Legal text

In this study, it was aimed to evaluate the employment processes of school principals in Turkey, based on legal texts and the opinions of school principals. The research was designed using the case study model. The study group of the research consists of twenty-four school principals working in different districts of Muğla Province. The study group was determined by using maximum variation sampling, one of the purposive sampling methods. The data of the study were collected through face-toface interviews with school principals using a semi-structured interview form developed by the researcher. The collected data were analyzed using the inductive analysis technique. The results of the data obtained through interviews in the study indicated various problems related to the regulation for the appointment of administrators, employment and working conditions of school principals, and the professionalization of administration. Based on the results obtained from the analysis of legal texts related to school administration, these issues were discussed within the scope of past practices, and recommendations were presented.

In this article, the authors analyze instances of mood and modality in modern Mongolian juridical texts. As shown by the authors, Mongolian legal and juridical texts exhibit specific stylistic features. This study specifically analyses Mongolian legal texts adopted between 1993-1996 by the State Great Khural (the unicameral parliament of Mongolia). Within the central system of Mongolian modality, these texts exhibit examples of the modality of reality, necessity, possibility, and authenticity. The texts also provide examples of basic modality and some types of additional modality belonging to the peripheral system of Mongolian modality.

In this paper, we present a method based on Linear Discriminant Analysis for legal text classification of extremely noisy data, such as duplicated documents classified in different classes. The results show that Linear Discriminant Analysis obtains very good performances both in clean and noisy conditions, if used as classifier in ensemble learning and in multi-label text classification. 1 Motivation and Background We address text categorization of businessoriented legal documents in Italian, but with a custom and overlapping hierarchy of product categories. A typical approach to tackle similar tasks is to exploit resources such as EUROVOC (Daudaravicius, 2012), a multilingual thesaurus consisting of over 6700 hierarchically-organised class descriptors used by many organizations of the European Union (EU) for the classification and retrieval of official documents. Our editorial system has a hierarchy of 23 product categories and more than 20600 labels, manually annotated and customized for different clients in more than 15 years, hence it is not possible to exploit resources like EUROVOC to categorize documents. In this paper, we propose a fast and efficient method for document classification for noisy data based on Linear Discriminant Analysis, a dimensionality reduction technique that has been employed successfully in many domains, including neuroimaging and medicine. We believe that our contribution will be useful to the NLP community in the context of document categorization as

Artykuł analizuje zjawisko intertekstualno ci tekstów prawnych w tłumaczeniu na przykładzie powi zanych ze sob dokumentów mi dzynarodowych z zakresu handlu lud mi (ONZ, Rada Europy i UE). Zidentyfikowano cztery rodzaje relacji wyst puj cych w przypadku tłumacze : 1) relacja pomi dzy tekstem ródłowym a innymi zbli onymi aktami prawnymi w j zyku ródłowym; 2) relacja pomi dzy tekstem ródłowym a docelowym; 3) relacja pomi dzy tekstem docelowym a wcze niejszymi tłumaczeniami powi zanych aktów; 4) relacja pomi dzy tekstem docelowym a aktami prawnymi kraju docelowego. W cz ci analitycznej zbadano szczegółowo powi zania mi dzy dokumentami ródłowymi, spójno tekstu docelowego z poprzednimi tłumaczeniami oraz jego dopasowanie tekstowe, analizuj c tłumaczenia niemal identycznej w j zyku angielskim definicji handlu lud mi. Korzystaj c z metafory hipertekstu Mattili, autorka dowodzi, i wbrew postawionej hipotezie tłumaczenie tworzy niesymetryczny hipertekst, cz ciowo zamazuj cy relacje mi dzy tekstami ródłowymi i kreuj cy nowe zale no ci intertekstualne na skutek rekontekstualizacji, zniekształce wynikłych podczas procesu tłumaczenia, braku standaryzacji ekwiwalentów, czynników idiosynkratycznych i (zbyt) indywidualnych decyzji tłumaczy. Relacje intertekstualne w tłumaczeniu wydaj si by bardziej zło one i mniej przewidywalne.

In questo lavoro si espone uno studio contrastivo italiano-spagnolo sui verbi del tipo canticchiare e canturrear, solitamente denominati verbi valutativi suffissati (VVS) o verbos apreciativos. A partire da due corpora sincronici, si svolge un’analisi quantitativa e qualitativa delle forme riscontrate, al fine di determinare quali siano i VVS più frequenti nelle due lingue in esame. Si analizzano, inoltre, possibili fenomeni di variazione lungo l’asse diafasico, diamesico, e diatopico, così come le caratteristiche semantico-azionali dei 25 VVS più ricorrenti.

EuroVoc is a multilingual thesaurus that was built for organizing the legislative documentary of the European Union institutions. It contains thousands of categories at different levels of specificity and its descriptors are targeted by legal texts in almost thirty languages. In this work we propose a unified framework for Eu-roVoc classification on 22 languages by finetuning modern Transformer-based pretrained language models. We study extensively the performance of our trained models and show that they significantly improve the results obtained by a similar tool-JEX-on the same dataset. The code and the fine-tuned models were open sourced, together with a programmatic interface that eases the process of loading the weights of a trained model and of classifying a new document.

EuroVoc is a multilingual thesaurus that was built for organizing the legislative documentary of the European Union institutions. It contains thousands of categories at different levels of specificity and its descriptors are targeted by legal texts in almost thirty languages. In this work we propose a unified framework for Eu-roVoc classification on 22 languages by finetuning modern Transformer-based pretrained language models. We study extensively the performance of our trained models and show that they significantly improve the results obtained by a similar tool-JEX-on the same dataset. The code and the fine-tuned models were open sourced, together with a programmatic interface that eases the process of loading the weights of a trained model and of classifying a new document.

Atbuosh, M. A. (2023). New Sabaean Inscription on Miḥrāb and its role in the healing of diseases. Journal of Studies in the History and Civilization of Arabia, vol. 1, (1), King Saud University. Riyadh, pp. 41-59.

Publication of a new Sabaean inscription, related to the 'Miḥrāb' part in ancient South Arabian temples, and its role in the healing of diseases. This may provide an example of 'Therapeutic Incubation' i.e., sleeping in the temple to receive healing from the god, with ʿAthtar providing healing for patients in a particular place called the mḥrbt (Miḥrāba).

يُعنى البحث بنشر نقش سبئي جديد عن الجزء المسمى "مِحراب" في معابد جنوب الجزيرة العربية القديمة، ودوره في شفاء الأمراض. ويبدو ذلك مثالاً على ممارسة "الحالومة الشفائية"، والمقصود بها طقس النوم في المعبد لتلقي الاستشفاء من الإله، ممثلاً بالإله عثـتر الذي يظهر مانحاً الشفاء للمرضى في موضع محدد يسمى "م ح ر ب ت" (مِحرابَة). وقد عُثر على صورة هذا النقش على شبكة الانترنت، إذ تمت مشاركة عدة صور له بعد نبش عشوائي غير مشروع أثناء الحرب في اليمن، إلى جانب نقوش أخرى قيل إنها بيعت لتاجر مجهول.

https://shcajournal.ksu.edu.sa/ar/node/1058

Wybrane aspekty rosyjsko-polskiego przekładu tekstów prawnych w kontekście wyrażenia statusu ich obowiązywania norm enters into force or not, or whether it loses its binding power or not. However, the sender of a message in legal language does not send a message devoid of information concerning legal binding. The latter is the main constitutive element of every message sent in legal language, which in turn results in communication based on presupposition.

In this paper, we present a method based on Linear Discriminant Analysis for legal text classification of extremely noisy data, such as duplicated documents classified in different classes. The results show that Linear Discriminant Analysis obtains very good performances both in clean and noisy conditions, if used as classifier in ensemble learning and in multi-label text classification. 1 Motivation and Background We address text categorization of businessoriented legal documents in Italian, but with a custom and overlapping hierarchy of product categories. A typical approach to tackle similar tasks is to exploit resources such as EUROVOC (Daudaravicius, 2012), a multilingual thesaurus consisting of over 6700 hierarchically-organised class descriptors used by many organizations of the European Union (EU) for the classification and retrieval of official documents. Our editorial system has a hierarchy of 23 product categories and more than 20600 labels, manually annotated and customized for different clients in more than 15 years, hence it is not possible to exploit resources like EUROVOC to categorize documents. In this paper, we propose a fast and efficient method for document classification for noisy data based on Linear Discriminant Analysis, a dimensionality reduction technique that has been employed successfully in many domains, including neuroimaging and medicine. We believe that our contribution will be useful to the NLP community in the context of document categorization as

Prawo, rozumiane jako regulacja prawna, powinno być zrozumiałe. Ta prosta zasada, skierowana zasadniczo do prawodawcy, ma zapewnić prawu fundamentalną efektywność. Bez zrozumienia przepisów prawa adresaci zawartych w nich norm postępowania nie są bowiem w stanie ich prawidłowo wykonywać. W bardzo prostych kontekstach społecznych postulat zrozumiałości prawa, łączony często z prostotą jego regulacji, która ma uwidaczniać się zwłaszcza na poziomie semantycznym i składniowym, jest w miarę łatwy do osiągnięcia. W przypadku konieczności uregulowania zagadnień technicznie lub społecznie złożonych pojawia się istotna kwestia, co konkretnie jest owym standardem zrozumiałości i prostoty. W takich sytuacjach dostrzegamy, że prawo ma różnych adresatów, treść zaś jego regulacji (rozumiana jako kategoria semantyczna i syntaktyczna) powoduje różny rozkład kosztów transakcyjnych jego stosowania przez te różne podmioty: dla jednych, lepiej przygotowanych, koszty te są niższe, dla innych, słabiej przygotowanych-niekiedy tak wysokie, że nie są one w stanie w ogóle prawa stosować. Z pewnością pojęcie zrozumiałości (i prostoty) prawa nie jest więc uniwersalne w tym rozumieniu, że każdy może lub powinien odkodować normy prawne zawarte w jego przepisach. Prawo bowiem, choć bardzo często adresowane do wielu, i to generalnie określonych adresatów, implicytywnie ich różnicuje. W podstawowym i najczęściej spotykanym wymiarze prawodawca tworzy prawo tak, by mogło ono być najbardziej kompetentnie stosowane przez sądy lub organy administracji publicznej. Jedynie w odniesieniu do tzw. prawa życia codziennego intencją prawodawcy jest osiągnięcie pełnej zrozumiałości dla każdego-stąd bardzo często ustanawiane w takim przypadku przepisy prawne odzwierciedlają powszechne poczucie sprawiedliwości oraz jakieś, w miarę ustalone, reguły zachowania, w tym zwłaszcza normy zwyczajowe czy nawet obyczajowe. Możliwość oparcia się jednak na takim właśnie modelu prawodawczym jest bardzo ograniczona. Regulacje prawne nie powinny zastępować sprawnie działających norm pozaprawnych. Muszą raczej wkraczać na obszary, w których normy prawne współistniałyby z tymi innymi normami wspierającymi skuteczność prawodawcy w osiąganiu wymaganego poziomu zrozumiałości.

Recursive neural networks (RNNs) have been successful for structured prediction in domains such as language and image processing. These techniques imposed structure onto sentences or images for more effective learning. However, in domains such as Web design, structure is explicitly embedded in the Document Object Model, so structured prediction can be done using the natural hierarchy of Web pages. This characteristic also allows for features to be inserted at each node of the RNN rather than only using features at the leaves. We show that for structural label prediction, this technique outperforms the baseline by 8%, though it performs poorly for style labels for reasons that are likely a result of suboptimal data.

In questo lavoro si espone uno studio contrastivo italiano-spagnolo sui verbi del tipo canticchiare e canturrear, solitamente denominati verbi valutativi suffissati (VVS) o verbos apreciativos. A partire da due corpora sincronici, si svolge un’analisi quantitativa e qualitativa delle forme riscontrate, al fine di determinare quali siano i VVS più frequenti nelle due lingue in esame. Si analizzano, inoltre, possibili fenomeni di variazione lungo l’asse diafasico, diamesico, e diatopico, così come le caratteristiche semantico-azionali dei 25 VVS più ricorrenti.

Koncepcję racjonalnego prawodawcy można odnieść do stanowienia przepisów praw-nych inkorporujących normy techniczne lub odsyłających do norm technicznych. Są to dwa na-rzędzia służące uwzględnieniu postępu technicznego. Przepisy prawa inkorporują normy tech-niczne, gdy technika jest relatywnie stabilna. Przepisy prawa odsyłają do norm technicznych, gdy rozwój technologii jest znaczny, czego skutkiem jest potrzeba zapewnienia elastyczności tych norm.

The tabular structure of legal texts and the principles of their drafting result in the frequent use of various types of references, which has a negative impact on the comprehensibility of the law. As legal texts are nowadays drafted and made available in electronic format, it is reasonable to try to develop automated mechanisms for checking the correctness of references contained in these texts. The paper shows how a particular type of automated and dedicated information management mechanisms, offered by the so-called adaptive hypertexts, can be used for this purpose. The authors focus primarily on describing the specificity of this type of tools and on analyzing the possibilities, principles and prospects of their use in order to improve the quality of legal texts, in particular their comprehensibility.

Prezentowany tekst stanowi egzemplifikację zautomatyzowanych procedur identyfikacyjnych omó- wionych w zamieszczonym w niniejszym tomie artykule Kolokacje w tekstach prawnych – problemy proceduralne. Zasadniczym jego celem jest scharakteryzowanie jakościowych procedur analizy kolokacji, stanowiących kolejny etap statystycznego opracowania takiego zbioru wyrażeń. Podstawą obserwacji będą właściwości dwustronnej kolokacji wykonanie orzeczenia.

Artykuł wpisuje się w krąg badań, których celem jest przedstawienie ograniczeń w budowaniu konstrukcji składniowych w tekstach prawnych. Za jeden z przejawów tych ograniczeń uznaje się swoistą łączliwość leksykalną, opisywaną za pomocą pojęcia kolokacji. Kolokacją nazywa się wyrażenie składające się z komponentów, których współwystępowanie jest motywowane leksykalnymi ograniczeniami ich łączliwości. Celem poniższego opracowania jest objaśnienie wstępnej, częś- ciowo zautomatyzowanej procedury rozpoznawania kolokacji w podkorpusie tekstów prawnych z dziedziny prawa karnego.

Przedmiotem rozważań w niniejszym artykule są teksty prawne, a zasadniczym celem prowadzonych obserwacji jest próba znalezienia odpowiedzi na pytanie o granice błędu językowego. Przesłanką do podjęcia tego tematu stała się prowadzona przez lingwistów i prawników dyskusja, dotycząca dostosowywania przepisów prawa do wymogów norm językowych 1. Jej podłożem z kolei jest przeświadczenie, że akty prawne winny cechować się m.in. zrozumiałością i jednoznacznością. W tym kontekście szczególną rolę należy przypisać tezie o trzech poziomach zrozumiałości tekstów z zakresu prawa: minimalistycznym (teksty są zrozumiałe jedynie dla prawników i specjalistów w danej dziedzinie), standardowym (dla wykształconych nieprawników) oraz maksymalistycznym (dla każdego dorosłego użytkownika polszczyzny) 2. Uświadomienie sobie tego faktu prowadzi do rozbieżności w procedurach wiązania zrozumiałości przepisu prawnego z regułami poprawności językowej. W opiniach części badaczy "w odniesieniu do wymogów tekstów aktów prawnych nie tylko istotne jest, co i po co jest komunikowane, ale także jak.

This work presents an application example of text document filtering. We compare the DIMLP neural hybrid model to several machine learning algorithms. The clear advantage of this neural hybrid system is its transparency. In fact, the classification strategy of DIMLPs is almost completely encoded into the extracted rules. During cross-validation trials and in the majority of the situations, DIMLPs demonstrated to be at least as accurate as support vector machines, which is one of the most accurate classifiers of the text categorization domain. In the future, in order to further increase DIMLP accuracy, we believe that common sense knowledge could be easily inserted and refined with the use of symbolic rules.

Legal texts play an essential role in the organisation, be it public or private, where each actor must be aware of, and comply with regulations. However, because of the difficulties of the legal domain, the actors prefer to rely on the expert rather than resorting to search for the regulation in a collection of documents. In this paper, we use a rule-based approach based on the contextual exploration method for the semantic annotation of Algerian legal texts written in Arabic language. We are interested in the specification of the semantic information of the provision types: obligation, permission and prohibition, and the arguments role and action. The preliminary experiment presented promising results for the specification of provision types.

The study deals with emphatic constructions in English and Arabic scientific texts. To the researcher’s best knowledge, this topic received little attention from linguistic researchers, exceptionally in functional grammar analysis. The importance of this study arises from the fact that some syntactic forms are effective linguistic choices for conveying the meaning of emphasis to the readers. The study aims to identify and analyze different types of linguistic constructions in English and Arabic scientific texts and show the similarities and differences between the two types of scientific texts under investigation. The study intends to analyze the structure of complex clauses by adopting Halliday and Matthiessen’s (2004) modal of ‘Systemic Functional Grammar’ of syntax and Prince’s (1978) modal of ‘Given-New’ information of discourse analysis. These models analyze-samples of English ‘Spaceport’ magazine and pieces of Arabic ‘Sadeem Bulletin’ magazine. Moreover, the study depends on a...

Terms and Phrases of Latin origin have been incorporated into the contempo-rary Continental and Anglo-Saxon legal systems. Latin borrowings are a sign of the common cultural and social origin of European countries. Most of the bor-rowings have been adapted on the phonetic, morphological and grammatical level. Others, like Latin proverbs, terms and phrases retained their original pronunciation and orthography.The main goal of this article is to discuss the essence of Latinisms, in particular their place in the contemporary linguistics and their function in legal texts. In the second part the article presents the results of the analysis of the Latin struc-tures, used in Polish and German legal texts, available in the Eur-lex databases. The research is aimed not only at comparing the occurrence of Latin terms, phrases or proverbs in legal documents, but also at showing the way of their introducing to the text and discussing the consequences of their usage for the understanding of the law.

The national Project Norme in rete (Legislation on the Net) aims at making easier the retrieval and the navigation between legal documents in a distributed environment and to encourage the development of systems with characteristics of interoperability and effective of use. In order to obtain this, two standards have been defined: a URN standard, to identify these materials through uniform names, and XML-DTDs to describe legislative documents. In this paper the definition of such standards and the developments of tools aimed at making easier their adoption are illustrated. Particularly a cross-reference parser recognising texts and constructing the corresponding URN, and an editing system helping draft law texts and to handle legacy legislative documents according to the NIR-DTDs are described.

Legal texts play an essential role in the organisation, be it public or private, where each actor must be aware of, and comply with regulations. However, because of the difficulties of the legal domain, the actors prefer to rely on the expert rather than resorting to search for the regulation in a collection of documents. In this paper, we use a rule-based approach based on the contextual exploration method for the semantic annotation of Algerian legal texts written in Arabic language. We are interested in the specification of the semantic information of the provision types: obligation, permission and prohibition, and the arguments role and action. The preliminary experiment presented promising results for the specification of provision types.

In der Fachsprachen-/Fachtextlinguistik wird als ein wichtiges Charakteristikum juristischer Texte deren formelhafter Charakter genannt. Formelhaftigkeit kann dabei nicht als ein signifikantes, sondern geradezu konstitutives Merkmal von Rechtstexten aufgefasst werden. Mehrere juristische Textsorten kennzeichnet nämlich nicht nur eine musterhafte Komposition, sondern auch die ausdrucksseitige Formelhaftigkeit, deren wesentliches Element die in Einzelexemplaren einer bestimmten Textsorte rekurrent auftretenden Routineausdrücke sind. Aufgrund ihres textsortenspezifischen Charakters sollen sie in Bezug auf eine bestimmte Textsorte(nvariante) hin untersucht werden. Ziel des vorliegenden Beitrags ist ein Klassifizierungsversuch der in deutschen Gesetzestexten, und zwar in den Stammgesetzestexten, vorkommenden Routineausdrücke.

This work presents an application example of text document filtering. We compare the DIMLP neural hybrid model to several machine learning algorithms. The clear advantage of this neural hybrid system is its transparency. In fact, the classification strategy of DIMLPs is almost completely encoded into the extracted rules. During cross-validation trials and in the majority of the situations, DIMLPs demonstrated to be at least as accurate as support vector machines, which is one of the most accurate classifiers of the text categorization domain. In the future, in order to further increase DIMLP accuracy, we believe that common sense knowledge could be easily inserted and refined with the use of symbolic rules.

The present paper concerns translation of legal language as an act of communication and constitutes an attempt to reconstruct the presuppositions of legally binding statements that appear in messages which are sent in legal language and which are read on the directive level. The problem of the binding of a legal act might seem irrelevant from the point of view of translation. This is so because the descriptive layer of a message does not change depending on whether a given norm enters into force or not, or whether it loses its binding power or not. However, the sender of a message in legal language does not send a message devoid of information concerning legal binding. The latter is the main constitutive element of every message sent in legal language, which in turn results in communication based on presupposition. 

The Norme in rete (NIR) [Legislation on the Net] national project aims at making easier the retrieval and the navigation between legal documents in a distributed environment and to encourage the development of systems with characteristics of interoperability and effective of use. In order to obtain this, two standards have been defined: a URN standard, to identify these materials through uniform names, and XML-DTDs to describe legislative documents within the NIR domain. In this paper the definition of such standards and the developments of tools aimed at making easier their adoption are illustrated. Particularly this paper presents a specific law drafting environment, NIREditor, able to produce legal documents and to handle legacy legislative documents according to the NIR standards.

The national Project Norme in rete (Legislation on the Net) aims at making easier the retrieval and the navigation between legal documents in a distributed environment and to encourage the development of systems with characteristics of interoperability and effective of use. In order to obtain this, two standards have been defined: a URN standard, to identify these materials through uniform names, and XML-DTDs to describe legislative documents. In this paper the definition of such standards and the developments of tools aimed at making easier their adoption are illustrated. Particularly a cross-reference parser recognising texts and constructing the corresponding URN, and an editing system helping draft law texts and to handle legacy legislative documents according to the NIR-DTDs are described.

The aim of the study is to examine whether the category of subjectivity in law manifests somehow on the level of the syntax of legal language. The most appropriate object of attention seems to be the subject as a part of the sentence. Therefore the author presents three different ways of understanding this concept, which occur in linguistics: grammatical subject, thematic subject (theme) and logical subject (agens). They correspond to the three planes of the syntactic structure of a language. The discussion is illustrated by the examples from legal texts. The analysis leads to the conclusion that the functioning of a particular word as the grammatical subject and simultaneously as the agens (and usually also as the theme) is a behaviour typical of subjects in the legal sense. What confirms this are inspections of such words of legal language as ‘court’, ‘enterprise’ and ‘company’

Wykaz stosowanych w książce skrótów AK Grecki kodeks cywilny. Astikos Kodikas [Αστικός Κώδικας]. AN Grecka ustawa uchwalona w trybie pilnym. Anagkastikos Nomos [Αναγκαστικός Νόµος]. Dz.U. Dziennik Ustaw. EE Cypryjski dziennik promulgacyjny. Episimi Efimerida tis Kypriakis Dimokratias [Επίσηµη Εφηµερίδα της Κυπριακής ∆ηµοκρατίας]. EE A Cypryjski Dziennik Oficjalny (gazeta promulgacyjna). Część A. Episimi Efimerida tis Kypriakis Dimokratias [Επίσηµη Εφηµερίδα της Κυπριακής ∆ηµοκρατίας]. FEK [ΦΕΚ] Grecki Oficjalny Dziennik Rządowy (gazeta promulgacyjna). I Efimerida tis Kyverniseos [Η Εφηµερίδα της Κυβερνήσεως]. FEK A [ΦΕΚ A'] Grecki Oficjalny Dziennik Rządowy. Tom A (zawierający akty normatywne). I Efimerida tis Kyverniseos. Tevchos A [Η Εφηµερίδα της Κυβερνήσεως. Τεύχος Α']. GrKPC Grecki kodeks postępowania cywilnego. Kodikas politikis dikonomias [Κώδικας πολιτικής δικονοµίας]. KC Kodeks cywilny. KEF [ΚΕΦ] Ustawa cypryjska. Nazwa aktu normatywnego uchwalonego podczas panowania brytyjskiego na Cyprze i obowiązująca w Republice Cypru. Kefaleo [Κεφαλαίο]. KriO Kodeks Rodzinny i Opiekuńczy. LSP Language for Special / Specific Purposes. N Ustawa. Nomos [Νόµος]. Grecki i cypryjski akt normatywny. PASC Ustawa z dnia 29 września 1986 r. Prawo o aktach stanu cywilnego. PK Grecki kodeks karny. Poinikos kodikas [Ποινικός Κώδικας]. PD Greckie rozporządzenie prezydenckie. Proedriko Diatagma [Προεδρικό ∆ιάταγµα]. 10 Termin polski ukuty za Bańczerowskim i Matulewską (por. Bańczerowski, Matulewska 2012).

Wykaz stosowanych w książce skrótów AK Grecki kodeks cywilny. Astikos Kodikas [Αστικός Κώδικας]. AN Grecka ustawa uchwalona w trybie pilnym. Anagkastikos Nomos [Αναγκαστικός Νόµος]. Dz.U. Dziennik Ustaw. EE Cypryjski dziennik promulgacyjny. Episimi Efimerida tis Kypriakis Dimokratias [Επίσηµη Εφηµερίδα της Κυπριακής ∆ηµοκρατίας]. EE A Cypryjski Dziennik Oficjalny (gazeta promulgacyjna). Część A. Episimi Efimerida tis Kypriakis Dimokratias [Επίσηµη Εφηµερίδα της Κυπριακής ∆ηµοκρατίας]. FEK [ΦΕΚ] Grecki Oficjalny Dziennik Rządowy (gazeta promulgacyjna). I Efimerida tis Kyverniseos [Η Εφηµερίδα της Κυβερνήσεως]. FEK A [ΦΕΚ A'] Grecki Oficjalny Dziennik Rządowy. Tom A (zawierający akty normatywne). I Efimerida tis Kyverniseos. Tevchos A [Η Εφηµερίδα της Κυβερνήσεως. Τεύχος Α']. GrKPC Grecki kodeks postępowania cywilnego. Kodikas politikis dikonomias [Κώδικας πολιτικής δικονοµίας]. KC Kodeks cywilny. KEF [ΚΕΦ] Ustawa cypryjska. Nazwa aktu normatywnego uchwalonego podczas panowania brytyjskiego na Cyprze i obowiązująca w Republice Cypru. Kefaleo [Κεφαλαίο]. KriO Kodeks Rodzinny i Opiekuńczy. LSP Language for Special / Specific Purposes. N Ustawa. Nomos [Νόµος]. Grecki i cypryjski akt normatywny. PASC Ustawa z dnia 29 września 1986 r. Prawo o aktach stanu cywilnego. PK Grecki kodeks karny. Poinikos kodikas [Ποινικός Κώδικας]. PD Greckie rozporządzenie prezydenckie. Proedriko Diatagma [Προεδρικό ∆ιάταγµα]. 10 Termin polski ukuty za Bańczerowskim i Matulewską (por. Bańczerowski, Matulewska 2012).

W niniejszym opracowaniu autor zajmuje się ważnym elementem koncepcji prawa, jakim jest koncepcja interpretacji prawniczej. Centralnym punktem prezentowanej koncepcji jest tekst prawny. Koncepcja ta jest więc tekstocentryczna, w przeciwieństwie do większości koncepcji interpretacji prawniczej, które można uznać za autorocentryczne. Powodem skupienia się na tekście prawnym jest przekonanie, że to właśnie tekst prawny jest jedynym istniejącym obiektywnie, namacalnym faktem, którego istnienie nie jest podawane przez filozofów prawa w wątpliwość. Nie można tego powiedzieć ani o osobie prawodawcy, ani o przypisywanej mu intencji czy o znaczeniu tekstu – ich istnienie, charakter i wpływ na interpretację były bowiem wielokrotnie kwestionowane w pracach filozoficznoprawnych.

"Against the background of studies on redundancy in law that completely omit the visual element in law and of studies on traffic signs that are laconic about their redundancies, the present study proposes more focused investigation into the redundancies of traffic signs. After presentation of the broader context of existing studies on traffic signs and on redundancy in law, and following a discussion of the direct inspiration for embarking upon research into this topic, the article moves to present and discuss six proposed types of redundancies of signs. Utilizing Franciszek Studnicki’s distinction between sign-types and sign-realizations, and given that traffic signs exist in various complicated relationships with each other, with written formulations in legal texts, and with the environments in which they are placed, the study comments on six types of redundancy: (1) sign-type–basic task(s) of road traffic law; (2) of sign-type’s elements; (3) sign-type–sign-type; (4) sign-type–legal text; (5) sign-realization–sign-realization; and (6) sign-realization–environment. Analysis of each type is supported through examples, various subdivisions, and additional lines of inquiry. The study has value for both strictly theoretical and more practical enterprises related both to traffic signs themselves and to the wider realm of visualization of norms."

Translating novels is a very complicated and hard job because it has many crucial aspects in the forms of language and contents of message. It is full of specific cultural items that have deep meanings which are difficult for translators to render. This research tried to search the novel translation problems in translation documents, translator' experiences during translation process, and novel translation readers' responses, especially on the problems of translating idioms, metaphors, similes, and personifications. This research used a qualitative study with Holistic Criticism Approach (Sutopo, 2006) that focused on novel translation documents (Objective factor), novel translators (Genetic factor), and novel translation readers (Affective factors). The research instruments used were translation documents and interview guides. The data were analyzed by using contrastive analysis (James, 1998) and Interactive Model (Miles and Huberman, 1984). The data of idioms, metaphors, and personifications were analyzed based on the translation strategies that covered translation techniques, methods, and idiology. The research results showed that the translation products were not accurate, natural, and readable yet. Finally as the solution, Tripartite Cycle Model (TCM) was formulated and designed for novel translators in order they can produce good quality of translation products.

We present the roadmap and advances in the area of Information Extraction from legal texts within the EU-funded MIREL project (MIning and REasoning with Legal texts). We describe the resources and tools we have developed for Natural Language Processing in the legal domain, i.e., annotated corpora and automated classifiers for Named Entity Recognition and Linking and Argument Mining. Our final objective is to identify arguments, their content and the relations between them in legal text, with a proof-of-concept in judgments of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), to finally support reasoning tasks over mined argumentative structures. This representation will arguably be useful for applications like a reading aid, enhanced information retrieval, structured summarization, intelligent search engines or information extraction. All tools and resources are available at https://github.com/PLN-FaMAF/legal-ontology-population and https://github.com/PLN-FaMAF/ArgumentMiningECHR.

Filtering Documents with a Hybrid Neural Network Model Guido Bologna, Mathieu Boretti, and Paul Albuquerque ... For each neuron of the first hidden layer the number of stairs related to the staircase function, corre-sponds to the number of possible discriminant hyper-planes. ...

The present paper is designed to shed light on the intricacies of Arabic-English translation caused by linguistic interference (LI) when the translators recourse to their mother tongue in the translation from Arabic into English. The data comprises three works, namely Qiṭṭah bi-Sabʻiti ar-Rwāḥ (1982) ʻA Cat with Seven Livesʼ, Arkhaṣ Layla (1954) ʻThe Cheapest Nightʼ and Muthakrāt Saim (1986) ʻRamadan Dairyʼ. The paper reveals that the translations have traces of interference that are due ignorance by the translators and little linguistic affinity between Arabic and English, which may jeopardise communication, thought to be the ultimate goal of translation. The study shows that LI is minimised when the functional equivalence is opted for whereas it is maximised when formal equivalence is employed. The study yet argues that LI may be a good means for intercultural interaction in view of Venuti's (1998) notions of domestication and foreignization.

Słowa kluczowe: prawda, informacja, cy bernetyka, filozofia. Streszczenie Celem artykułu jest zbadanie relacji między filozoficznymi koncepcjami prawdy a jakościową teorią informacji. Artykuł składa się z dwóch części. W pierwszej zrekonstruowano jakościową teorię informacji Mariana Mazura. W drugiej za nalizowano związki między teorią Mazura a pragmatyczną koncepcja prawdy, ewidencyjna koncepcją prawdy oraz klasyczną koncepcją prawdy.

This study empirically examines lexical translation problems encountered by accredited translators in English Arabic Translations. Its main aim is to identify whether lexical errors occur in professionally translated documents and investigate the type of lexical errors occurring as well as identify the possible reasons for them. Five translated health documents in New South Wales were randomly, lexical errors were counted and then analyzed. The functionalist approach has been adopted in this research. Analysis of the errors was mainly focusing on semantics. The lexical errors found were related but not limited to additions, omissions, compounds, synonyms collocations and inconsistencies. More extensive research is required to identify additional types of lexical errors found in professionally translated documents. This research has many limitations due to the paucity of data and its inability to accommodate for all types of errors and their related factors. Therefore, more research is required in this field in order to improve translation outcomes. The findings affirm the hypothesis that lexical errors are made by accredited as well as student translators. It does not reveal conclusively, however, that errors at the lexical level are due to complex and or new lexical items.

This exploratory study is set to investigate Sudanese translation practitioners' perceptions about language-related challenges encountered when translating legal contracts. It attempts to explore those practitioners' perceptions and views about these difficulties in the Gulf context, specifically in Oman and the UAE, and compare them with related findings from empirical literature. The significance of the present study stems from the fact that the results may help legal translation practitioners to improve their practices. To achieve the study objectives a questionnaire was designed and distributed to thirty-three Sudanese translation practitioners to collect data. Additionally, relevant literature was reviewed to pinpoint the gaps in this area and support information stemming from the questionnaire. The findings show that translation practitioners' perceptions about legal contracts translation challenges are consistent with findings in the empirical literature. The study specifically shows that the most apparent challenges are: language-related challenges, followed by style-related challenges, culture-specific challenges, and culture-specific challenges, respectively. The study also concluded with some key relevant recommendations: First, legal contracts should be translated by well-trained and certified translators. Second, workshops and training on legal translation should be conducted periodically and training should be one of the requirements for practising and joining legal translation industry. Moreover, translators of legal contracts should be accredited individually and that should be conducted by experts and specialized bodies.

Meanings of words and phrases in legal text often lead a debate in the legal sphere. The ambiguity of the legal text would lead to uncertainty, injustice and inexpediency of law, because law is tied to language that basically always will give the interpretation of a written text of law. As a result of not fulfilled the terms of the law in the form of a written text of law like clarity, unambiguity, conciseness, and inclusion, meanings of words and phrases in legal text often, in this case, are often reviewed in The Constitutional Court of Republic of Indonesia. The Constitutional Court of Republic of Indonesia's Decision No. 65 / PUU-VIII / 2010 reviewed the meaning of word witness and phrase witness statements is analyzed by semantic and syntactic approach which aim to find alternative and comprehensive answers in the meaning of word witness and phrase witness statements. Abstrak Pemaknaan kata dan frasa dalam teks hukum sering menjadi perdebatan dalam ranah hukum. Ambiguitas t...

The Norme in rete (NIR) [Legislation on the Net] national project aims at making easier the retrieval and the navigation between legal documents in a distributed environment and to encourage the development of systems with characteristics of interoperability and effective of use. In order to obtain this, two standards have been defined: a URN standard, to identify these materials through uniform names, and XML-DTDs to describe legislative documents within the NIR domain. In this paper the definition of such standards and the developments of tools aimed at making easier their adoption are illustrated. Particularly this paper presents a specific law drafting environment, NIREditor, able to produce legal documents and to handle legacy legislative documents according to the NIR standards.

Semantic incompatibility often occurs when old data or procedures are used for new purposes not anticipated by their original developers or among new systems that are the product of independent development efforts. In both the cases, this is because the semantics and procedures and ...