stakeholders. Qualitative content analysis revealed several notable findings. First, the information gaps among stakeholders are generally linked to knowledge disparity about tourism-technical and local sociocultural issues. Sociocultural information, particularly on environment preservation issues, shows the tendency to predominate everyday discourse rather than tourism technical information. Second, the foreigner community appears to be better than local stakeholders at mastering the sociocultural information discourse, particularly in terms of collaboration on environment preservation information. Fur...

Abstract: Coastal and Marine Tourism (CMT), as part of the oceans economy, offers significant development opportunities that can contribute to job creation and sustainability. However, there are limited national and international best practices to assess the economic impacts of CMT. The aim of this study was to reflect on experiences from a piloting exercise that was undertaken to inform the development of a framework to assess the economic contribution of CMT to South Africa’s tourism sector. Previous studies, focus on contextualising Operation Phakisa, examining CMT globally and in South Africa, and highlighting economic contributions identified in selected CMT case studies (including the economic models generally used). Drawing on the review of existing studies as well as discussions with key economic experts, a framework for a pilot study to assess the economic impacts of CMT in South Africa was developed. Supply (coastal and marine tourism business owners, accommodation establi...

Cage diving is the most important activity for the sustainable use of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). However, information related to their behaviour during ecotourism is scarce. This study provides useful information for monitoring C. carcharias during cage‐diving activities around Guadalupe Island, Mexico. Surface behaviour of 106 white sharks was recorded for 87 days on‐board six cage‐diving boats in 2012, 2013, and 2014. Of the observed sharks, 63% were immature specimens (n = 67) and 37% were considered mature (n = 39). Seventy‐one per cent were males (n = 75) and 29% were females (n = 31). Interactions were classified into one of the 11 behaviours: parading, close inspection, horizontal attack, vertical attack, bait catching, feeding, not feeding, buoy catching, encounter, escape, and staying. Parading, close inspections, and horizontal attacks were performed more often by mature males, whereas immature females performed more vertical attacks, with no differences betwee...

International tourism market competition is forcing each country to diversify tourism products that uniqueness of each country. Tourism market has shifted from "product driven" go to"market driven". It means, consumers are increasingly concerned with efforts in environmentally sustainable tourism, quality of product and service consumer rights. Tourism development of coastal areas become an investment that gives the advantage of the social, physical, and biotic aspects. Therefore, research in the coastal area of Buton Utara Regency conducted at three locations with different ecosystem types, which include: Bonelipu Beach, Mangrove Ecotourism Kulisusu Bay, Labuan Marine Tourism. The data obtained through the primary and secondary data collection, interviews related to the physical and non-physical condition of the delta area, and survey to check the condition of the location.The environmental impact of tourism development in the coastal areas Bonelipu Beach, Mangr...

Responses to unprovoked shark bite involve public policies and management approaches that contend with the needs of public safety and the responsibility to protect threatened species. In Australia (Queensland and New South Wales) and South Africa, methods that aim to capture and kill large sharks adjacent to popular beaches are a long-standing approach aimed at reducing the risk of shark bite. This paper reviews non-lethal alternatives to catch and kill 6 methods , and suggests optimal conditions for non-lethal systems that will assist policy makers and beach authorities in choosing public safety responses that can be applied at the ocean beach scale. Deployment needs to be strategic with sufficient knowledge of their likely effectiveness under local conditions. At this stage we believe there is no single approach universally applicable to ocean beaches where unprovoked shark bite occurs, although well considered and locally appropriate can reduce risk. .

Many shark bites to humans, including fatalities, have involved surfers. Various personal shark deterrents are commercially available to surfers, including Rpela v2, which is a battery-powered device fitted to a surfboard. It produces an electric field around the surfer aimed at deterring sharks from approaching or biting by disrupting their electroreception organs. The device was tested on white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at Salisbury Island, Western Australia. In total, 46 trials were done with the Rpela v2 either active or not active to determine the device's effect on sharks' response to a floating board with fish bait attached (to tempt a bite). When active, Rpela v2 significantly reduced the probability of a bite (0.75 to 0.25, a 66% reduction) and interaction (i.e. bite or touch) (0.80 to 0.50, a 38% reduction) occurring compared with when it was inactive. The number of passes taken by a shark also reduced and the mean distance between the shark and the bait increased when Rpela v2 was active. It is noted that Rpela v2 did not completely remove the risk of shark bite, but the magnitude of the reduction in risk is of a level that surfers are likely to consider meaningful and it could be expected that Rpela v2 would provide more time for surfers to leave the water (i.e. as inferred from the number of passes) when a potentially dangerous shark is present. Implications for the role of personal deterrents in strategic management of the risk of shark bite are also discussed.

Responses to unprovoked shark bite involve public policies and management approaches that contend with the needs of public safety and the responsibility to protect threatened species. In Australia (Queensland and New South Wales) and South Africa, methods that aim to capture and kill large sharks adjacent to popular beaches are a long-standing approach aimed at reducing the risk of shark bite. This paper reviews non-lethal alternatives to catch and kill 6 methods , and suggests optimal conditions for non-lethal systems that will assist policy makers and beach authorities in choosing public safety responses that can be applied at the ocean beach scale. Deployment needs to be strategic with sufficient knowledge of their likely effectiveness under local conditions. At this stage we believe there is no single approach universally applicable to ocean beaches where unprovoked shark bite occurs, although well considered and locally appropriate can reduce risk. .

The provision of the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) protection status imposed us to formulate an effective interception Standard Operational Procedure (SOP) for the visitor as an effort to manage sustainable fisheries resources. The research was conducted using visual underwater survey (VUS) method and direct observation. The SOP formulation was effectively applied in Kwatisore (Papua) and Probolinggo (East Java) beach. However, the SOP was made differently due to the differences in the behavior of whale sharks and also the differences in the water conditions in both places. The groups of whale sharks in Kwatisore frequently interacted with humans. Besides, Kwatisore has also a clear beach that allows the visitor for diving and snorkeling while the Probolinggo beach has turbid water. As a result of those differences, the content of the SOP also was made distinctively. The SOP in Kwatisore summarized the procedure of touching prohibitions, using flash, making noise and safe distance f...

Many reports have categorized the frequency, circumstances, and causes for interactions between sharks and humans, often using the behaviorally inaccurate term "attack." The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (Department) instead uses the term "incident," defined as interactions where a shark touches a person, their board, or kayak, without provocation and with or without causing injury. We created a comprehensive database of California shark incidents by reviewing, verifying, and updating past records, and examined the frequency of confirmed incidents, updated reports with new information, and examined similarities and differences in incident circumstances. Two hundred and one incidents were verified in California waters between 1950 and 2021, with 107 causing injury and 15 resulting in fatalities. The vast majority (178) involved White Sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). Contrary to past reports of White Shark incidents being concentrated in a portion of northern California, incidents have occurred statewide, with some of the highest numbers in Southern California. While total reported incidents are increasing, the annual number of incidents resulting in injuries or fatalities remains low. Frequency of incidents was not found to be greater around the full moon, dawn, or dusk but was greater during summer and fall months, as expected.

The provision of the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) protection status imposed us to formulate an effective interception Standard Operational Procedure (SOP) for the visitor as an effort to manage sustainable fisheries resources. The research was conducted using visual underwater survey (VUS) method and direct observation. The SOP formulation was effectively applied in Kwatisore (Papua) and Probolinggo (East Java) beach. However, the SOP was made differently due to the differences in the behavior of whale sharks and also the differences in the water conditions in both places. The groups of whale sharks in Kwatisore frequently interacted with humans. Besides, Kwatisore has also a clear beach that allows the visitor for diving and snorkeling while the Probolinggo beach has turbid water. As a result of those differences, the content of the SOP also was made distinctively. The SOP in Kwatisore summarized the procedure of touching prohibitions, using flash, making noise and safe distance f...

How animals use a set of physical characteristics and resources in a habitat, together with the time over which they use them, is known as habitat use (Hall et al., 1997). Energy is the most precious asset in an ecosystem (Lawson et al., 2019), such that an animal must always be concerned with conserving it by balancing its acquisition and loss (MacArthur & Pianka, 1966) while minimizing predation risk (Bartumeus & Catalan, 2009). Consequently, animals must make different decisions throughout the day, optimizing their energy use (e.g., whether to hunt, take refuge, socialize for reproductive purposes or not, and rest) (Heithaus et al., 2001; Papastamatiou et al., 2011). This will lead to specific patterns of activity depending on the physical conditions (tides, time of day, temperature, wind, vegetation, currents, bathymetry, etc.) and external biological conditions (distribution and density of their predators and prey), as well as physiological requirements, at a given time (Houston & McNamara, 2014). In general terms, the more linear movements (and fewer

One recurring factor seemingly causing an increase in shark attacks is lunar cycles, especially the full moon. However, the potential association between shark attacks and lunar cycles has never been verified. Our results show that a correlation between shark attacks and moon cycles does not statistically exist. With no correlation between shark attack rates―independent of people's activities―and lunar cycles found, we also applied the same statistical procedures to surfer incidents only. The reasoning for narrowing the attacks to those on surfers was as follows: (1) Surfers indicate the best conditions to surf exist during the full and new moon. (2) Surfers are more exposed to shark attacks than non-surfers. However, as with the initial results, shark attacks involving surfers did not show any correlation to lunar cycles, neither did those involving non-surfers. These results indicate that potential triggers for shark attacks need to be studied in a more pragmatic manner, using...

Shark attacks are a global phenomenon that attracts widespread attention and publicity, often with negative outcomes for shark populations. Despite the widespread perceptions of shark attacks, trends in human water activities and shark populations are both dynamic, resulting in variable rates of shark attacks over space and time. Understanding variable trends in shark attacks may contribute to a better understanding of risk, and a more tempered response in the wake of an attack. We found that global shark attack rates are low, yet variable across global regions and over decades. Countries with low populations were found to have the highest rates of attack, while countries with high populations (U.S.A., Australia, South Africa) tended to have overall low attack rates, but also much more interannual variability. From the 1960s to the present, those countries with the highest populations also tended to be the places where attack rates have increased. Ultimately, shark attack risk is also driven by local conditions (e.g., time of day, species present); however, a global scale understanding of attack rates helps place risk into perspective and may contribute to a more scientifically-grounded discussion of sharks, and their management and conservation.

A large reef manta ray (Manta alfredi) aggregation has been observed off the north Sudanese Red Sea coast since the 1950s. Sightings have been predominantly within the boundaries of a marine protected area (MPA), which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in July 2016. Contrasting economic development trajectories have been proposed for the area (small-scale ecotourism and large-scale island development). To examine space-use, Wildlife Computers® SPOT 5 tags were secured to three manta rays. A two-state switching Bayesian state space model (BSSM), that allowed movement parameters to switch between resident and travelling, was fit to the recorded locations, and 50% and 95% kernel utilization distributions (KUD) home ranges calculated. A total of 682 BSSM locations were recorded between 30 October 2012 and 6 November 2013. Of these, 98.5% fell within the MPA boundaries; 99.5% for manta 1, 91.5% for manta 2, and 100% for manta 3. The BSSM identified that all three mantas were re...

Global coral reef related tourism is one of the most significant examples of nature-based tourism from a single ecosystem. Coral reefs attract foreign and domestic visitors and generate revenues, including foreign exchange earnings, in over 100 countries and territories. Understanding the full value of coral reefs to tourism, and the spatial distribution of these values, provides an important incentive for sustainable reef management. In the current work, global data from multiple sources, including social media and crowd-sourced datasets, were used to estimate and map two distinct components of reef value. The first component is local "reef-adjacent" value, an overarching term used to capture a range of indirect benefits from coral reefs, including provision of sandy beaches, sheltered water, food, and attractive views. The second component is "on-reef" value, directly associated with in-water activities such diving and snorkelling. Tourism values were estimated as a proportion of the total visits and spending by coastal tourists within 30 km of reefs (excluding urban areas). Reef-adjacent values were set as a fixed proportion of 10% of this expenditure. On-reef values were based on the relative abundance of dive-shops and underwater photos in different countries and territories. Maps of value assigned to specific coral reef locations show considerable spatial variability across distances of just a few kilometres. Some 30% of the world's reefs are of value in the tourism sector, with a total value estimated at nearly US$36 billion, or over 9% of all coastal tourism value in the world's coral reef countries.

A detailed understanding of the dynamics of small-scale (10s km) habitat use by the reef manta ray (Mobula alfredi) in the Maldives Archipelago is required to develop an effective national conservation management plan for this wide-ranging species. Here, a combination of photo-ID sightings data and acoustic telemetry were used to investigate both long-term M. alfredi visitation trends and small-scale movement patterns to key habitats on the eastern side of Baa Atoll (Hanifaru Bay feeding area, Dhigu Thila multifunctional site, and Nelivaru Thila cleaning station). All tagged and most of the sighted M. alfredi exhibited high affinity to the eastern side of Baa Atoll, where 99% of detections occurred, and 69% of individuals were re-sighted in multiple years. Sightings data suggests that visitation patterns may be associated with differences in habitat use by sex and maturity status. Boosted regression trees indicated that tag detection probability at Hanifaru Bay increased with increa...

A large reef manta ray (Manta alfredi) aggregation has been observed off the north Sudanese Red Sea coast since the 1950s. Sightings have been predominantly within the boundaries of a marine protected area (MPA), which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in July 2016. Contrasting economic development trajectories have been proposed for the area (small-scale ecotourism and large-scale island development). To examine space-use, Wildlife Computers® SPOT 5 tags were secured to three manta rays. A two-state switching Bayesian state space model (BSSM), that allowed movement parameters to switch between resident and travelling, was fit to the recorded locations, and 50% and 95% kernel utilization distributions (KUD) home ranges calculated. A total of 682 BSSM locations were recorded between 30 October 2012 and 6 November 2013. Of these, 98.5% fell within the MPA boundaries; 99.5% for manta 1, 91.5% for manta 2, and 100% for manta 3. The BSSM identified that all three mantas were re...

There is increasing concern about the conservation status of sharks. However, the presence of numerous different (and potentially mutually exclusive) policies complicates management implementation and public understanding of the process. We distributed an online survey to members of the largest professional shark and ray research societies to assess member knowledge of and attitudes toward different conservation policies. Questions covered society member opinions on conservation and management policies, personal histories of involvement in advocacy and management, and perceptions of the approach of conservation nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to shark conservation. One hundred and two surveys were completed (overall response rate 21%). Respondents considered themselves knowledgeable about and actively involved in conservation and management policy; a majority believed scientists have a responsibility to advocate for conservation (75%), and majorities have sent formal public comments to policymakers (54%) and included policy suggestions in their papers (53%). They believe sustainable shark fisheries are possible, are currently happening today (in a few places), and should be the goal instead of banning fisheries. Respondents were generally less supportive of newer limit-based (i.e., policies that ban exploitation entirely without a speciesspecific focus) conservation policy tools, such as shark sanctuaries and bans on the sale of shark fins, than of target-based fisheries management tools (i.e., policies that allow for sustainable harvest of species whose populations can withstand it), such as fishing quotas. Respondents were generally supportive of environmental NGO efforts to conserve sharks but raised concerns about some NGOs that they perceived as using incorrect information and focusing on the wrong problems. Our results show there is an ongoing debate in shark conservation and management circles relative to environmental policy on target-based natural resources management tools versus limit-based conservation tools. They also suggest that closer communication between the scientific and environmental NGO communities may be needed to recognize and reconcile differing values and objectives between these groups.

Conflict between humans and large predators is a longstanding challenge that can present negative consequences for humans and wildlife. Sharks have a global distribution and are considered to pose a potential threat to humans; concurrently many shark species are themselves threatened. Developing strategies for coexistence between humans and this keystone group is imperative. We assess blimp surveillance as a technique to simply and effectively reduce shark encounters at ocean beaches and determine the social acceptance of this technique as compared to an established mitigation strategy—shark meshing. We demonstrate the suitability of blimps for risk mitigation, with detection probabilities of shark analogues by professional lifeguards of 0.93 in ideal swimming conditions. Social surveys indicate strong social acceptance of blimps and preference for non-lethal shark mitigation. We show that continuous aerial surveillance can provide a measurable reduction in risk from sharks, improvi...

The transformation of the fishing industry into tourism has become a global trend. Due to the continuous crisis on the field, professional fishermen turn to maritime tourism activities, providing a memorable tourism experience to visitors. Fishing tourism is a relatively new development in sustainable tourism, where tourists have the opportunity to participate in fishing operations by casting and pulling in the nets and taste freshly caught fish cooked on board. Over the past seven years, Greece, following the other European countries, has rapidly adopted this conversion into tourism. The aim of this research is to examine the possibilities and prospects for the development of fishing tourism in Greece. This is achieved through face-to-face interviews with 40 experienced fishers who wanted to be actively involved in this whole process. The analysis of data revealed positive results in this groundbreaking form of tourism.

Despite the low chance of a person being bitten by a shark, there are serious associated costs. Electronic deterrents are currently the only types of personal deterrent with empirical evidence of a substantial reduction in the probability of being bitten by a shark. We aimed to predict the number of people who could potentially avoid being bitten by sharks in Australia if they wear personal electronic deterrents. We used the Australian Shark Attack File from 1900 to 2020 to develop sinusoidal time-series models of per capita incidents, and then stochastically projected these to 2066. We predicted that up to 1063 people (range: 185–2118) could potentially avoid being bitten across Australia by 2066 if all people used the devices. Avoiding death and injury of people over the next half-century is of course highly desirable, especially when considering the additional costs associated with the loss of recreational, commercial and tourism revenue potentially in the tens to hundreds of mil...

Manta rays are flagship species for marine conservation because of a number of threats including anthropogenic, overfishing, plastics (microplastics), over tourism, commercial trade (gills for medicine), and chaotic shipping lines where they often injured or killed. Because of these reasons, manta ray face risk of extinction and listed on the Red List of IUCN. A number of studies present the value of this fish estimated millions of dollars per year from tourism which show much greater valuable alive than dead. Responsible manta ray tourism encourages stakeholders to protect the species by generating incentives from tourism while develop conservations initiatives to protect the species. Desk study on current literatures were reviewed to identify the role of stakeholders in supporting the sustainable management of manta ray tourism. This chapter explored the operations of manta ray tourism in Indonesia as the study areas. In summary, to reach the positive contributions from manta ray tourism, there is an important role of co-management between stakeholders to ensure the sustainable operations and conservation of the ecology, economy, and socio-culture.

Coastal resources are an important component for recreational activities. With increasing tourism activities in the world, beaches in several parts of the world are getting each time much crowded with the resulting threats to local ecosystems and local people, what calls for a much appropriate resource management practices. This project attempted to outline and describe the carrying capacity process as a support tool for coastal management. This research aimed to determine the recreational carrying capacity of Faro Beach (Portugal) and Tofo Beach (Mozambique), based on the combination of the tourist carrying capacity assessment framework developed by Cifuentes (1992) and the PAOT approach (Manning, 2002) and supported by field surveys, tourist counts, on-site biophysical characteristics and questionnaires. Results showed that physico-ecological carrying capacity should be between 1,491 and 2,982 visits/day (at Faro Beach) and between 5,301 and 10,601 visits/day (at Tofo Beach) with impact acceptability curves being 305 and 608 tourists (for local people and tourists respectively, at Faro Beach), and 358 and 714 (for local people and tourists respectively, at Tofo Beach). These results suggest that the physico-ecological carrying can be applied for ecosystem management, whilst the socio-cultural carrying capacity should be addressed when management objectives are tourists and beach users. Importantly it is necessary to address the highest level of support showed to prospective managerial options.